Theory of architecture 1 - reflection of the society at a particular

point in history that can be subject to

INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE
change with development of technology,
- a culmination of different ideas shaped by user
and transition of style to accommodate
experience.
varying cultural needs
“As shelter in the form of art, a blossoming in - involves the use of scientific

stone and a flowering of geometry” - Ralph Waldo methodologies in the creation of

buildings
Emerson
- Involves the study of different art and
“Frozen music” - Goethe scientific disciplines to research and come
up with innovative solutions for varying
“Human triumph over gravitation and the will to design problems
power.” - Nietzs che o physics
o mathematics
“The will of an epoch translated into space.” -
o psychology
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
o history

“The magnificent play of forms in light.” -Le o economics

Corbusier ARCHITECTS

“A cultural instrument.” -Louis I. Kahn - practice the profession of building design

- the only ones qualified to engage in
“Inhabited sculpture.” - Constantin Brancusi artistic articulation of spaces
“Balance of structural science and aesthetic - have knowledge on all aspects of building
expression for the satisfaction of needs that go design
far beyond the utilitarian.” - Ada Louise Huxtable o site planning
o structural conceptualization
DEFINING ARCHITECTURE o building utilities
o building materials
- as “the art and science of designing and
o code requirements
constructing buildings”
o standard practices
- an art form as this is a physical
o historical context
translation of expressions in time and
o environmental design
space
considerations
 - active in supervising and making sure that ➢ SECTION 3. Definition of Terms.
buildings are built according to the plan
As used in this “IRR of the Architecture Act
and specifications
of 2004”, in R.A. No. 9266 or other laws, the
ETYMOLOGY following terms shall be defined as follows:
The word architect comes from the Greek words 01 ARCHITECTURE
- “arkhi” - master or chief - the art, science or profession of planning,
- “tekton” - builder, carpenter. designing and constructing buildings in
their totality taking into account their
Architects are referred as master builders as they
environment, in accordance with the
have knowledge in all aspect of the building design
principles of utility, strength and beauty
and construction.
02 ARCHITECT
ROLE OF AN ARCHITECT
- a person professionally and academically
- In the past, the architect’s job included
qualified, registered and licensed under
surveying, military and civil engineering as
R.A. No. 9266 with a Certificate of
mentioned in Viruvius’ de Architectura.
Registration and Professional
- During the Renaissance period, architects
Identification Card issued by the
were engaged in civil engineering as well.
Professional Regulatory Board of
- By the 17th century, cost estimates and
Architecture and the Professional
the promotion of speculative
Regulation Commission
development were included to the works
- responsible for advocating the fair and
of an architect
sustainable development, welfare and
- were supervisors in charge of
cultural expression of society’s habitat
construction
in terms of space, forms and historical
ARCHITECTURE ACT of 2004 context
o ARCHITECT-OF-RECORD
- signed into law by former President
▪ the architect registered
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on March 17, 2004
and licensed under R.A.
- an ‘act providing for a more responsive
No. 9266
and comprehensive regulation for the
▪ directly and
registration, licensing and practice of
professionally
architecture in the Philippines’.
responsible for the
 total design of the 03 GENERAL PRACTICE OF ARCHITETCURE
project for the client
- the act of planning and architectural
▪ shall assume the civil
designing, structural conceptualization,
liability for the plans,
specifying, supervising and giving general
specifications and
administration and responsible direction
contract documents
to the erection, enlargement or
he/she has signed and
alterations of buildings and building
sealed
environments and architectural design in
o ARCHITECT-IN-CHARGE OF
engineering structures or any part
CONSTRUCTION
thereof
▪ an architect registered
- the scientific, aesthetic and orderly
and licensed under R.A.
coordination of all the processes which
No. 9266
enter into the production of a complete
▪ directly and
building or structure performed through
professionally
the medium of unbiased preliminary
responsible and liable
studies of plans, consultations,
for the construction
specifications, conferences, evaluations,
supervision of the
investigations, contract documents and
project
oral advice and directions regardless of
o CONSULTING ARCHITECT
whether the persons engaged in such
▪ the architect registered
practice are residents of the Philippines
and licensed or
or have their principal office or place of
permitted to practice
business in this country or another
under R.A. No. 9266,
territory, and regardless of whether such
who is professionally
persons are performing one or all these
and academically
duties, or whether such duties are
qualified
performed in person or as the directing
▪ with exceptional or
head of an office or organization
recognized expertise or
performing them
specialization in any
branch of architecture 04 SCOPE OF THE PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE

