CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Understanding the Earth's subsurface structure is crucial for various disciplines,

including resource exploration, geological mapping, and infrastructure development.
Geophysical techniques like the magnetic method offer non-invasive means to
investigate subsurface features by analyzing the physical properties of the Earth's
interior.
Magnetic method is a geophysical exploration technique that investigate subsurface
geology or the basis of anomaly in the earth magnetic field. It involves mearing the
intensity and direction of magnetic field at different locations. The magnetic method
is based on the principle that variations in the Earth's magnetic field exist due to the
magnetic properties of rocks and minerals beneath the surface. Certain minerals can
become magnetized when exposed to the Earth's magnetic field, and some rocks
retain a permanent magnetization acquired during their formation. These variations
in magnetization cause local anomalies in the Earth's magnetic field, which the
magnetic method detects using highly sensitive instruments called magnetometers.

1.1 Principles of the Magnetic Method

The Earth acts like a giant magnet with a magnetic field extending far into space.
This magnetic field arises primarily from the movement of molten iron & nickel
within Earth's outer core. The earth magnetic field has both magnitude (intensity)
and direction.

However, this main field isn't perfectly uniform. Two primary factors contribute to
variations in the Earth's magnetic field:
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Induced Magnetization
Certain rocks and minerals contain magnetic minerals like magnetite, hematite, and
pyrrhotite. When exposed to Earth's magnetic field, these minerals can become
magnetized, aligning their magnetic moments with the direction of the inducing
field. The strength and direction of this induced magnetization vary depending on
the mineral composition and the orientation of the magnetic grains within the rock.
These variations in induced magnetization cause local anomalies in the Earth's
magnetic field.

Remanent Magnetization
Some rocks, particularly igneous rocks like basalt, can retain a permanent
magnetization acquired during their formation. As molten rock cools and solidifies
in the presence of Earth's magnetic field, the magnetic moments of the minerals
within the rock can become aligned with the Earth's field at that time. This permanent
magnetization, known as remnant magnetization, may not be aligned with the
present-day Earth's magnetic field, leading to further magnetic anomalies.

The magnetic method detects these variations in the Earth's magnetic field caused
by variations in the magnetic properties of rocks and minerals beneath the surface.
By analyzing these anomalies, geoscientists can gain valuable information about the
subsurface geology.

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1.2 Magnetic Properties of Rocks and Minerals
Understanding the magnetic properties of rocks and minerals is crucial for
interpreting magnetic anomalies. Here's a closer look at key concepts:
Magnetic Susceptibility: This property reflects how easily a material can become
magnetized when placed in an external magnetic field. Magnetic minerals like
magnetite have high susceptibilities, while non-magnetic minerals like quartz have
very low susceptibilities. Magnetic minerals are minerals that have magnetic
property, they contribute to magnetic response of rock. Example of magnetic
minerals include; Magnetite (Fe3O4), Hematite (Fe2O3), and pyrrhotite (Fe7S8).

Magnetic Permeability: This property describes how a material concentrates or

weakens the magnetic field passing through it. Most rocks and minerals have a
permeability close to that of free space (μ₀), but some minerals like iron can
significantly enhance the magnetic field (ferromagnetic behavior).

Hysteresis: This property refers to the behavior of a material's magnetization as the

external magnetic field strength changes. Some magnetic minerals exhibit hysteresis,
meaning their magnetization doesn't always return to zero when the external field is
removed.

The magnetic properties of a rock depend on the abundance and type of magnetic
minerals it contains. Understanding these properties helps explain the observed
magnetic anomalies and identify potential geological features causing them.

 Magnetic Anomalies: these are variations in the earth magnetic field,

measured at the earth magnetic surface. It can be measured at the earth
magnetic surface. It can be positive (stronger magnetic field) or negative
(weaker magnetic field).
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 Magnetic anomaly indicates the presence of subsurface structure with
different magnetic properties.

 Magnetic unit: the magnetic unit intensity is measure in;

• Tesla(T): this is the SI unit (international System of Unit) for magnetic

field strength. It represents the force exerted per unit current per meter
of length.

• Gauss(G): this is a centimeter-gram-second (CGS) unit still used in

some contexts. 1 Tesla is equal to 10,000 Gauss (1T=10,000 G).

• Microtesla (µT): this is a smaller unit of Tesla, equal to one-millionth

of a Tesla (µT=1x10^-6 T). It is often used to measure weaker magnetic
fields.

