Short Questions chap# 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11

Chapter# 6
Name three common household substances having

a. pH value greater than 7:

 Baking soda

 Ammonia solution

 Bleach

b. pH value less than 7:

 Vinegar

 Lemon juice

 Battery acid

c. pH value equal to 7:

 Pure water

Define pH. What is the pH of pure water?

pH: pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. It indicates the acidity or basicity of a
solution on a scale of 0 to 14, where 7 is neutral, values less than 7 are acidic, and values greater than 7 are
basic.
pH of pure water: The pH of pure water is 7.

How many times a solution of pH 1 will be stronger than that of a solution having pH 2?

A solution of pH 1 is 10 times stronger (more acidic) than a solution of pH 2 because pH is a logarithmic scale.

Numericals

1. Calculate the pH and pOH of 0.2 M H₂SO₄.

To calculate the pH of 0.2 M H₂SO₄:

 H₂SO₄ is a strong acid and dissociates completely in water to give 2 moles of H⁺ ions per mole of
H₂SO₄.

 [H⁺] = 2 × 0.2 M = 0.4 M

 pH = -log[H⁺] = -log(0.4) ≈ 0.4

To calculate the pOH:

  pOH = 14 - pH = 14 - 0.4 = 13.6

2. Calculate the pH of 0.1 M KOH.

To calculate the pH of 0.1 M KOH:

 KOH is a strong base and dissociates completely in water to give OH⁻ ions.

 [OH⁻] = 0.1 M

 pOH = -log[OH⁻] = -log(0.1) = 1

 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 1 = 13

3. Calculate the pOH of 0.004 M HNO₃.

To calculate the pOH of 0.004 M HNO₃:

 HNO₃ is a strong acid and dissociates completely in water to give H⁺ ions.

 [H⁺] = 0.004 M

 pH = -log[H⁺] = -log(0.004) ≈ 2.4

 pOH = 14 - pH = 14 - 2.4 = 11.6

Chapter# 7
i. Define oxidation in terms of electrons. Give an example.

Oxidation: Oxidation is the process in which an atom, ion, or molecule loses electrons.
Example: In the reaction Mg→Mg2+ +2𝑒 −, magnesium (Mg) loses two electrons and is oxidized to magnesium
ion (Mg2+)

II. Define reduction in terms of loss or gain of oxygen or hydrogen. Give an example.

Reduction: Reduction is the process in which an atom, ion, or molecule gains electrons or loses oxygen or
gains hydrogen.
Example: In the reaction CuO+H2→Cu+H2O, copper(II) oxide (CuO) loses oxygen and is reduced to copper
(Cu).

III. What is difference between valency and oxidation state?

Valency: Valency is the combining capacity of an element, representing the number of electrons an atom can
lose, gain, or share to achieve a stable electron configuration.
Oxidation State: Oxidation state is the hypothetical charge an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of
different elements were fully ionic, indicating the number of electrons lost or gained by an atom in a compound.

IV. Differentiate between oxidizing and reducing agents.

Oxidizing Agent: An oxidizing agent gains electrons and gets reduced in a chemical reaction, thereby oxidizing
another substance.
Reducing Agent: A reducing agent loses electrons and gets oxidized in a chemical reaction, thereby reducing
another substance.

V. Differentiate between strong and weak electrolytes.

Strong Electrolytes: Strong electrolytes dissociate completely into ions in solution, conducting electricity very
well. Examples include NaCl and HCl.
Weak Electrolytes: Weak electrolytes partially dissociate into ions in solution, conducting electricity poorly.
Examples include acetic acid (CH₃COOH) and ammonia (NH₃).

VI. How is electroplating of tin on steel carried out?

Electroplating of Tin on Steel:

 Process: The steel object is made the cathode, and a tin rod is made the anode in an electrolyte solution
containing tin ions (e.g., tin(II) chloride, SnCl₂). When an electric current is passed through the solution,
tin ions are reduced and deposited on the steel surface.

 Equation: At the cathode: Sn2+ +2𝑒−→Sn

VII. Why is steel plated with nickel before the electroplating of chromium?

Reason: Nickel plating is done before chromium plating to provide a smooth, corrosion-resistant layer. Nickel
adheres well to steel and provides a good surface for the chromium layer to adhere to, improving durability and
appearance.

