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 25 CONCEPTS IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE

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 25 CONCEPTS IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE
A GUIDE FOR VISUAL THINKERS

Stephanie Travis + Catherine Anderson

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 BLOOMSBURY VISUAL ARTS
Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK
1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA
29 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland

BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY VISUAL ARTS and the Diana logo are trademarks of
Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

First published in Great Britain 2021

Copyright © Stephanie Travis and Catherine Anderson, 2021

Stephanie Travis and Catherine Anderson have asserted their right under the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Authors of this work.

For legal purposes the Acknowledgments on p. 8 constitute an extension of this

copyright page.

Cover design: Stephanie Travis and Catherine Anderson

Cover image: Kaufmann House

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission
in writing from the publishers.

Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any
third-party websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this
book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret
any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist,
but can accept no responsibility for any such changes.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Travis, Stephanie, author. | Anderson, Catherine (Catherine K.), author.
Title: 25 concepts in modern architecture : a guide for visual thinkers /
Stephanie Travis + Catherine Anderson.
Other titles: Twenty five concepts in modern architecture : a guide for visual thinkers
Identifiers: LCCN 2019049167 | ISBN 9781350055605 (paperback) | ISBN
9781350055575 (pdf) | ISBN 9781350055582 (epub) | ISBN 9781350055599
Subjects: LCSH: Architecture, Modern--Philosophy. | Architecture, Modern—
Pictorial works.
Classification: LCC NA500 .T73 2021 | DDC 720.1—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019049167

ISBN: PB: 978-1-3500-5560-5

ePDF: 978-1-3500-5557-5
eBook: 978-1-3500-5558-2

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 DEDICATIONS

stephanie travis
to mark, samantha + matthew

catherine anderson
to scott + caroline

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 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 8 15 Connecting Forms 122

About the authors 9 Miller House, Eero Saarinen 1957
Introduction 11
16 Lengthening Views 130
1 Rotating L-Shapes 12 Stahl House, Pierre Koenig 1960
Schindler Chace House, Rudolph Schindler 1922
17 Overlapping Circles 136
2 Manipulating Volumes 18 Pre-Columbian Gallery, Philip Johnson 1963
Masters’ Houses, Walter Gropius 1926
18 Rotating Blocks 144
3 Shifting Space 24 Fisher House, Louis Kahn 1967
Lovell Beach House, Rudolph Schindler 1926
19 Embedding Components 152
4 Sliding Planes 30 Koshino House, Tadao Ando 1984
Barcelona Pavilion, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 1929
20 Clustering Objects 160
5 Moving Perspectives 36 Winton Guest House, Frank Gehry 1987
Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier 1931
21 Engaging Procession 168
6 Compressing Horizontals 46 Church on the Water, Tadao Ando 1988
Jacobs House, Frank Lloyd Wright 1937
22 Lifting Elements 174
7 Expanding Volumes 54 Maison à Bordeaux, Rem Koolhaas 1998
Fallingwater, Frank Lloyd Wright 1937
23 Branching Masses 182
8 Extending Rectangles 64 Y House, Steven Holl 1999
Kaufmann House, Richard Neutra 1947
24 Nesting Rectangles 188
9 Splitting Zones 72 House N, Sou Fujimoto 2008
Eames House, Charles and Ray Eames 1949
25 Stacking Shapes 194
10 Offsetting Interior/Exterior 80 Tokyo Apartment, Sou Fujimoto 2010
Glass House, Philip Johnson 1949
Notes 202
11 Layering Planes 88
Bibliography 207
Farnsworth House, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 1951
Index 213
12 Undulating Forms 96
Casa das Canoas, Oscar Niemeyer 1953