• Nanotesla (nT): When describing the magnetic field strength of the

earth, it is more common to use units of nanoteslas (nT), where one
nanotesla is 1 billionth of a tesla. The average strength of the Earth's
magnetic field is about 50,000 nT. A nanotesla is also commonly
referred to as a gamma.

 Curie Temperature (Tc): this is the temperature at which a magnetic

material loses its magnetic property. It is a critical parameter in understanding
the behavior of a magnetic minerals. Below Tc, the material exhibits
spontaneous magnetization, meaning its atomic magnetic moments align in a
specific direction, making it ferromagnetic (strong attracted to magnets) or
ferromagnetic (weakly attracted to magnets). Above Tc, the material loses its
spontaneous magnetization and becomes paramagnetic (weakly attracted to
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 magnets in an applied magnetic field) due to thermal agitation disrupting the
alignment of atomic magnetic moments.

 Magnetic model: it is used to stimulate a magnetic response of geological

model. These models help to interpret, observe magnetic anomaly and infer
subsurface features.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 MAGNETIC SURVEY INSTRUMENTS.

Magnetic survey instruments are used to measure the earth magnetic field.
Common types include;
 Magnetometers: are highly accurate instruments, allowing the local
magnetic field to be measured to accuracies of 0.002%. Magnetometer is a
very versatile instrument designed to measure the strength, direction, or
relative changes in a magnetic field.
 Flux-gate Magnetometer:
• relative instrument
• can be used to find vector components, direction of field
• portable instruments usually set up to read HZ (vertical component)
 Proton Precession Magnetometer:
• simple, inexpensive, accurate, portable instrument
• measures absolute, total value of field
• 1 nT precision
• susceptible to strong magnetic gradients

 Optical Pumped Magnetometer:

• Sophistical instrument
• High sensitivity, room temperature operation
• Compact size
• Specificity for certain field.
 Hall Effect Magnetometer:
• Versatile and cost effective instrument
• Voltage and current measurement
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 • Solid-state construction
• Compact size, wide operation range
• Non-Destructive Testing Consumer Electronics.
 Over Hauser Magnetometer:
• Uses the same fundamental effect as the proton precession magnetometer to
take measurements.
• Produces readings with a 0.01 nT to 0.02 nT

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING

Data acquisition for the magnetic method involves conducting field surveys using
magnetometers. These instruments measure the total magnetic field intensity (often
denoted as the Total Magnetic Field or TMF) at a specific location. Depending on
the specific application and target area, magnetic surveys can be:

3.1 Ground-Based Surveys

Ground-based surveys are the most common type of magnetic survey. They involve
taking measurements at numerous stations along a pre-defined grid or profile. The
stations are typically spaced at regular intervals (e.g., 10 meters, 50 meters)
depending on the desired level of detail. A GPS unit is often used at each station to
record its precise location for accurate data positioning. The accuracy of the
measurements is crucial for successful interpretation. Several factors can influence
the measured magnetic field value, and corrections are applied to account for these
effects. Here are some of the main corrections applied to ground-based magnetic
data:
Diurnal Variations: The Earth's magnetic field undergoes slight daily variations due
to the influence of the Sun and the magnetosphere. Corrections are applied based on
reference stations that continuously monitor these variations.
Instrument Drift: Magnetometers can exhibit slight changes in their calibration over
time. This drift is monitored and corrected using base stations with known magnetic
field values periodically throughout the survey.
IGRF (International Geomagnetic Reference Field) Removal: The Earth's main
magnetic field is represented by mathematical models like the IGRF. The IGRF

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component is removed from the data to isolate the local anomalies caused by
subsurface features.

Terrain Corrections: Nearby topography can influence the measured magnetic field
value. Terrain corrections account for the gravitational attraction of rocks with
different magnetic above the measurement point.

3.2 Airborne Surveys

Airborne surveys offer a faster and more efficient way to cover large areas compared
to ground-based surveys. Specialized magnetometers are mounted on aircraft or
helicopters to acquire data. These surveys are particularly valuable for regional
exploration projects or rapid assessments of large areas.
However, airborne magnetic data processing is more complex than ground-based
data due to factors like aircraft motion and variations in flight altitude. Advanced
processing techniques are employed to account for these effects and extract the
relevant magnetic anomaly information. Here are some additional considerations for
airborne surveys:
Aircraft Maneuvers: Sharp turns or changes in altitude can introduce noise into the
data. Processing techniques can mitigate these effects.
Earth's Curvature: Corrections are applied to account for the curvature of the Earth,
which affects the magnetic field measurement at different flight altitudes.

