Alternating current(AC)

• The current whose magnitude continuously

change with time and direction get reversed
periodically is called Alternating current.
• We know that V = V0 sinωt
If the resistance of circuit is R then
I = V/R =(V0 sinωt )/R
I = I0 sinωt
where I0 = V0/R ( peak value of current)
The AC voltage and current can also represented
by V = V0 cosωt and I = I0 cosωt
Mean or average value of
alternating current
• Mean or average value of alternating
current is that value of steady current which
sends the same amount of charge through a
circuit in a certain time interval as is sent by
an alternating current through the same
circuit in its half time period.
Let us consider a sinusoidal current I = I0Sinωt as
shown in the figure below. We will calculate
average value of sinusoidal AC current or voltage
for half cycle i.e. for t= (π/ω) =T/2.
let us consider a infinitesimally small time
interval dt where the value of current is I as
shown in above figure. The charge transferred
by this assumed current I in this time dt is given
• dq = Idt (Since I = dq/dt)
• Charge Transferred across any point of circuit
for half cycle is given as below.
or

• or

• q = - TI0 (cos π – cos 0)/2π

• q = - TI0 (-1 – 1)/2π
• q = TI0/π
If Iavg being the average value, then this current must
also transfer the same charge for t = (T/2)

• Since average value is the DC value, this

charge will be equal to q = Iavgx(T/2).
• Thus,
• Iavgx(T/2) = TI0/π
• Iavg = (2I0 / π)
• = 0.637I0
• Similarly average value of AC voltage
• Vavg =( 2V0/π)
RMS or Virtual or Effective value of AC
• The Root Mean Square or virtual value of AC is
equal to that DC which produce same amount
of heat in a circuit in same time as produce by
AC in the same circuit and in the same time.
• Let the AC current in a circuit is
• I = I0 sinωt
• For small time dt ,let the value of current I is
constant. Then heat produce by AC in a circuit
of resistance R
 dH = I2Rdt

• Total heat during the complete cycle of AC

•
Let Irms (Iv)is the rms or effective value of AC,
which is equal to DC current then heat produce
by it
• H = Irms2RT hence
• Irms2RT = (I02RT)/2
• Irms2 = I02/2
Hence the rms or virtual value of
AC is 1/√2 time to its peak value
• Irms = 0.707 I0
• Similarly the rms value of AC voltage is
Phase and phasors
A diagram that represents AC current or voltage
of same frequency by rotating vector with
proper phase angle between them is called
phasor diagram
• OB = I0
Y
• ON = I =I0sin ωt
M A
• OA = V0
OM = V =V0 sin(ωt+φ) N φ B
ωt X
• Here vector OA and O
OB represent voltage
and current
AC Through Pure Resistance(R)
• Let an AC source
• E = E0sinωt --------(1)
• is connected to a
resistor R, then the
current in the resistor
• I = E/R = E0sinωt /R
• I =(E0/R) sinωt
• I = I0sinωt---------(2)
In the resistance the current and voltage are in
the same phase
 AC through Inductor
• Let an AC source is connected
to an inductor of inductance L
• E = E0sinωt --------(1)
I E0sinωt
• Let at any time the current in
the inductor is I
Then induced emf e =-LdI/dt
By Kirchhoff loop law
E +e = 0
E0sinωt –LdI/dt = 0
• LdI/dt = E0sinωt
• dI = (E0 /L) sinωt dt

• ωL = XL called inductive reactance of the coil.

• I0 = E0/XL
Hence

• Hence the current legs behind the voltage by

π/2 or Voltage lead the current by π/2 in
inductor
 Inductive Reactance
• The opposition offered by the inductor to the
flow of AC current through it is called
inductive reactance.
XL =ωL
XL =2πνL XL
XL α ν
ω or ν
Q- The current flowing in the two coils of self
inductance L1=16mHand L2=12mH are increasing
at the same rate. If the power supplied the two
coil are equal, find the ratio of
• (i) Induced voltages (ii) the currents (iii) the
energy stored in the two coil at a given instant
• Sol.As E =- L dI/dt then