13 Manipulating Light 106

Chapel of Notre-Dame du Haut at Ronchamp,
Le Corbusier 1955

14 Interlocking Cubes 114

Trenton Bath House, Louis Kahn 1955

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our deep gratitude goes to James Thompson, Alexander Farnsworth House (p. 88). Photo by Carol M. Highsmith/
Highfield, and the entire team at Bloomsbury Publishing for Buyenlarge/Getty Images
their guidance and unwavering support throughout the process.
A special thanks goes to Abigail Zola, Rebecca Landwehr, Caitlin Casa das Canoas (p. 96). © leonardo finotti
MacGregor, Shannon Turner, and Grace Poillucci—each of you
moved the multiple iterations of the book ever forward. Lastly, Chapel of Notre-Dame du Haut at Ronchamp (p. 106). © FLC/
we want to acknowledge the GW Interior Architecture faculty, ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2020. Photo by Jose-Fuste
staff, and, most importantly, the myriad students we have had RAGA/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images
the privilege of teaching.
Trenton Bath House (p. 114). Photo by Smallbones via Wikimedia
All illustrations are copyright the authors, except: Commons.CC0 1.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:T
_bath_house_3.jpg, accessed 09/09/2020
Schindler Chace House (p. 12). Photo: Joshua White/
JWPictures.com Miller House (p. 122). Photo by Nyttend via Wikimedia Commons.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Miller_House_in
Masters’ Houses (p. 18). Photo by Fishman/ullstein bild via _Columbus.jpg, accessed 09/09/2020
Getty Images
Stahl House (p. 130). © J. Paul Getty Trust. Getty Research
Lovell Beach House (p. 24). Nick Bonetti)/Eye Ubiquitous/ Institute, Los Angeles (2004.R.10)
Alamy Stock Photo
Pre-Columbian Gallery (p. 136). © Dumbarton Oaks, Archives,
Barcelona Pavilion (p. 30). Photo by Quim Llenas/Cover/ Washington, DC
Getty Images
Fisher House (p. 144). National Trust/Tom Crane, Photographer
Villa Savoye (p. 36). © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London/© FLC/
ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2020. Photo by Thierry PERRIN/ Koshino House (p. 152). From Tadao Ando/Koshino House. A Rax
HOA-QUI/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images Rinnekangas Film © Oy Bad Taste Ltd

Jacobs House (p. 46). Photo by James Steakley via Wikimedia Winton Guest House (p. 160). Morgan Sheff Photography
Commons.CC BY-SA 4.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki
/File:Jacobs_First_House_-_back_02.jpg, accessed 09/09/2020 Church on the Water (p. 168). Kaedeenari/Alamy Stock Photo

Fallingwater (p. 54). Photo © Richard A. Cooke/CORBIS via Maison à Bordeaux (p. 174). Photo by Hans Werlemann, courtesy
Getty Images Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA), Weena-Zuid 158,
3012 NC Rotterdam, The Netherlands. www.oma.com
Kaufmann House (p. 64). © J. Paul Getty Trust. Getty Research
Institute, Los Angeles (2004.R.10) Y House (p. 182). Alon Koppel Photography

Eames House (p. 72). © J. Paul Getty Trust. Getty Research House N (p. 188). Photo by View Pictures/Universal Images Group
Institute, Los Angeles (2004.R.10) via Getty Images

Glass House (p. 80). Photo by Ramin Talaie/Corbis via Tokyo Apartment (p. 194). Photo by Forgemind ArchiMedia via
Getty Images Flickr. CC BY 2.0. https://bit.ly/3m6fkdC, accessed 09/09/2020

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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Stephanie Travis received her Master of Architecture with Prior to her position as an assistant professor at the George
distinction and Bachelor of Science in Architecture from the Washington University Interior Architecture Program in
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Since 2009, she has been an Washington, DC, Catherine Anderson worked in a variety of
associate professor and program head of interior architecture architecture and interior design firms for over twelve years.
at The George Washington University (GW) in Washington, DC. Her primary practice experience was focused on commercial
Prior to GW, Stephanie worked in New York City for Gensler projects for a wide range of clients such as law firms, nonprofits,
and Vicente Wolf Associates; she is also a LEED Accredited associations, and embassies. She earned a Bachelor of Science
Professional. She brings her passion for modern architecture in Architecture and a Master of Architecture from The Catholic
and design to her courses and research; her love of drawing led University of America’s School of Architecture + Planning that
to her best-selling book, Sketching for Architecture + Design included a summer semester abroad in Rome and Slovenia. She
(Laurence King Publishing, 2015), which has been published in was awarded the American Institute of Architects’ (AIA) Henry
seven languages and is sold in museums around the world. She Adams Medal, the highest honor for a graduating student in an
has brought students abroad to study modern and contemporary accredited architecture program. A LEED Accredited Professional,
architecture in cities such as Paris, London, Copenhagen, Berlin, her teaching focus is on sustainability as well as the design
and Milan. Stephanie has also published and presented many process and design thinking. Her work includes participation in
peer-reviewed articles on the topics of design pedagogy and the US Department of Energy’s 2013 Solar Decathlon with Team
modern architecture, and was the 2018 recipient of the Design Capitol DC’s submission, Harvest Home, which won a 2014 AIA
Principles and Practices International Award for Excellence for DC Design Award.
her article Pure Form: The Interior of the Hirshhorn Museum in
Washington, DC.