- encompasses the provision of

professional services in connection with
 site, physical and planning and the design, o construction and project
construction, enlargement, conservation, management, giving general
renovation, remodeling, restoration or management, administration,
alteration of a building or group of supervision, coordination and
buildings. responsible direction or the
- Services may include, but are not limited planning, architectural designing,
to: construction, reconstruction,
o planning, architectural designing erection, enlargement or
and structural conceptualization demolition, renovation, repair,
o consultation, consultancy, giving orderly removal, remodeling,
oral or written advice and alteration, preservation or
directions, conferences, restoration of buildings or
evaluations, investigations, structures or complex buildings,
quality surveys, appraisals and including all their components,
adjustments, architectural and sites and environs, intended for
operational planning, site analysis private or public use
and other pre-design services o the planning, architectural lay-
o schematic design, design outing and utilization of spaces
development, contract within and surrounding such
documents and construction buildings or structures, housing
phases including professional design and community
consultancies architecture, architectural
o preparation of preliminary, interiors and space planning,
technical, economic and financial architectural detailing,
feasibility studies of plans, architectural lighting, acoustics,
models and project promotional architectural lay-outing of
services mechanical, electrical, electronic,
o preparation of architectural sanitary, plumbing,
plans, specifications, bill of communications and other
materials, cost estimates, utility systems, equipment and
general conditions and bidding fixtures
documents o building programming, building
administration, construction
 arbitration and architectural - This concept was reiterated in the
conservation and restoration Vitruvian Tripartite Model of the
o all works which relate to the Environment wherein architecture is
scientific, aesthetic and orderly illustrated in between climate and
coordination of all works and comfort
branches of the work, systems o architecture serves as a
and processes necessary for the mediator between harsh climatic
production of a complete conditions and the comfort felt
building or structure, whether by occupants
for public or private use, in
order to enhance or safeguard
life, health and property and the
promotion and enrichment of
the quality of life, the
architectural design of
engineering structures or any
part thereof - Architecture that is designed according
o all other works, projects and to the context of site conditions can
activities which require the easily provide the needed thermal
professional competence of an comfort thru the use of passive design
architect, including teaching of technologies that minimizes energy
architectural subjects and consumption while minimizing
architectural computer-aided environmental impact.
design - Below are some structural systems
adopted due to limitations in site climatic
beginnings of
conditions as well as building material
architecture available:
ARCHITECTURE USED AS A TOOL o SNOW DOME, ICE, AND FUR

- used as a tool to provide the most basic

need of human beings which is shelter
o provides protection and control
over the indoor climate to bring ▪ CLIMATE: Arctic and
thermal comfort to its users subarctic
 ▪ THERMAL ▪ THERMAL
CHARACTERISTICS: CHARACTERISTICS:
winter, intense summer, moderate
continuous cold, little temperatures, intense
solar light or heat, high solar radiation
winds ▪ REQUIRED
▪ REQUIRED ARCHITECTURAL
ARCHITECTURAL RESPONSE: high heat
RESPONSE: low heat capacity walls
capacity walls, ▪ RAW MATERIALS
minimum surface, AVAIABLE: turf, earth,
maximum stability driftwood
▪ RAW MATERIALS ▪ TYPE OF TENANCY:
AVAIABLE: snow seasonal (hunting-
▪ TYPE OF TENANCY: fishing)
seasonal (hunting) o PROTABLE TENSION STRUCTURE
o SOD ROOFED DUGOUT HIDE AND FELT MEMBRANE ON
FRAME

▪ CLIMATE: Arctic and

subarctic ▪ CLIMATE: Continental
steppe
 ▪ THERMAL ▪ THERMAL
CHARACTERISTICS: CHARACTERISTICS:
winter, intense summer, long warm
continuous cold, days, cold nights
negligible solar heat, ▪ REQUIRED
high winds ARCHITECTURAL
▪ REQUIRED RESPONSE: shade,
ARCHITECTURAL ventilation, low heat
RESPONSE: low heat capacity walls and roof
capacity walls and roof, ▪ RAW MATERIALS
minimum exposed AVAIABLE: animal skin,
surface, maximum hair, saplings
stability ▪ TYPE OF TENANCY:
▪ RAW MATERIALS nomadic (herding)
AVAIABLE: animal skin, o SOLID LOADBERING MUD,
hair, saplings MASONRY WALLS ROOFS, MUD
▪ TYPE OF TENANCY: CEMENT ON WATLE POLE OR PALM
nomadic (herding) TRUNK RAFTERS
o ROLL UP WALL PANELS