• E1/E2 = L1/L2 =16mH/12mH

• =4:3
•
The power supplies in both are equal then

• E1I1 =E2I2 or
• I1/I2 = E2/ E1
• I1/I2 = 3 : 4
• Energy stored in the coil U = ½ L I2
• U1/U2 = ½ L1 I12/ ½ L2 I22
•
• U1/U2 = (16/12)×(9/16)
• = 3: 4
Q- The current flowing through an inductor of
self inductance L is continuously increasing. Plot
a graph showing the variation of
• (i) Magnetic flux versus current
• (ii)Induced emf versus dI/dt
• (iii)Magnetic potential energy stored versus
the current
• Sol. (i)We know in inductor
• φαI φ

I
(ii) We Know that the induced emf e =-L dI/dt

Induce emf (e)

• Here induced emf e
dI/dt
versus dI/dt is a straight
line with e on the – side.
• (iii) Magnetic field
energy stored
• U = ½ L I2
U
• U α I2

Current (I)
 AC through Capacitor
• Let a capacitor of capacitance C is C
connected to an AC source
E = E0sinωt --------(1)
• The charge in the capacitor q=CE
E0sinωt
• q = C E0sinωt
• dq/dt = C E0d/dt(sinωt)
• I= C E0( cos ωt) ω
• I
Here 1/ωC =XC called capacitive reactance of the
capacitor , It has unit of resistance

• E0/XC = I0
• Hence Current lead the Voltage in capacitor
by π/2 or voltage legs behind the current by
π/2.
 Capacitive Reactance
• The opposition offered by the capacitor in the
path of flow of AC current is called capacitive
reactance.
• XC = 1/ωC
XC
• XC = 1/2πνC
• XC α 1/ν
ω or ν
Q-A 44 m H inductor is connected to 220 V, 50
Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the
current in the circuit.
• Sol. L = 44mH = 44×10-3
• Erms = 220 V
• ν = 50Hz
• XL= ω L = 2πν L = 2×3.14×50×44×10-3
• = 314×44×10-3
• = 13816×10-3
=13.816
• Irms = Erms/XL
• = 220/13.816
• =15.92 Amp
• Maximum value of current
• I0 = Irms√2
• = 15.92×1.414
• = 22.5 Amp.
 AC through LCR Circuit
• Let an AC source
E = E0sinωt --------(1)
• Is connected to LCR
circuit .
• Let I is the current in
the circuit, then
VL,VC and VR are the
potential across L,C
&R respectively
 AC through LCR Circuit
• Then VR = IR B
VL
• VL = I XL
• VC = I XC π/2
• Let I is Along +X-axis O
I VR A
• Then VR will be along +X VC π/2
axis C
• VL will be along +Y axis
• VC will be along –Y axis
Here VL and VC have a phase difference of 180.
• They are in opposite phase. Let VL > VC
• Then resultant of VL and VC will be along VL
B
VL P
D
VL -VC
φ
O A
VR
VC
C
The resultant voltage Erms=Ev =

• Ev
• Ev =

• = Z called impedance of the

circuit.
The phase difference between current and
voltage
• Tanφ

VL P
D
VL -VC
φ
O A
VR
VC
C
Variation of impedance verses frequency
Q-Difference between resistance, reactance and
impedance.

• Resistance: Opposition offered by conductor

in the path of flow of current.
• Reactance : Opposition offered by inductor
or capacitor in the path of flow of current.
• Impedance: The opposition offered by
LCR,LC,LR or CR circuit in the path of flow of
current is called impedance.
Q- Draw the variation of Inductive reactance,
capacitive reactance and impedance with
frequency.