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 INTRODUCTION

When an educator inquires about the concept as the impetus by parsing these great works of architecture into two words, it
for work, the beginning design student is often perplexed. After may appear that we intend to oversimplify the multiple layers of
all, what exactly is a concept (or parti, the word often used in meaning that historians, theorists, and architects have carefully
architecture school)? How does one derive a “correct” concept? observed. Instead, our objective is to be straightforward by using
Why is it even necessary? This initial step in the design process less jargon that has to be unpacked and providing more diagrams
is met with frustration and angst for many—yet without it, one when explaining the design strategies of architecture.
cannot truly begin to design. It would be akin to writing an
essay without knowing the paper’s topic. The architect Steven We gave ample consideration to the book’s title, understanding
Holl rigorously adheres to an overarching idea, stating that he is that the featured buildings are classified as either modern or
“almost obsessive about following the concept” as it “drives the contemporary. The former word refers to a time period in history
design, it guides the design.”1 that roughly spans early to late twentieth century, while the
latter calls to mind any work that is of the present era; what is
There are many different ways of generating a concept; as with contemporary continually progresses and is redefined. While the
design, a prescriptive or correct way to proceed does not exist. majority of the structures we selected fall under the designation
Inspiration and observation often go hand in hand when thinking of modern, our intention is not to use the word in the historical
divergently during the initial phase of design. However, going sense but, rather, to describe something as novel and engaging or
too far afield can lead to “wandering” as more words enter the to express a sensibility that abandons traditional norms.
ever-crowded space of possible contenders to be the concept.
Indecision (or “analysis paralysis”) sometimes becomes the Our hand-drawn diagrams serve a purpose: during the formative
default position when students face too many ideas. To avoid and initial process of concept formation, the connection between
being stymied at this early stage, many students half-heartedly the hand, eyes, and brain creates a feedback loop. Steven Holl
select a word or phrase, hoping that their selection is a best states: “I believe in the analogue as the beginning of architecture
guess or assuring themselves that they can abandon their concept . . . The very first thought, the meaningful first diagram, the
if (when) another idea seems more appropriate. ‘concept’ for the building, is a combination of eye and mind and
hand, and, one hopes, the spirit. I always begin with these little
This book offers offers one approach to demystify this seemingly five by seven drawings in my watercolor notebooks.”2
elusive process: select a verb and a noun that come together
to create a concept. We believe that this method highlights or The precise lines of a computer-generated drawing can appear
elucidates an action (verb) that is visible in the forms (nouns) that sterile, final, and complete; at times, they nearly eliminate room
shape the architecture. It is important to note that not all verbs for process and exploration. The initial stages of the design
are appropriate to use. Suggesting that the creative process process—iterative, messy, and unpredictable—only benefit from
can be harnessed into an equation is not our intention; however, a forgiving and intuitive method that permits imprecise lines and
beginning design students can benefit from using this framework the looseness afforded by hand drawings.
for concept development.
Our diagrams are an abstraction, another way of communicating
As educators, we underscore that the concept must be seen or ideas through representation. They are not intended to be precise
evidenced when asking students to describe and defend their documentation of a building; rather, each drawing in this book
work. To this end, we have curated words that describe the is meant to convey a supporting idea. Together, they provide
process of doing (such as sliding) demonstrated in existing works; a broader understanding of the architecture in each chapter,
this is not unlike the Verblist that the artist and sculptor Richard in addition to the main concept. We hope this book inspires
Serra developed in 1967. many—from the beginning design student to the architecture
enthusiast—to see the myriad ways an idea can be articulated in
This is not to suggest that the concepts identified in this book form, drawings, and words.
are the definitive ideas that were intended when these seminal
works of architecture were created. At times, our words and the
architects’ characterization of the structures do align; for others,
we have distilled the predominate contours of the buildings and
interpreted them in our own way. We also acknowledge that

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 1 ROTATING L-SHAPES
Schindler Chace House
When configured in a pinwheel arrangement, multiple L-shapes
create a dynamic form, providing a visual and physical expanse
between inside and outside.

