Acoustic Emission Testing

What are Acoustic Emissions?

The term acoustic emission (AE) refers to the creation of transient elastic waves due to rapid
energy release from localized sources in a material. These acoustic waves are emitted by solid
materials when they experience deformation or damage. AE is associated with a permanent
alteration of the microstructure of a material. A simplified explanation is that AE is the sound
produced when a material becomes damaged, although other types of waves, in addition to
sound waves, may also be involved.

Various events can generate AE, including:

 The dislocation movement causes by plastic deformation or yielding

 The formation and extension of cracks in an object under stress

 Phase transformation

 Thermal stresses

 Cracking during cooldown

 Stress build-up

 Twinning, a form of crystalline distortion

 Matrix cracking

 Fiber breakage

 Debonding

AE can occur in various types of materials, including metals, plastics, polymers, concrete and
wood. The characteristics of an acoustic emission depend on various factors, including the
event that caused the AE and the material involved. Matrix cracking, for example, tends to
produce a low amplitude emission, while crack propagation produces a higher amplitude
emission.
What is Acoustic Emission Testing?

The term acoustic emission testing (AET) refers to the process of detecting and recording AE
using specialized equipment. AET is a type of nondestructive test (NDT) that has various uses,
including ensuring the structural integrity of vessels, monitoring weld quality and more. The
process involves using sensors to detect AE and then converting the waves into electrical
signals so that they can be recorded. You can then analyze the results to assess a material’s
condition and locate any defects. The recorded information can provide potentially valuable
information about the origin and significance of a defect in a structure.

There are several slightly different methods used for acoustic emission testing. Some of the
main methods include:

 Global screening: One method is used to screen all components and involves
increasing stress levels to slightly above normal using thermal or pressure gradients to
reveal stress risers and cracks. For example, you might increase the pressure in a reactor
to 110% of the typical maximum operating pressure. Raising the pressure should reveal
active defects that are not apparent under normal operating conditions but will likely
continue to worsen over time.

 Monitoring during Normal Operating Conditions: Another method involves

monitoring known flaws or detecting unknown flaws that can’t easily be discovered by
increasing stress levels. With this method, the AE signals result from actual damage
progression or crack propagation. For example, you might monitor coke drums over
time for thermally induced fatigue cracks. In this method, rather than artificially
increasing the load for the purpose of testing, you use AET to monitor a vessel for
significant damage progression.

 Proof tests: The goal of a proof test is to show that a given structure can handle loads
up to a certain amount. In the test, you increase the load to the required amount. If
successful, the test will not record any significant emissions.

 Failure tests: A failure test aims to determine the load at which a structure begins to
fail. It involves gradually increasing the load until the system begins to record emissions
that indicate failure is beginning to occur.

 Fatigue tests: Fatigue tests involve applying a cyclic load to a structure to estimate its
working lifetime.
Setting Up the Equipment

For testing a small component, you may only use one acoustic emission sensor.
Typically, however, multiple sensors are used and spread across the surface of the
object. This is, in part, because different sensors may pick up different signal
characteristics for the same emission event, especially in complex structures. When
setting up sensors, it’s typically ideal that each area of interest is within the acoustic
range of at least three sensors. Often, a pattern of interlocking triangles or interlocking
rectangles is used to set up sensors.

It’s also important to use a fluid couplant to help the sensor obtain a stronger signal,
which it does by increasing the surface area that is transmitting the force. Various types
of fluid couplants can be used, including resins, greases and sealants. Different types of
couplants may work best in different applications. Couplants can also help bond the
sensor to the surface, and tape, magnetic hold-downs, springs or other items are used to
further secure the sensors.

The sensors are connected to a low-noise preamplifier and a main amplifier, as well as
additional electronic equipment used to filter and isolate the sound. These devices help
make the reading clearer and easier to analyze accurately. Shielding is also important
for reducing electrical noise. The sensors and other equipment are connected using
coaxial cables to a computer that records the readings.

Running the Test

After setting up the equipment, the test is begun by applying the required load. For
example, the test may require increasing the pressure in a vessel to slightly above the
normal operating pressure. The system may also continue to operate as usual if the test
aims to monitor performance under normal operating conditions.

Once the test begins, the AET system will record any AE above a pre-determined
threshold, along with the exact time it occurred. The system will record data related to
emission count, signal length, peak amplitude, emission strength and other chosen
parameters. The distance between the emission source and the sensor affects the
 recorded emission strength, so the strength recorded by multiple sensors is often
averaged to help estimate the strength of each emission.

Various techniques can be used in acoustic emission testing. The ideal equipment setup
and testing process depend on the type of structure being tested, the material being
tested, the type of test being conducted and other factors.

Analyzing the Results

Once the test is complete, the results are analyzed. Alternatively, for some types of
tests, you can conduct analysis while the test is taking place. Analysis involves looking
for the occurrence of AE, measuring the rate of each emission and determining the
location of any defects. With modern computer systems, the results of the test show up
as a graph, which helps in interpreting the results. By measuring the arrival time of an
AE signal to each sensor, you can determine the defect’s location using
triangulation. After locating the flaw, you can perform additional inspection or begin
taking steps toward correcting the flaw.