VIII. How can you explain that the following reaction is oxidation in terms of an increase in oxidation
number?

Explanation: In oxidation, the oxidation number of an element increases. For example, in the reaction
Fe→Fe3+ +3𝑒−, the oxidation number of iron increases from 0 to +3, indicating oxidation.

IX. How can you prove with an example that conversion of an ion to an atom is an oxidation process?

Example: In the reaction Na→Na+ + 1e−, a sodium atom loses an electron to become a sodium ion. This loss of
electrons is an oxidation process.

X. Why does the anode carry a negative charge in a galvanic cell but a positive charge in an electrolytic
cell? Justify with comments.

Justification:

 Galvanic Cell: In a galvanic cell, the anode is where oxidation occurs, releasing electrons, thus it is
negatively charged.

 Electrolytic Cell: In an electrolytic cell, the anode is connected to the positive terminal of an external
power source, attracting anions and causing oxidation, thus it is positively charged.

XI. Where do the electrons flow from the Zn electrode in Daniel's cell?

Answer: In Daniel's cell, electrons flow from the zinc electrode (anode) to the copper electrode (cathode)
through the external circuit.
XII. Why do electrodes get their names 'anode' and 'cathode' in a galvanic cell?

Answer: In a galvanic cell, the electrode where oxidation occurs is called the anode, and the electrode where
reduction occurs is called the cathode. These names are derived from the processes that occur at each electrode.

XIII. What happens at the cathode in a galvanic cell?

Answer: At the cathode in a galvanic cell, reduction occurs. For example, in Daniel's cell,

Cu2+ +2𝑒−→Cu, copper ions are reduced to copper metal.

XIV. Which solution is used as an electrolyte in Nelson's cell?

Answer: In Nelson's cell, a concentrated solution of sodium chloride (brine) is used as the electrolyte.

XV. Name the by-products produced in Nelson's cell?

Answer: The by-products produced in Nelson's cell are chlorine gas (Cl₂) and hydrogen gas (H₂).

XVI. Discuss the construction and working of a cell in which electricity is produced.

Construction and Working:

 Galvanic Cell: A galvanic cell consists of two half-cells connected by a salt bridge. Each half-cell
contains an electrode and an electrolyte. In Daniel's cell, one half-cell has a zinc electrode in ZnSO₄
solution, and the other has a copper electrode in CuSO₄ solution. The zinc electrode undergoes
oxidation, releasing electrons that flow through an external circuit to the copper electrode, where
reduction occurs, generating electricity.

XVII. How can we prepare NaOH on a commercial scale? Discuss its chemistry along with the diagram.

Preparation of NaOH:

 Process: NaOH is prepared on a commercial scale by the electrolysis of concentrated brine (NaCl
solution) in a cell such as the Nelson cell.

 Chemistry: In the cell, Cl₂ gas is produced at the anode, and H₂ gas and NaOH are produced at the
cathode. The reactions are:

 Anode: 2Cl−→Cl2+2𝑒−

 Cathode: 2H2O+2𝑒−→H2+2OH−

 Overall: 2NaCl+2H2O→Cl2+H2+2NaOH

XVIII. Describe the rules for assigning the oxidation state.

Rules for Assigning Oxidation State:

1. The oxidation state of an element in its elemental form is 0.

2. The oxidation state of a monoatomic ion is equal to its charge.

 3. In compounds, hydrogen generally has an oxidation state of +1, and oxygen has an oxidation state of -2.

4. The sum of oxidation states in a neutral compound is 0, and in a polyatomic ion, it is equal to the ion's
charge.

5. Group 1 metals have an oxidation state of +1, and Group 2 metals have an oxidation state of +2 in
compounds.

XX. How can a non-spontaneous reaction be carried out in an electrolytic cell?

Answer: A non-spontaneous reaction can be carried out in an electrolytic cell by applying an external electrical
current to drive the reaction. This process requires an external power source to provide the necessary energy to
overcome the activation energy of the reaction.

Chap# 8

Classify amides on the basis of substitutes.

Classification of Amides:

 Primary Amides: Contain the -CONH₂ group. Example: acetamide (CH₃CONH₂).

 Secondary Amides: Contain the -CONHR group. Example: N-methylacetamide (CH₃CONHCH₃).

 Tertiary Amides: Contain the -CONR₂ group. Example: N,N-dimethylacetamide (CH₃CON(CH₃)₂).