▪ CLIMATE ▪ CLIMATE: desert

▪ Continental steppe
 ▪ CLIMATE: tropical
rainforest

▪ THERMAL
CHARACTERISTICS: little
seasonal variation, hot
days, cold nights, ▪ THERMAL
intense solar light and CHARACTERISTICS: no
heat, very low seasonal variation, hot
humidity, little rain days, warm nights,
▪ REQUIRED intense solar radiation,
ARCHITECTURAL high humidity, heavy
RESPONSE: high heat rainfall
capacity roof and walls, ▪ REQUIRED
shade, minimum ARCHITECTURAL
ventilation, non- RESPONSE: low heat
waterproof capacity walls and roof,
▪ RAW MATERIALS maximum shade,
AVAIABLE: mud, stone, maximum ventilation
reeds, palms, saplings ▪ RAW MATERIALS
▪ TYPE OF TENANCY: AVAIABLE: vine, reeds,
permanent (agriculture) bamboo, palm, fronds,
o SKELETAL FRAMES, THATCHED poles
ROOFS, WALLS SLOPING PARASOIL ▪ TYPE OF TENANCY:
ROOF, STILTED FLOORS permanent (agriculture,
fishing)

ARCHITECTURE AS A SYMBOLIC EXPRESSION

- provides a symbolic function common to

religious and public buildings
 - The intention of the design is to highlight 800 BCE
value systems symbolized according to
- Between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE,
the building type
the Assyrians and Babylonians established
o public building may use classical
themselves as the controlling powers of
styles commonly found in Greek
western Asia
architecture to symbolize
strength, freedom and stability 400 BCE

EARLY HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE - During this period, ethical and civic

notions of government and of personal
12000 BCE
conduct began to take root in many
- created societies of villages and hamlets parts of Eurasia
near caves or along shores and streams,
1 CE
allowing for a combination of farming
and hunting to which domestication of - Roman emperors from Augustus to
animals and plants followed Trajan changed the architectural face of
European and West Asian world, building
2500 BCE
impressive temples, forums, villas, and
- by the beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE, cities, all with the typical Roman imprint.
the various river-oriented civilizations
200 CE
were primed for rapid cultural
development - The Roman Empire grew into one of the
- The five principal cultural hubs: greatest and most extensive empires in
o China the world and yet was on the brink of
o Egypt disaster
o Mesopotamia 400 CE
o Margiana
o The Indus - The decline of Europe in cultural and
economic terms paralleled the shift of
1500 BCE the Roman power base to Byzantium and
- The Hittites and the Egyptians became the Western Asia
preeminent land powers in Western Asia - In Central Asia, the most impressive
- Egypt embarking on a remarkable period buildings at the time were made by the
of temple architecture Sassanians in Iraq and Iran
600 CE Basic elements of

- In Eurasia, there was consolidation in architecture

which the newly arising world religions

were changing and being tested
- New architectural forms were developed
o Brick dome
- Concrete have been forgotten

800 CE

- In 800 CE, China’s T’ang Dynasty (618-906

CE) was Eurasia’s economic engine
- The new Islamic kingdom’s architectural
expression was the mosque
o A simple hypostyle hall oriented
toward Mecca

1000 CE

- Th turn of the millennium saw extensive BUILDING SITE

temple building programs occurring
- CULTURE: People
throughout South and Southeast Asia
o the needs of your occupants as
1200 CE well as their value systems

- The history of religions is never static,

o VALUES
and this is especially true during this
▪ Attitude
period
▪ Priorities
▪ preferences
o TRADITIONS:
▪ Social group
▪ Religion
o INDIVIDUAL/POPULATION:
▪ User
▪ Client community
 ▪ Stakeholders FOUNDATION
- CONTEXT: Environment
- structural members of the building
o the total environmental setting
- located on the lowest part usually below
where architecture will be built
ground level
upon
- in charge of transferring the load of the
o SITE CONDITIONS:
building to the soil
▪ Geographic factors
▪ Climatic factors
▪ Sensory Factors
o HISTORY
▪ Flooding
▪ Earthquake
▪ Land dispute
o GENERAL CHARACTER
▪ Size
▪ Location
▪ Zoning
▪ Soil
▪ Topography STRUCTURES
▪ Sun - the complete structural system
▪ Wind - transfers the different loads of the
▪ Vegetation building through interconnected
▪ Views members to the soil underneath.
o EXISTING STRUCTURES
o ACCESSIBILITY
▪ Pedestrian
▪ Vehicular
o GOVERNING LAWS AND
STANDARDS
▪ Development controls
▪ Codes
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