3.3 Marine Surveys

Marine surveys can be conducted using ship-mounted magnetometers to map the
seafloor and underlying geological structures. These surveys are vital for
understanding offshore geology and hydrocarbon exploration. They can also be used
to identify potential hazards like underwater landslides or buried shipwrecks.

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Similar to airborne surveys, marine magnetic data processing requires corrections
for factors like ship motion, variations in water depth, and the Earth's magnetic field
variations at sea. Specialized processing software is used to account for these effects
and extract meaningful geological information.

3.4 Data Processing Workflow

Once collected, the raw magnetic data undergoes rigorous processing steps to
eliminate noise, correct for various environmental effects, and isolate the actual
magnetic anomalies caused by subsurface features. Here's a general workflow for
magnetic data processing:
Data Editing: Reviewing and removing erroneous data points due to instrument
malfunctions or human errors.
Diurnal Correction: Applying corrections based on reference station data to account
for daily variations in the Earth's magnetic field.
Datum Shift: Shifting the data to a standard reference level for consistent
comparisons with regional magnetic field models.
Lag Correction: Correcting for time delays between the sensor readings and the
position recording system in airborne or marine surveys.
Spike Removal: Identifying and removing sudden spikes in the data caused by
external disturbances.
Power Spectrum Analysis: Analyzing the frequency content of the data to identify
and remove noise at specific frequencies.
Regional-Residual Separation: Separating the regional magnetic field component
(like the IGRF) from the local anomalies caused by subsurface features. Various
filtering techniques are employed for this purpose.
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Gridding and Interpolation: Creating a gridded map of the magnetic anomaly
values by interpolating between data points. This allows for visualization and
analysis of the spatial variations in the magnetic field.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 APPLICATIONS OF THE MAGNETIC METHOD

The magnetic method has a wide range of applications across various disciplines due
to its unique ability to map variations in the magnetic properties of the subsurface.

1. Mineral Exploration
• Iron ore deposit. Magnetic survey is commonly used to locate iron ore
deposit, because iron bearing minerals exhibit strong magnetic
property. Magnetic method therefore helps in delineate the depth of this
ore deposit.
• Based metal deposit. Certain base metal ores like nickel, cobalt &
copper can also exhibit magnetic properties due to associated sulfide
mineral. Magnetic survey helps to identify potential ore bodies.

2. Hydrocarbon Exploration
• Magnetic basins. Sedimentary basins containing hydrocarbons can
show magnetic anomalies due to varieties in the magnetic property of
the sedimentary rocks and underline basement structures. Magnetic
survey assists in mapping these basins and interpreting features.
• Fault zones. Fault zones associated with HCL trapped may display
distinct magnetic signature. Magnetic method helps in delineating fault
structure.

3. Geothermal Exploration
Magnetic heat sources. Geothermal system often exhibit magnetic
anomalies cause by hydrothermal alteration and the presence of
magnetic minerals associated with high temperature zone. Magnetic
survey helps in locating potential areas for geothermal resource
exploration (measure of temperature with depth).

4. Archeological Studies
• Buried structures: magnetic surveys are valuable in archeology for
detecting structures like walls and ancient settlement that may contain
magnetic materials different from their surroundings.
• Artifact detection: magnetic anomaly can be caused by buried metallic
artifact. Archeologist use magnetic method to locate and map artifact
without execution.
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5. Environmental Studies
• Contaminate mapping: magnetic survey can help in mapping
environmental contaminate like buried waste, landfills, or metal
pollutant. These features can often generate magnetic anomalies that
can be detected and mapping for remediation purposes.
• Mapping geological hazard: magnetic surveys are useful in identifying
geological hazard such as buried fault, subsurface cavities or areas
prone to landslide by detecting associated anomalies.

6. Volcanic Studies
• Magma chamber: magnetic surveys are used to study volcanic
structure and identify subsurface chambers based on the magnetic and
geological data.
• Monitoring volcanic activities: continuous magnetic monitoring can
detect changes in magnetic fields associated with volcanic activities
providing early warning signs of potential eruption.

7. Civil Engineering
• Subsurface mapping: magnetic survey helps in mapping of subsurface
geology include bedrock, depth, soil composition, geologic structure
which is important for infrastructure (structure development and
construction project) in an area.
• Tunnel and pipeline route planning: magnetic surveys assist in planning
route for tunnels, pipeline and underground utility by identifying
suitable paths based on geologic and magnetic data.