II. What is the general formula for amines?

General Formula for Amines:

The general formula for amines is RNH2RNH2 for primary amines, R2NHR2NH for secondary amines, and
R3NR3N for tertiary amines, where R represents an alkyl or aryl group.

III. Write properties of amines.

Properties of Amines:

 Basicity: Amines are basic in nature due to the presence of a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom.

 Solubility: Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water due to hydrogen bonding; solubility decreases
with increasing molecular weight.

 Odor: Amines typically have a fishy odor.

 Boiling Points: Amines have higher boiling points compared to hydrocarbons of similar molecular
weight due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

 Reactivity: Amines readily react with acids to form ammonium salts and with alkyl halides to form
substituted amines.

IV. Write a few applications of amides.

Applications of Amides:
  Solvents: Amides like dimethylformamide (DMF) and dimethylacetamide (DMA) are used as solvents
in organic synthesis.

 Pharmaceuticals: Many amides are used in the production of drugs and medicinal compounds.

 Plastic Industry: Nylon, a type of polyamide, is widely used in the production of plastics and fibers.

 Agriculture: Amides are used in the formulation of various pesticides and herbicides.

V. Write a note on Beckmann Rearrangement.

Beckmann Rearrangement:

 Definition: Beckmann rearrangement is a chemical reaction in which an oxime is converted into an

amide under acidic conditions.

 Mechanism: The reaction involves the migration of a group (usually an alkyl or aryl group) from the
carbon atom adjacent to the oxime's nitrogen atom to the nitrogen atom, resulting in the formation of an
amide.

 Example: The conversion of cyclohexanone oxime to ε-caprolactam, an important precursor in the

production of nylon-6.

 Conditions: Typically carried out using strong acids such as sulfuric acid or polyphosphoric acid.

VI. Differentiate between amines and amides.

Differences between Amines and Amides:

 Structure:

 Amines: Contain a nitrogen atom bonded to alkyl or aryl groups (R-NH₂, R₂-NH, R₃-N).

 Amides: Contain a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to a nitrogen atom (R-CO-NH₂, R-CO-NHR,
R-CO-NR₂).

 Basicity:

 Amines: Generally more basic due to the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen not being
delocalized.

 Amides: Less basic because the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen is delocalized with the
carbonyl group, reducing its availability.

 Reactivity:

 Amines: React readily with acids, alkyl halides, and other electrophiles.

 Amides: Less reactive than amines; they can undergo hydrolysis under acidic or basic
conditions.

 Boiling Points:
  Amines: Lower boiling points compared to amides of similar molecular weight due to weaker
hydrogen bonding.

 Amides: Higher boiling points due to stronger hydrogen bonding involving the carbonyl group
and the NH group.

Chapter# 9
Which elements are found in proteins? Answer: Proteins are primarily composed of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and sometimes sulfur (S).

ii. How are amino acids bonded with each other? Answer: Amino acids are bonded with each other through
peptide bonds, which are formed by a dehydration synthesis reaction between the carboxyl group of one amino
acid and the amino group of another.

iii. Give the general formula of amino acids. Answer: The general formula of amino acids is NH2-CHR-
COOHNH2-CHR-COOH, where R represents the side chain specific to each amino acid.

iv. What do you mean by non-essential amino acids? Answer: Non-essential amino acids are those that the
human body can synthesize on its own and do not need to be obtained from the diet.

v. Why are the ten amino acids essential for us? Answer: The ten amino acids are essential for us because
the human body cannot synthesize them, so they must be obtained from the diet.

vi. How are proteins formed? Answer: Proteins are formed by the polymerization of amino acids through
peptide bonds, creating long chains that fold into specific three-dimensional structures.

vii. How is gelatin obtained? Answer: Gelatin is obtained by the partial hydrolysis of collagen, which is a
protein found in animal connective tissues such as skin, bones, and cartilage.

viii. Where are proteins found? Answer: Proteins are found in every cell of the body and are abundant in
foods like meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, legumes, and nuts.

Extensive Questions

1. Explain the sources and uses of proteins.

Sources of Proteins:

 Animal Sources: Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and dairy products are rich in complete proteins,
containing all essential amino acids.

 Plant Sources: Legumes (beans, lentils), nuts, seeds, and grains provide proteins, though some plant
proteins may lack one or more essential amino acids and are considered incomplete proteins.