- one of the utility networks of the

PLUMBING SYSTEM building composed of wiring, pipes,
fixtures and other equipments
- one of the utility networks of the
- concerned with the distribution of
building composed of pipes and fixtures
electrical power
- concerned with water distribution as well
as sewage disposal

MECHANICAL SYSTEM

- one of the utility networks of the

building composed of machineries and
other equipments
- concerned with the proper functioning
of machines inside the building
o elevators and escalators
 o heating and air-conditioning DOOR
systems
- “a hinged, sliding or folding barrier of
wood , metal or glass, for opening or
closing an entrance to a building, room
or cabinet.” (Ching, 2013)
- The door placement and swing direction
play a vital role in providing safe exit for
building occupants especially during
emergency.

FLOOR

- “a continuous supporting surface

extending horizontally throughout a
building, having a number of rooms and
constituting one level in the structure.”
(Ching, 2013)
- the bottom surface of a space
WINDOW

- “an opening in the wall of a building for

admitting light and air, usually fitted with
a frame in which are set operable sashes
WALL
containing panes”. (Ching, 2013)
- Windows vary from shapes, size, - “as any of various upright constructions
operation, material and function in terms presenting a continuous surface and
of percentage of ventilation serving to enclose, divide or protect an
area.” (Ching, 2013)
- can either be load bearing or non-load
bearing
o LOAD BEARING WALLS
▪ transfers load to
different components
of the structural
system
- Materials used for walls also vary whether
it will be used for indoor or outdoor
o Exterior walls are usually made
of masonry
▪ bricks,
▪ hollowblocks
 ▪ cementboards ▪ 1.20 sqm with a least
o Interior walls have an option to dimension of 0.90 m
resort to dry wall construction
CEILING

- “the overhead interior surface or lining

of a room often concealing the underside
of the floor or roof above.” (Ching, 2013)
- There are prescribed minimum ceiling
heights according to PD 1096 as stipulated
in Section 805: Ceiling Heights
o Habitable rooms provided with
artificial ventilation shall have
ceiling heights not less than 2.40
m measured from the floor to
the ceiling; provided that for
buildings of more than one (1)
storey
ROOM
▪ the minimum ceiling
- “a portion of space within a building, height of the first
separated by walls or partitions from storey shall be 2.70 m
other similar spaces.” (Ching, 2013) ▪ for the second storey
- The National Building Code of the 2.40 m
Philippines, PD 1096 prescribes minimum ▪ for the succeeding
sizes of rooms as stipulated in Section storeys shall have an
806: unobstructed typical
o ROOMS FOR HUMAN HABITATIONS head-room clearance
▪ 6.00 sqm with a least of not less than 2.10 m
dimension of 2.00 m above the finished floor
o KITCHEN o Above stated rooms with
▪ 3.00 sqm with a least natural ventilation shall have
dimension of 1.50 m ceiling heights of not less than
o BATH AND TOILET 2.70 m
 o Mezzanine floors shall have a
clear ceiling height not less than
1.80 m above and below it.