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 Schindler Chace House

A Viennese by birth, Rudolph M. Schindler traveled to the United for two young couples.” Writing to his in-laws, the Giblings, he
States in 1914 and found employment in Chicago as a young notes that “the utility room therefore must be in the center of the
architect. However, grander ambitions were in his sights as he structure” in order for all the inhabitants to access the kitchen,
wrote to Frank Lloyd Wright, only eight months after his arrival storage, and laundry facilities—a communal and democratic use
from Austria, in the hopes of securing a position at his firm. of space. The floor plan is completely unorthodox; gone are the
Schindler deeply admired the American architect’s work, as noted confined, dimly lit rooms that would have been prevalent in its
in his own words about Wright: “his art is spatial art in the true time. Typical rooms—such as a dining room or living room—were
sense of the word . . . The room is not a box—the walls have dispensed; instead, each person had an ample-sized studio with
disappeared and free nature flows through his houses as in a direct access to an expansive, outdoor space and a fireplace. The
forest.”1 studios afford ultimate flexibility, with the furniture arranged to
suit the occupant’s hourly or daily needs. Rather than allotting
His aspiration was realized as he initially worked in Wright’s bedrooms, the roof provides space for “sleeping baskets”
home and studio, Taliesin, in Wisconsin. When the firm received or frames of wood, supporting a platform for a bed. In his
the commission of the Hollyhock House for Aline Barnsdall, he correspondence to the Giblings and in a brief written description
was sent to Los Angeles to oversee its construction. Schindler of the house for a publication, Schindler refers to the experience
consummately embraced life in California and stayed, deeply of this dwelling as “a social ‘campfire’ affair” while fulfilling the
moved by the natural beauty of the environment while creating “basic requirements for a camper’s shelter.” The catalyst for
architecture that responded to the mild, temperate climate. this romantic view of rustic domestication likely comes from a
camping trip to Yosemite; he made a deep, emotional connection
Stepped back from the edge of Kings Road in West Hollywood to the place as he wrote about it was “one of the most marvelous
and integrated with the landscape stands a modest house of places in America.” Pauline would observe, in later years, that her
wood and concrete that Schindler designed in 1922 for his wife, husband’s residences “are intimately related to the earth. Meant
Pauline, and another couple, Clyde and Marian Chace. The for a life which flows naturally from the house out of doors but
architect would describe the home as a “cooperative dwelling which at the same time maintains an intense privacy.”2

Diagram 1. This view, looking east, shows the guest bedroom and garage on the left; to the right, the studios belonging to Pauline and
Rudolph Schindler surround an outdoor courtyard, seen as an extension of their rooms.

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 Rotating L-Shapes

The rotating, L-shaped arrangement suits three purposes. In his words, Schindler firmly believed that an architect “needs a
First, the entrances into each couple’s suite as well as a shared unit dimension which is large enough to give his building scale,
bathroom are located where the two arms meet. This supports rhythm and cohesion.” The preoccupation with this unit, integral
the notion that the couples are together but separate—a radical to a proportional system, based on “a simple relation to human
departure from the way households were perceived at the stature” had to be flexible and “small enough to fill all needs for
time. Secondly, few doors separate the studios; the 90-degree detail sizes by sub-dividing into simple fractions . . . 1/2, 1/3, 1/4
placement of them provides adequate privacy. Lastly, the two at the most.” Pragmatically, the length of the unit had to align
studios embrace an ample exterior garden space that serves to with industry-established standards for dimensioned construction
spatially extend each room. Moveable screens and glass create elements, such as “lumber lengths, door and ceiling heights.”
ambiguity between inside and outside, allowing the inhabitants He confidently states that “the four-foot unit will satisfactorily
to fully soak in the mild California weather as a natural part of fulfill all specifications”; consistently, throughout Schindler’s
daily living. Conceiving the landscape as an extension of the architecture, the employment of this unit is evident, and the house
architecture—while seemingly obvious—was not a common at King’s Road is no exception. He adheres to this “four-foot unit,”
approach. Schindler took great pains to design the site with establishing an underlying order with rigor: the concrete panels
the same rigor and attention to detail as the house; he writes, that were poured in place and tilted up are four feet wide; the
“The shape of the rooms, their relation to the patios and the wooden vertical members as well as the roof joists are spaced
alternating roof levels, create an entirely new spatial interlocking every two feet; the lattice-like articulation of windows is further
between the interior and the garden.”3 reduced with vertical strips of wood, placed every twelve inches.
Yet, visually and spatially, there is a great deal of variety, which
speaks to Schindler’s adroitness and confidence as an architect
who believes, as he wrote, that “proportion is an alive and
expressive tool in the hands of the modern architect who uses its
variations freely to give each building its own individual feeling.”4