Z
R
 Resonance in LCR circuit
• As

• As the value of angular frequency in crease

from zero then the Value of ( ωL -1/ωC) will
decrease
• At some value of ω XL and XC will become
equal
(1)At this value of ω the impedance of the
circuit become minimum Z =R
(2) The value of current become maximum
In this condition the circuit is called at
resonance.
The frequency at which the circuit is at
resonance is called resonance frequency.
At resonance XL = XC
ωL = 1/ ωC
ω2= 1/LC
The resonance frequency

• In a series LCR circuit L= 5.0H,C = 80µF and R

= 40Ω is connected to a variable frequency AC
source of 240V.
• (I) Angular frequency of source which derive
the circuit at resonance.
• (ii) Impedance of circuit at resonance.
• (iii)The current amplitude at resonance
• (iv) Potential drop across each element
• Vrms =240V
• L= 5.0H, C = 80µF , R = 40 ohm
• We know the resonance frequency

• = 50 radian/sec
(ii)Impedance at resonance Z =

But at resonance XL = XC so Z = R = 40 ohm

(iii) rms value of current Irms = Ev/Z= 240/40
= 6 Amp
current amplitude I0 = √2 Irms =6√2 Amp.

(iv) VR = I × R = 6 × 40 = 240 volt

XL = ω L = 50 × 5 =250 ohm
VL= I ×XL = 6 × 250 = 1500 Volt
• XC = 1/ωC =1/ 50 × 80 ×10-6
• =106/4000
• = 1000/4 = 250
• Vc = I × Xc = 6 × 250 = 1500 volt
Q- A series LCR circuit is made by taking
R= 100Ω, L = 2/π H, C= 100/π µF. This circuit is
connected across an ac source of 220,50Hz.
(i) The impedance of the circuit and (ii) the peak
value of current flowing in the circuit
Sol. Impedance Z =
XL = ωL = 2πνL
= 2 π×50× 2/π =200 Ω
Xc = 1/ ωC = 1/ 2πνC
Xc = 1/ 2 π×50× (100/π) ×10-6
Xc = 106/10000 = 100 Ω
Impedance Z =

• Z=
• Z
• Z = 100× 1.414= 141.4Ω
• I0 =√2 Irms
• I0= √2 × Ev /Z
• I0= √2 × 220 /100 √2
• I0= 2.2 Amp.
Q-(a)Determine the phase difference between
current and voltage in the given LCR circuit.
(b) Calculate the value of additional capacitor
which may be joined suitably to the capacitor
C that would make the circuit at resonance.
We know that

• XL = ωL = 1000×100×10-3
• XL= 100 Ω
• Xc = 1/ ωC = 1/ 1000×2× 10-6
• = 500 Ω
• As Xc >XL Then the circuit is called capacitive
• The current lead the voltage
•
• tan φ = -1 or φ = 45
 At resonance XL = XC
• Or XL = 1/ωC
• C = 1/ ω XL
• C = 1/1000×100
• C = 10×10-6
• C = 10 µF
• The capacitor already connected in the circuit
is 2 µF but for resonance the capacitance
must be 10 µF.
• So additional capacitor of 8 µF should be
connected in parallel with 2 µF , so that
effective capacitance in the circuit becomes
10 µF.
Sharpness of Resonance: Q-Factor
• Variation of Current amplitude with frequency
R1>R2>R3
R3

R2
R1
Sharpness of Resonance: Q-Factor
• In the LCR circuit the current amplitude is
maximum at resonance frequency , and
decrease on either side of frequency. The
resonance frequency is independent of
resistance R, but the sharpness of peak
depends on R. The sharpness of resonance is
measured by a coefficient called quality factor
called Q- Factor
Q- Factor is define as the ratio of the resonance
frequency to the difference of two frequencies on both
side of resonance frequency , such that at each
frequency , the current amplitude becomes 1/√2 times
the current amplitude at resonance frequency.
•Q

ω1 =ω0- ∆ω
• And ω2 =ω0+
∆ω
ω2-ω1 = 2∆ω

Called band width ω1 ω0 ω2

The current amplitude I0= E0/R
• Then

• For ω1 ------(1)
• For ω2 -------(2)
• Adding eq 1 and 2
•
or
• Or
• Hence the resonance frequency is the
geometrical mean of lower and upper half
power frequencies.
• Subtracting eq.1 from eq.2
or
• Or
• The Q- factor =ω0/ ω2- ω1
• Q
• Q
• At resonance XL = XC so
• Q
• Also Q
Also Q

