Anatomy and Physiology

The Endocrine System Location of Major Endrocrine Organs

 Second messenger system of the
body
 Uses chemical messages
(hormones) that are released into
the blood
 Hormones control several major
processes
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much of homeostasis
 Regulation of metabolism
Hormone Overview
 Hormones are produced by
specialized cells
 Cells secrete hormones into
extracellular fluids
 Blood transfers hormones to target
sites
 These hormones regulate the
activity of other cells
The Chemistry of Hormones Pituitary Gland
 Amino acid-based hormones  Size of a grape
 Proteins  Hangs by a stalk from the
 Peptides hypothalamus
 Amines  Protected by the sphenoid bone
 Steroids – made from cholesterol  Has two functional lobes
 Prostaglandins – made from highly  Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
active lipids  Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
Mechanisms of Hormone Action Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Hormones affect only certain  Six anterior pituitary hormones
tissues or organs (target cells or  Two affect non-endocrine targets
organs)  Four stimulate other endocrine glands
 Target cells must have specific (tropic hormones)
protein receptors  Characteristics of all anterior
 Hormone binding influences the pituitary hormones
working of the cells  Proteins (or peptides)
Control of Hormone Release  Act through second-messenger systems
 Hormone levels in the blood are
maintained by negative feedback
 A stimulus or low hormone levels
in the blood triggers the release of
more hormone
 Hormone release stops once an
appropriate level in the blood is
reached
Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands
-Endocrine glands are activated by other
hormones
-Changing blood levels of certain ions
stimulate hormone release

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 Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly  Can inhibit urine production
negative feedback

Growth Hormone (GH)

 General metabolic hormone
 Major effects are directed to growth
of skeletal muscles and long bones
 Causes amino acids to be built into
proteins
 Causes fats to be broken down for a
source of energy
Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary
Hormones

Prolactin (PRL)
 Stimulates and maintains milk
production following childbirth
 Function in males is unknown
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 Regulates endocrine activity of the
adrenal cortex
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
 Influences growth and activity of the
thyroid
Gonadotropic hormones
 Regulate hormonal activity of the
gonads
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Stimulates follicle development in
ovaries
 Stimulates sperm development in
testes
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Triggers ovulation
 Causes ruptured follicle to become
the corpus luteum
 Stimulates testosterone production
in males
 Referred to as interstitial cell-
stimulating hormone (ICSH)
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
 Oxytocin
 Stimulates contractions of the uterus
during labor
 Causes milk ejection
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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 In large amounts, causes
vasoconstriction leading to increased
blood pressure (vasopressin)

Parathyroid Glands
 Tiny masses on the posterior of the
thyroid
 Secrete parathyroid hormone
 Stimulate osterclasts to remove calcium
from bone
 Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to
absorb more calcium
 Raise calcium levels in the blood
Adrenal Glands
 Two glands
Thyroid Gland  Cortex – outer glandular region in three
 Found at the base of the throat layers
 Consists of two lobes and a  Medulla – inner neural tissue region
connecting isthmus  Sits on top of the kidneys
 Produces two hormones Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Thyroid hormone Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
 Calcitonin  Produced in outer adrenal cortex
 Regulate mineral content in blood,
water, and electrolyte balance
 Target organ is the kidney
 Production stimulated by renin and
aldosterone

Thyroid Hormone
 Major metabolic hormone
 Composed of two active iodine-
containing hormones
 Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid
follicles
 Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of
T4 at target tissues
Calcitonin
 Decreases blood calcium levels by
causing its deposition on bone
 Antagonistic to parathyroid
hormone
 Produced by C (parafollicular) cells

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 Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic  Largest in infants and children
peptide  Produces thymosin
 Matures some types of white blood
cells
 Important in developing the
immune system

Hormones of the Ovaries

Estrogens
 Produced by Graafian follicles or the
placenta
 Stimulates the development of
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex secondary female characteristics
Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and  Matures female reproductive organs
cortisol)
 Helps prepare the uterus to receive a
 Produced in the middle layer of the fertilized egg
adrenal cortex
 Helps maintain pregnancy
 Promote normal cell metabolism
 Prepares the breasts to produce milk
 Help resist long-term stressors Progesterone
 Released in response to increased blood -Produced by the corpus luteum
levels of ACTH -Acts with estrogen to bring about the
Sex hormones menstrual cycle
 Produced in the inner layer of the -Helps in the implantation of an embryo in
adrenal cortex the uterus
 Androgens (male) and some estrogen Hormones of the Testes
(female) Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla producing
 Produces two similar hormones Produce several androgens
(catecholamines) Testosterone is the most important
 Epinephrine androgen
 Norepinephrine Responsible for adult male secondary sex
 These hormones prepare the body to characteristics
deal with short-term stress Promotes growth and maturation of male
Pancreatic Islets reproductive system
 The pancreas is a mixed gland Required for sperm cell production
 The islets of the pancreas produce Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
hormones Organs
 Insulin – allows glucose to cross Parts of the small intestine
plasma membranes into cells from Parts of the stomach
beta cells Kidneys
 Glucagon – allows glucose to enter Heart
the blood from alpha cells Many other areas have scattered endocrine
 These hormones are antagonists that cells
maintain blood sugar homeostasis Endocrine Function of the Placenta
Pineal Gland Produces hormones that maintain the
pregnancy
 Found on the third ventricle of the brain
Some hormones play a part in the
 Secretes melatonin
delivery of the baby
 Helps establish the body’s wake and Produces HCG in addition to estrogen,
sleep cycles progesterone, and other hormones
 May have other as-yet- Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
unsubstantiated functions System
Thymus Most endocrine organs operate smoothly
 Located posterior to the sternum until old age

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Menopause is brought about by lack of
efficiency of the ovaries
Problems associated with reduced
estrogen are common
Growth hormone production declines
with age
Many endocrine glands decrease output
with age

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