Diagram 3. It is common
today to incorporate
the landscape with the
architecture; however,
when Schindler
designed his home, this
comprehensive approach
was unconventional. As
seen in this diagram,
the linear hedges and
rectangular areas of lawn
provide privacy while
extending the vocabulary
and proportions of the
house, establishing
Diagram 2. Schindler positioned the structure to take advantage connections with the
of the outdoor areas directly to the east and west of the house, outdoor spaces and
as also shown in Diagram 3. the interiors.

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 Schindler Chace House

B
F

D E

Diagram 4. With so much variety of spaces and A. Clyde Chace Studio

the interplay of concrete and wood-framed walls, B. Marian Chace Studio
the complexity of the floor plan corresponds to the C. Utility / Kitchen
experiential diversity of the spaces. Schindler shunned D. Garage
the accepted use of nomenclature as he identified the E. Guest Bedroom
largest spaces as studios rather than bedrooms; they F. Pauline Schindler Studio
were ample enough to support many activities. G. Rudolph Schindler Studio

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 Rotating L-Shapes

Diagram 5. The arms

of house—shaped as
“L”s—appear to rotate
out from the center or
core (the utility room),
in pink.

Diagram 6. The line

designates where the
house “split” between
the Chaces and the
Schindlers. Although the
utility room (in pink) was
on the Chaces’ side,
Schindler’s intention
was for all residents to
use it.
5 6
Diagram 7. Shown in
pink, the utility area
and fireplaces in Pauline
and Marion’s studios
(light gray) were used
for meal preparations.
Schindler centrally
located the utility area
as a democratic gesture,
allowing everyone to
access this space. White
represents zones each
couple shared, and the
dark gray boxes are
the studios of Clyde
and Rudolph.

Diagram 8. Each person

had their own studio,
shown in gray: Clyde
(upper left), Marion
(middle left), Pauline
(middle, right), and
Rudolph (lower right).
The areas in white are
7 areas that were shared 8
and not designated for
a specific individual.

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 Schindler Chace House

Diagram 9. In this
diagram, the dark
gray areas represent
the studios with the
medium gray spaces
showing the generous
outdoor spaces
each couple shared.
Communal or non-
designated spaces are
in white.

Diagram 10. Each

couple shared two
spaces: an entry (that
included a bathroom),
shown in gray, and
9 10
outdoor space
(bordered by the
studios and dashed
lines). A garage (lower
left) and the kitchen/
utility room were also
used by all members of
the household.

12

11 Diagram 11. The outdoor spaces were differentiated by Schindler as “patio”

(shown in light gray), “garden” (in medium gray) and “sunken” (shaded the
darkest gray).

Diagram 12. Schindler designated roof-top spaces (in pink) for sleeping during
the warmest nights for each couple. Studios and shared spaces are shown in
medium gray.

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 2 MANIPULATING VOLUMES
Masters’ Houses
Playfulness and manipulation of volumes provide expressions
of novelty by using forms that are modular and mass produced.

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 Masters’ Houses

Due to political forces that were unsympathetic

to the ethos and philosophy of the school in
the city of Weimar, Germany, the Bauhaus
shut its doors there in 1925. The search for
a new location ended when the progressive
mayor of Dessau, Fritz Hesse, welcomed the
institution with a generous agreement to fund
the construction of a large building for classes
and housing for faculty. It was a serendipitous
turn of events for Walter Gropius, the founder
and director of the Bauhaus. At its previous
location, housing for students and faculty did
not exist; this tabula rasa enabled the architect
to promulgate the doctrines and spirit of the
Bauhaus in the Meisterhauser, or the Masters’
Houses, which were completed in July of 1926.

In total, Gropius designed four houses for

seven faculty members on a quiet, residential
street, located conveniently within a very short
Diagram 1. Asymmetric and box-like volumes of the Masters’ Houses,
walking distance from the main campus of
as viewed looking southeast, defied the conventional ideals of a typical
studios, workshops, and students’ dorms. The
dwelling when they were built in 1926. Even today, their appearance
house that he shared with his wife, Ise, was
sharply contrasts with the traditional houses on the quiet, tree-lined
the only detached residence; the other three residential street of Ebertallee.
structures were semi-detached, each housing
two instructors and their families: Laszlo
Moholy-Nagy and Lyonel Feininger, Georg
Muche and Oskar Schlemmer, and Wassily
Kandinsky and Paul Klee.