• Hence Q-factor is define as the ratio of

potential difference across inductor or
capacitor to the potential difference across
resistor.
 Average Power in LCR circuit
• Let a LCR circuit connected with an AC
source .At any time the current and voltage in
the circuit are
• I =I0 sinωt and
• V =V0 sin(ωt+φ)
• For a small time dt let the current and voltage
are constant, then the energy supplied by the
circulating charge to the circuit in this time
dH = VI dt

• dH = I0 V0 sinωt sin(ωt+φ)dt
• Total energy supplied during complete cycle
• H = ʃ I0 V0 sinωt sin(ωt+φ)dt
• H =1/2 ʃ I0 V0 2sinωt sin(ωt+φ)dt
• H =1/2 ʃ I0 V0 (2sinωt sin(ωt+φ)dt
• H =1/2 I0V0 ʃ [(Cos(ωt+φ- ωt)- cos(2ωt+φ)]dt
H =1/2 I0V0 [ʃ Cosφdt- ʃ cos(2ωt+φ) dt]

• The value of ʃ cos(2ωt+φ) over complete cycle

is zero.
• H = 1/2 I0V0 Cosφ ʃ dt
• H = ½ I0V0 Cosφ T
• Average power over complete cycle is
• Pav = ½ I0V0 Cosφ
• Or Pav =(I0/√2)(V0/√2) Cosφ
Pav = IrmsVrms Cosφ

• Here Cosφ is called power factor

• (i) for pure resistance φ=0 then
• power factor Cosφ =1 and average power
• Pav = IrmsVrms
• (ii) fore pure inductance φ=90 then
• power factor Cosφ =0 and average power
• Pav = 0 no power is consumed by inductor
when Ac passes through it
(iii) For pure capacitor φ=90 then

• power factor Cosφ =0 and average power

Pav = 0 no power is consumed by capacitor
when AC passes through it.
• (iv) power in LCR circuit
• Pav = IrmsVrms Cosφ
• We know tan φ = (XL –XC)/R then
• cos φ =
Or Pav = IrmsVrms

• (V) at resonance XL = XC ,hence φ =0,

• The power dissipation at resonance is
maximum i.e.
• Pav = IrmsVrms
Q-A capacitor of unknown capacitance, a
resistance of 100 Ω and an inductor of self
inductance L=(4/π2) Henry are connected in
series to an AC source of 200V and 50 Hz.
Calculate the value of capacitance and
impedance, when the current is in the phase
with the voltage. Calculate power dissipated in
the circuit.
Sol.- R = 100 Ω ,L=(4/π2) Henry ,ν= 50Hz.
XL = 2πνL
The current and voltage will be in same phase
when the circuit is at resonance
In resonance XL = XC

• 2πνL = 1/ 2πνC
• C = 1/ 2πν× 2πνL
• C = 1/4 π2ν2L
• C = 1/ 4 π2×(50)2×L
• C = 1/ 4 π2×(50)2× 4/π2
• C= 1/16 ×2500= 1/ 40000
• C = 100/4 ×(10)6
• C= 25 ×(10)-6
• C = 25µF
 Impedance at resonance = 100Ω