 Supplements: Protein powders and amino acid supplements are also sources, especially for athletes and
bodybuilders.

Uses of Proteins:
  Structural Support: Proteins like collagen and keratin provide structural support in connective tissues,
skin, hair, and nails.

 Enzymes: Proteins act as enzymes, catalyzing biochemical reactions in the body.

 Transport and Storage: Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells, transports oxygen, while other
proteins store essential molecules.

 Hormones: Some hormones, such as insulin, are proteins that regulate various physiological processes.

 Immune Function: Antibodies are proteins that help the body defend against pathogens.

 Muscle Contraction: Proteins like actin and myosin are involved in muscle contraction and movement.

 Energy Source: In the absence of carbohydrates and fats, proteins can be used as an energy source.

2. Explain that amino acids are building blocks of proteins.

Amino acids are the fundamental building blocks of proteins, and each protein's unique structure and function
are determined by its specific sequence of amino acids. Here's a detailed explanation:

Structure of Amino Acids:

 Basic Structure: Each amino acid has a central carbon atom (α-carbon) bonded to an amino group
(NH₂), a carboxyl group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a variable side chain (R group) that differs
among amino acids.

 R Group Variability: The R group gives each amino acid its unique properties, influencing the
protein's overall structure and function.

Peptide Bond Formation:

 Peptide Bonds: Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds formed during a dehydration
synthesis reaction, where the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another,
releasing a molecule of water.

 Polypeptide Chains: Multiple amino acids linked by peptide bonds form polypeptide chains, which fold
into specific three-dimensional structures to become functional proteins.

Protein Structure:

 Primary Structure: The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

 Secondary Structure: Local folding of the polypeptide chain into structures such as α-helices and β-
pleated sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

 Tertiary Structure: The overall three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain, determined by
interactions among R groups.

 Quaternary Structure: The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) in a multi-subunit

protein.
Functionality:

 The sequence and composition of amino acids determine the protein's final structure, which is crucial for
its specific biological function. Enzymes, structural proteins, transport proteins, and antibodies all rely
on their unique amino acid sequences to perform their roles effectively.

Chapter#10
i. Define carbohydrates.
Answer: Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually with a
hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1, and are major sources of energy in living organisms.

ii. Give the characteristics of disaccharides.

Answer: Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. They are soluble in
water, have a sweet taste, and can be hydrolyzed to yield two monosaccharides.

iii. Give the balanced equation for the formation of glucose.

Answer: The photosynthesis equation is:
6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O2

v. Give the balanced equation for the hydrolysis of sucrose.

Answer:
C12H22O11+H2O→C6H12O6+C6H12O6
(Sucrose + Water → Glucose + Fructose)

vi. How do plants synthesize carbohydrates?

Answer: Plants synthesize carbohydrates through photosynthesis, where carbon dioxide and water are
converted into glucose and oxygen using light energy, typically from the sun.

vii. Give the characteristics of monosaccharides.

Answer: Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar units. They are
soluble in water, sweet-tasting, and serve as building blocks for more complex carbohydrates.

viii. What is the difference between glucose and fructose?

Answer: Glucose is an aldohexose with an aldehyde group, whereas fructose is a ketohexose with a ketone
group. Their structural formulas differ, although both have the same molecular formula (C6H12O6).

ix. Give an example of a disaccharide. How is it hydrolyzed into monosaccharides?

Answer: Sucrose is a common disaccharide. It is hydrolyzed by the enzyme sucrase or by acidic conditions into
glucose and fructose:

C12H22O11+H2O→C6H12O6+C6H12O6
(Sucrose + Water → Glucose + Fructose)

x. Give the characteristics of polysaccharides.

Answer: Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds. They are
typically insoluble in water, not sweet-tasting, and serve as energy storage (e.g., starch, glycogen) or structural
components (e.g., cellulose).
xi. Describe the uses of carbohydrates.
Answer: Carbohydrates provide energy, serve as structural materials, aid in cell recognition and signaling, and
are components of DNA and RNA.

xii. Lactose is a disaccharide; which monosaccharides are present in it?

Answer: Lactose is composed of glucose and galactose.