The philosophy of the Bauhaus and the severe

housing shortage in Germany after World War I
were the actuators for Gropius’ approach to
the design of the residences. He envisions a
utopian way of life, writing: “The overarching
principle of the Bauhaus is the bringing
together of many arts to form a new unity . . .
that . . . requires life itself to attain purpose and
meaning.” Acutely aware of the dire need for
housing, he addresses this concern by penning
the essay, “How Do We Build Decent, Beautiful,
and Inexpensive Housing?” In it, he defines the
paramount role of the architect as the visionary,
the one who literally gives form to his query,
“How do we want to live?” This new, modern Diagram 2. Only a short walk to the Bauhaus, the homes were conveniently
way of life would be hygienic, efficient, and located for the instructors and their families. Each structure accommodated
facilitated by machines to ease the burdens of two instructors and their families (shown in black); Gropius designed a fully
mundane tasks.1 detached house for himself and his wife, located on the left.

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 Manipulating Volumes

Diagram 3. On the second

floor plan, the ample studio
A space demonstrates the
A importance of pursuing artistic
and design endeavors on a
daily basis for the inhabitants.

A. Bedroom
B. Studio

A
B B
A

A A

Diagram 4. The ground floor

plan depicts a semi-detached
D house that was adjoined at
C the living room.

C. Dining
D. Kitchen
E. Storage
F. Living
F F
E

D E

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 Masters’ Houses

Assembly of mass-produced “large-scale modular building

blocks,” as Gropius describes them, where each box
accommodates a particular function—such as bathing—gives
a
shape to the structure or, in his words, “give[s] the whole design
of the house its form.” Rather than perceiving the homogeneity
of machine-made goods pejoratively, the architect believes there
is inherent worth in these products. He writes: “The particular
nature of the machine is such that it develops its own novel
‘authenticity’ and ‘beauty.’” Gropius rationalizes that modularity
and uniformity can be embraced, noting, “One need not fear that
such standardization will violate the individual” as this approach
“provides a sense of order and calm.” From this perspective, b
the Masters’ Houses follow the logic of this additive architecture
of “building blocks” or orthogonal rooms that cluster together
near the hierarchical spaces of the large living rooms and the
lofty studios.2

Despite his enthusiasm for simple, machine-made building

components, Gropius recognizes the potential for architecture,
devoid of novelty, to produce soulless and monotonous c
structures. In the architect’s capable hands, thoughtful
composition of the parts or manipulation of the volumes allows
for self-expression. He argues, “Complete standardization . . . is
not to be recommended, since the violation of all individuality
is always shortsighted and wrong.”3

Variation is achieved in several ways with the Masters’ Houses.

First, Groupius mirrors the plan twice, along its x and y axes,
creating two areas that are then matched and pushed together d
like puzzle pieces. Then, he volumetrically emphasizes specific
rooms—the living area and studio—and differentiates the heights
of the flat roofs, so that from the exterior, the semi-detached
house is an artful collection of proportionally composed
cubes. There is no semblance of modularity or symmetry.
Lastly, balconies and projections further reduce the monolithic
cubes and provide additional articulation of the house, affording
a surprising degree of visual complexity while reducing glare. e

Color, used sparingly on the exterior, is applied more liberally

inside, depending on the resident. In varying degrees, each
master experimented with color for the interior walls. Some,
such as Feininger, took great care and delight with the palette
he selected; he wrote that “[t]he stairwell is my pride and
joy, so cheerful with red banisters.” Restoration of the Klee-
Kandinsky House during 2017 to 2018 would reveal extensive Diagram 5. Gropius’ scheme was to take a simple module (a)
experimentation with color. More than 170 different shades and and mirror it (b). To avoid symmetry, the mirrored portion was
hues were discovered, underscoring Gropius’ beliefs when he flipped along the axis as shown (c) and moved (d), fitting together
wrote: “Despite the standardized homogeneity of the parts, the in a similar way to a double-rabbet wood joint. Lastly, minor
individual still has ample room for personal variation.”4 modifications were made, elongating the form horizontally (e).

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