• Power dissipation at resonance P=V2rms /R

• P = 2002/100
• P= 400Watt
 LC oscillation

• circuit

LC oscillation
When an inductor is connected with a charged
capacitor, then capacitor discharged through the
inductor and energy stored in the inductor in the
form of magnetic field energy.
• When the capacitor is fully discharged then the
magnetic field start decreasing and again a
current flows in the circuit which charged the
capacitor in the opposite polarity.
• In this way charge oscillate between capacitor
and inductor with the frequency
• ν
 Transformer
• A transformer is a device
which convert high voltage
low current in to low
voltage high current and
vice versa.
• Principle:
• It works on the principle of
mutual induction.
Step Up Transformer: Transformer which
convert low voltage high current to high voltage
low current is called step up transformer.
Step Down Transformer:
Transformer which convert high voltage
low current to low voltage high current is
called step down transformer.
Construction
A transformer has two coils of insulated copper
wire wounded on soft iron core. The coil to
which the alternating electrical energy is
supplied is called primary coil.
• The another coil to which out put electrical
energy is drawn is called secondary coil.
• In the step up transformer primary has less
number of turns(NP) of thick insulated wire
and secondary has large number of turns(NS)
of thin wire.
In step down transformer primary has large
number of turns of thin wire and secondary has
less number of turns of thick wire.
The transformer core is laminated, it has very
thin strips of special alloy of steel. These strips
are insulated from each other and packed
together.
Working Theory of Transformer
• When AC current id connected to the primary
coil of transformer, then induced emf is
produced due to change in magnetic flux in
the primary which is equal to the applied
voltage.
• The same magnetic flux is passes through the
secondary and emf is induced in the
secondary
• Let the number of turns in the primary are NP
and in secondary are NS, then
 EP=-NP dφ/dt ------------(1)

• and Es=-Ns dφ/dt -------------(2)

• Dividing eq.2 by eq.1
• Here Ns/Np = K called transformation ratio
• If K> 1 then transformer is step up
• And if K < 1 then transformer is step down
• For ideal transformer in which there is no
power loss
• Out put power = Input power
 E P IP = E S IS

• Or
• Efficiency of transformer η
• Energy Losses in Transformer
• (1) Flux Loss
• (2) Copper Loss
• (3) Eddy current Loss
• (4) Humming Loss
Use of transformer in long distance
transmission of electrical power
• (i)Use of transformer to decrease power
loss across the line
• Let 44 k Watt power is transmitted at 220 volt
then current in the line
• I = P/V = 44000/220=200Amp
• This current is very large due to this the power
loss across the line = I2R = (200)2R
• This loss of power is very large in spite of how low
is the resistance of line.
To reduce this power loss across the line the
electric power is transmitted at high voltage

• Let the same power is transmitted at 66KV

then current through the line.
• I = P/V = 44KW/66KW = 2/3 = .67Amp
• Line loss = I2R = (.67)2R which is very less
• (ii)To decrease the cost of transmission
 Q-A small town with a demand of 800 kW of
electric power at 220 V is situated 15 km away
from an electric plant generating power at 440
V. The resistance of the two wire line carrying
power is 0.5 Ω per km. The town gets power
from the line through a 4000-220 V step-down
transformer at a sub-station in the town.
(a) Estimate the line power loss in the form of
heat.
(b) (b) How much power must the plant supply,
assuming there is negligible power loss due
to leakage?
(c) Characterise the step up transformer at the
plant.
(a)The power required to the town = 800KWatt
• Town get power at voltage = 4000V
• Current through the line I = P/V= 800000/4000
• I = 200A
• Resistance of two wire line = 15×0.5×2= 15Ω
• Power loss across the line = I2× R
• = (200)2× 15
• =40000× 15
• = 600000
• = 600K Watt
(b)Power supplied by the plant, so that required
amount of power reaches to the town
P = 800 +600 = 1400K Watt
(c) Potential drop across the line = I× R
= 200 ×15
= 3000 V
The plant generating power at = 440V
The power transmitted through the line
=4000 +3000=7000V
Characteristics of transformer at the plant
step up ( 440 V – 7000V)
An electric bulb is connected in series with a capacitor
and an ac source is glowing the bulb with some
brightness. How the brightness of the bulb change on
reducing the(i) capacitance (ii) frequency
• We know XC =1/ωC Bulb
C
• And impedance of circuit
• Z=
• The current in the circuit source
• I = V/Z
• (i) when C decrease, then XC will increase.
Hence impedance also increases.
Therefore the current in the circuit will decrease,
so the brightness will decrease.
• (ii) If the frequency decrease then XC increase.
• Hence impedance of the circuit increases.
• Hence the current in the circuit decreases, and the
brightness of the bulb will decreases.
• (iii) If a dielectric is placed between the plates of
the capacitor how the brightness of bulb will
change.
• (iv) If an inductor of reactance equal to reactance
of capacitor is connected in the circuit then how
the brightness of the bulb will change