What Are the Applications of Acoustic Emission Testing?

AET is very versatile and has many applications across a variety of industries. It’s also used as
a research tool. Some of the applications of AET include:
  Detection of active sources, including yielding, crack propagation, fatigue, creep, fiber
delamination, fiber fracture, and corrosion.
 Structural integrity evaluation
 In-field inspection
 Weld quality monitoring
 Production quality control
 Leak detection
 Monitoring chemical reactions and phase changes
 Laboratory and research and development (R&D) studies

Who Uses Acoustic Emission Testing?

A wide variety of industries can use AET, including:

 Aerospace: The aerospace sector can use AET to assess aging aircraft, motors and fuel
storage tanks.
 Alternative energy sources: AET is useful for testing the structural integrity of
alternative energy infrastructure such as wind turbines.
 Automotive: Automotive manufacturers may use AET to assess vehicle components,
as well as factory equipment.
 Chemical and refinery: Companies in the chemical and refinery sector can use AET
to test for defects in plant equipment and vessels.
 Infrastructure: AET is valuable for testing the structural integrity of bridges, tunnels,
dams and other types of infrastructure.
 Manufacturing: Manufacturers can use AET to test a wide range of manufacturing
equipment types, as well as ensure product quality of certain types of goods.
 Materials research and development: Those working in materials research and
development can use AET to test the integrity of new and existing materials in various
applications.
 Nuclear power: AET can be used to inspect nuclear components, such as lift beams,
valves and steam lines.
 Offshore drilling: AET can provide early detection of faults in offshore
drilling platforms and pipelines.
 Oil and gas: Oil and gas companies can use AET to test pipelines, vessels and
processing equipment.
  Power distribution: AET can be used for partial discharge detection in power
transformers.
 Pressure vessels and piping: Manufacturers of pressure vessels may use AET to
ensure product quality. Users of this equipment may also use AET to test the condition
of their equipment.
 Process technology: Process technology professionals in the fields of wastewater
treatment, chemical processing, power generation and more can use AET to test the
integrity of system components.
 Pulp and paper: AET is used in the pulp and paper industry for testing the integrity of
vessels, tanks, piping, tubing and other equipment used in manufacturing operations.
 Transportation: AET is useful for testing various types of transportation equipment,
including railroad tank cars, marine vessels, motors, tube trailers and more.

What Are the Advantages of AET?

AET can be used for the early detection of flaws as well as real-time monitoring. It is a high-
sensitivity test method and offers advantages including:

 Early damage detection: Because AET detects the growth of cracks and flaws and is
a highly sensitive test method, it can detect relatively small (micro) defects early on.
This early detection enables you to repair flaws before they cause significant issues.
 Global, simultaneous inspection: With AET, you can inspect an entire unit or system
simultaneously, including pressure vessels, reactors, piping and other components. This
results in a more efficient, cost-effective testing process and enables you to test even
large systems relatively quickly.
 No need for shutdown: AET can often be performed on a unit while it is in operation,
avoiding the need for a shutdown. You can also perform AET during an in-service over-
pressurization or scheduled cool-down. Avoiding a shutdown can reduce costs
significantly and help keep productivity levels consistent.
 Identification of only active defects: AET only identifies active defects — those that
are growing. This feature means that only flaws that are likely to cause significant issues
in the future are identified, while stable cracks and old fabrications defects are not. This
enables you to focus on the most significant issues, saving your company time and
money.
  Immediate indication of risk: With AET, you get an immediate indication of the
strength of a given component and the risk of failure, enabling you to respond quickly
if needed.
 Minimal disruption to insulation: Typically, only small holes in insulation are
required to mount sensors. You may also be able to place permanent sensors underneath
insulation.
 Compliance assistance: Several standards recognize AET, and it can help
ensure compliance with local, state and federal regulations.
 Reduced costs: Using AET can reduce costs significantly by avoiding downtime,
reducing test time, requiring minimal disruption to insulation and identifying only the
defects that may cause significant issues in the future if not corrected.

What Are the Limitations of AET?

Like any test method, AET also has some limitations, which means it may not be the right
choice for every application. In some cases, organizations may benefit from supplementing
AET with other test methods. Some of the disadvantages of AET include that it:

 Can only provide qualitative results: AET can only provide qualitative results, not
quantitative results. It can detect that a flaw exists, but determining the size and depth
of a crack, for example, requires other test methods, such as ultrasonic testing.
 Can only find active flaws: The fact that AET only identifies active flaws can be an
advantage, but, in some cases, you may also want to identify stagnant defects. AET
would not work for this purpose. It’s also possible that AET may not detect relatively
minor active flaws if the loading is not enough to result in an acoustic event.
 Loud environments present challenges: It can be more challenging to get accurate
results from AET when it is performed in loud service environments. To filter out
excess noise, signal discrimination and noise reduction techniques and technologies are
required.
 Requires specific skills and knowledge: Performing AET requires an experienced,
knowledgeable and skilled operator. It also involves the use of relatively complex and
expensive hardware and software.