8. Geological Mapping
The magnetic method helps map geological structures like faults, dykes (intrusive
igneous features), and buried channels containing magnetic minerals. These
structures can be crucial for understanding geological history, assessing mineral
potential, and evaluating the stability of foundations for large infrastructure projects.
• Fault Detection: Faults can sometimes displace rocks with contrasting
magnetic properties, creating linear magnetic anomalies. Identifying
these anomalies can help map fault zones and understand regional
geological history.
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• Dyke Mapping: Igneous intrusions like dykes often contain magnetic
minerals, and magnetic surveys can be used to map their extent and
orientation. This information can be valuable for understanding the
tectonic history of an area.
• Buried Channel Detection: Pre-existing river channels or valleys filled
with sediments may sometimes contain magnetic minerals. Magnetic
surveys can help identify these buried channels, which can be important
for groundwater exploration and understanding past geomorphological
processes.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 RECENT ADVANCEMENTS AND FUTURE TRENDS

The magnetic method is constantly evolving with advancements in technology and
data processing techniques. Here are some recent trends shaping the future of
magnetic surveying:
High-Resolution Surveys: Developments in magnetometer technology are enabling
high-resolution surveys with improved sensitivity and data acquisition speed. This
allows for more detailed mapping of complex geological features. UAV-Based
Surveys: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), also known as drones, are
increasingly used for magnetic surveys. These platforms offer flexibility and cost-
effectiveness for covering specific areas compared to traditional ground-based or
airborne surveys.
3D Inversion Techniques: Advanced mathematical algorithms are being employed
to "invert" the magnetic data and create 3D models of the subsurface magnetic
property distribution. These models provide a more visual representation of the
geological structures and can be used to estimate the properties of the underlying
geological formations.
Integration with Other Geophysical Methods: Combining magnetic data with other
geophysical methods like gravity, electromagnetic, or seismic surveys can
significantly improve the resolution and interpretation of subsurface features. Each
geophysical method offers unique insights, and integrating them provides a more
comprehensive understanding of the Earth's subsurface. For instance, seismic
surveys can provide detailed information about subsurface layering and rock
properties, while gravity data can help identify broad density variations. When

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combined with magnetic data, these techniques can create a more robust picture of
the geological environment.

Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence: Machine learning algorithms are

being explored for automated data processing and anomaly interpretation in
magnetic surveys. These techniques have the potential to streamline the
interpretation process and potentially identify subtle anomalies that might be missed
by traditional methods. However, human expertise in geology and geophysics will
likely remain crucial for the final interpretation and integration with other geological
data.

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 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUSION
The magnetic method remains a valuable tool for geoscientists and engineers due to
its versatility, non-invasive nature, and ability to provide valuable insights into the
Earth's subsurface. As technology continues to advance, the magnetic method will
likely play an even greater role in various applications, from resource exploration
and infrastructure development to environmental monitoring and understanding
geological processes. The magnetic method offers a complementary approach to
other geophysical techniques, providing a unique perspective on subsurface density
variations by focusing on the magnetic properties of rocks and minerals.
The ongoing advancements in technology and data processing techniques are
constantly improving the accuracy, resolution, and interpretation capabilities of the
magnetic method. The integration of magnetic data with other geophysical methods
and geological knowledge allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the
Earth's subsurface, leading to better-informed decisions in various fields.
By leveraging the strengths of the magnetic method and staying informed about its
ongoing developments, geoscientists and engineers can effectively utilize this
valuable tool to unlock the secrets beneath the Earth's surface.

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 REFERENCES
Abdullah M. Al-Amri. (2018). Principles of Geophysics. Dept. of Geology &
Geophysics King Saud University, Riyadh.
Beard, L. M. (1973). Geophysical methods in mineral exploration (Vol. 10).
Elsevier.

Blakely, D. (1995). Potential theory in geophysics (Vol. 35). Cambridge University

Press.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetometer#Overhauser_effect_magnetometer.
Reynolds, J. M., Beard, L. M., Beveridge, R. M., Cook, D. B., & Hiatt, M. D. (2011).
Applicability of Geophysics in Mineral Exploration (Vol. 16). Society of
Exploration Geophysicists.

Telford, W. M., Geldart, L. P., & Sheriff, R. E. (1990). Applied geophysics (Vol.
1). Cambridge University Press.

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