Extensive Questions

1. What are carbohydrates? How are monosaccharides prepared? Give their characteristics.
Answer: Carbohydrates are organic compounds with the formula C𝑛(H2O)𝑛Cn(H2O)n. Monosaccharides can
be prepared by hydrolysis of polysaccharides or disaccharides, or through the chemical synthesis from simpler
precursors. Characteristics include being crystalline solids, soluble in water, and reducing sugars if they contain
a free aldehyde or ketone group.

2. Explain oligosaccharides.
Answer: Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates composed of 3 to 10 monosaccharide units. They are often found
on the surface of cells, where they play roles in cell recognition and signaling. They can be hydrolyzed into
their monosaccharide units.

3. What are polysaccharides? Give their properties.

Answer: Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds. They are
typically insoluble in water, not sweet, and can be linear or branched. They serve as energy storage (e.g., starch,
glycogen) or structural components (e.g., cellulose).

4. What are carbohydrates and how are they classified?

Answer: Carbohydrates are organic compounds with the general formula C𝑛(H2O)𝑛Cn(H2O)n. They are
classified based on the number of sugar units: monosaccharides (one unit), disaccharides (two units),
oligosaccharides (3-10 units), and polysaccharides (more than 10 units).

5. Point out one difference between the compounds in each of the following pairs.
(a) Glucose and fructose: Glucose is an aldohexose, whereas fructose is a ketohexose.
(b) Sucrose and maltose: Sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose, while maltose is composed of two
glucose units.
(c) Cellulose and starch: Cellulose has β-1,4-glycosidic bonds, making it a structural polysaccharide, whereas
starch has α-1,4 and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds, making it an energy storage polysaccharide.

Chapter#11
i. What is the difference between ghee and oil?
Answer: Ghee is a clarified butter, solid at room temperature, primarily composed of saturated fats. Oil is
typically liquid at room temperature and consists mainly of unsaturated fats.

ii. Give the characteristics of fats.

Answer: Fats are generally solid at room temperature, composed mostly of saturated fatty acids, have a higher
melting point, and are found in both animal and plant sources.
iii. Give the sources and uses of animal fats.
Answer: Animal fats are sourced from meat, dairy products, and fatty tissues of animals. They are used in
cooking, baking, as a source of energy, in the production of soaps and cosmetics, and as an industrial lubricant.

iv. Plants are a source of oils, justify.

Answer: Plants produce oils in their seeds, fruits, and nuts, which are extracted and used for cooking, as
biofuels, in cosmetics, and in industrial applications due to their high content of unsaturated fatty acids.

Extensive Questions

1. Explain the sources and uses of lipids.

Answer: Sources of Lipids:

 Animal Sources: Meat, dairy products, fish, and eggs.

 Plant Sources: Seeds, nuts, fruits (e.g., avocados, olives), and vegetable oils.

Uses of Lipids:

 Energy Storage: Lipids provide a dense form of energy storage in adipose tissues.

 Structural Components: They are essential components of cell membranes (phospholipids and
cholesterol).

 Insulation and Protection: Lipids insulate the body and protect organs.

 Hormones and Vitamins: Lipids are precursors to hormones (e.g., steroids) and fat-soluble vitamins
(A, D, E, K).

 Food Industry: Used in cooking oils, margarine, butter, and as emulsifiers in processed foods.

 Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals: Lipids are ingredients in creams, lotions, and drug formulations.

2. What are lipids? In what way are fats and oils different?
Answer: Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents. They include fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.

Differences Between Fats and Oils:

 Physical State: Fats are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid.

 Fatty Acid Composition: Fats have a higher proportion of saturated fatty acids, while oils have more
unsaturated fatty acids.

 Sources: Fats are typically derived from animal sources, whereas oils are usually obtained from plants.

3. Define saponification number and iodine number. Discuss the term rancidity.
Answer: Saponification Number: The saponification number is the amount of potassium hydroxide (in
milligrams) required to saponify 1 gram of fat or oil. It indicates the average molecular weight (or chain length)
of all the fatty acids present.
Iodine Number: The iodine number measures the degree of unsaturation in fats and oils, expressed as the
number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 grams of the sample. Higher iodine numbers indicate more
unsaturated bonds.

Rancidity: Rancidity refers to the spoilage of fats and oils, resulting in unpleasant taste and odor. It occurs
through oxidative rancidity, where unsaturated fats react with oxygen, and hydrolytic rancidity, where water
breaks down the fat molecules.