INTRODUCTION TO THEORY
ROOF
ARCHITECTURAL THEORY
- “the external upper covering of a
- composed of explanations about
building including the frame for
architectural works and styles with
supporting the roofing.” (Ching, 2013)
guidelines to help in architectural design
- part of the building envelope that
- offers a historical record of important
protects occupants from different type
findings in relation to architecture which
of precipitation whether like rain or snow
can help navigate the different aspects
o In tropical countries with hot
of the discipline.
and humid climate, it is best to
- There are two primary concerns for the
use pitched roof
study of architectural theory
▪ to allow water to drain
o SYSTEMIZATION AND
out fast from the roof
EXPLANATION:
to the building
▪ provides a way to
perimeter during heavy
systematize and explain
rainfall
the reasons behind
 architectural ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS
compositions
- The Architecture System is Architecture
▪ provides a broad range
of space, structure, and enclosure
of practical
experienced through movement in space
architectural knowledge
and time and achieved by means of
• the present
technology that accommodates a
knowledge on
program which is compatible to its
how to
context that relates to its physical,
identify and
perceptual and conceptual translation.
categorize
architecture
▪ how architecture
should be executed
▪ how to expound on
different aspects of
architectural practice
o PRESCRIPTION
▪ Prescriptive expressions
are also included in
architectural theory
• promotion of
new
methodology
and techniques
• how to
practice
architecture in
terms of
ethical
standards,
moral and
social
- Ching (2007) discusses that architecture
obligations
represents a “harmonious integration of
 interacting and interrelated parts into delight with due regard
acomplex and unified whole that consists to correct principles of
of spatial systems, structural systems, proportion and
enclosure systems, circulation system symmetry
taking into consideration the context” - According to Roth (2018), the following
questions below can serve as a guide or
VITRUVIUS PRINCIPLE OF
used as the ultimate tests of
ARCHITECTURE
architecture:
- The Roman architect and engineer, Marcus o “First, does a building work by
Vitruvius Pollio otherwise known as supporting and reinforcing its
Vitruvius wrote the 10 books of functional use; does it enhance
Architecture, de Architectura its setting?”
- asserted that architecture must provide o “Second, is it built well enough
o UTILITY (UTILITAS) to stand up; will its materials
o FIRMNESS (FIRMITAS)
weather well?”
o BEAUTY (VENUSTAS)
o “Third, does the building appeal
- The definition of architecture is anchored
to the visual senses; does it
from these three principles.
- Roth (2018) discusses that: provide a full measure of
o UTILITY satisfaction and enjoyment—
▪ the functional does it provide delight?”
organization of spaces - Roth (2018) points out that there are
and the harmonious other fundamental elements not directly
placement of the discussed by Vitruvius.These are the
building on site. people directly involved in the project
o FIRMITAS o THE CLIENTS
▪ the sound building ▪ the one who
systems and materials commissions for the
used project, the source of
o VENUSTAS funding and final
▪ appearance of the decision maker for all
building which provide aspects of the project
visual pleasure and
 o THE ARCHITECTS/DESIGNERS activity for a particular
▪ the one who translates space
the client’s wish list • bedroom =
into physical form sleeping,
through drawings and kitchen =
illustrations with due cooking
regard to culture and o CIRCULATORY FUNCTION
context ▪ the allocation of spaces
o THE BUILDERS. that allow the
▪ carry out the movement from one
construction of the area to another
design based on the • Paris Opera
plan of the architect o SYMBOLIC FUNCTION
▪ visible features that
BUILDING FUNCTION: UTILITAS
indicate the building
- International Modern Architecture in usage
1929, Architect Bruno Taut pointed out ▪ there are usually
the main purpose of architecture was symbols and signs that
efficiency allow correspondence
o “the aim of architecture is the to what the building’s
creation of the perfect, and function is
therefore most beautiful, ▪ general guidelines were
efficiency.” used regarding the
- According to Roth (2018), this translates appearance of buildings
that “beauty would result automatically until the 1920’s
from the expression of the leanest and ▪ By the 1920’s,
strictest utility.” architects utilized new
- Components of Functionality include: building technologies to
o UTILITARIAN OR PRAGMATIC invent original forms
FUNCTION and provide appropriate
▪ the accommodation of symbolic
an assigned task or representation of its
function
 o PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTION ▪ “bones of the building”
▪ how architecture can ▪ provides the needed
improve the quality of support that makes the
user experience by building ‘stand up’.
reinforcing the positive • The New York
psyche and alleviating Racquet and
negative emotions and Tennis Club
thinking o PERCEPTUAL STRUCTURE
▪ easily observed in areas o the visible structure seen that
where most people feel may suggest structural qualities
great distress and such as massiveness and stability
anxiety among others
• hospital o gives a preconditioned
emergency assumption about the building
rooms that reflects the history and
▪ Providing view of culture of people at a particular
outdoor green point in time
landscape may help ▪ The Lever House
reduce stress and o SOIL BEARING CAPACITY
anxiety. ▪ Building loads are
STRUCTURE: FIRMITAS transferred ultimately
to the soil.
- “making sure that objects will not fall to
▪ Soil type and soil
the earth, despite the incessant pull of bearing capacity plays
gravity”. (Roth, 2018) an important role in
- Structural conceptualization is part of the type of structural
the design services assigned to the system to be used for
architect buildings
o PHYSICAL STRUCTURE • Leaning Tower
▪ the main structural of Pisa
members that carry
the structural load of a
building
Below are discussions of other structural systems o the force from their own
used in the past up to present time. weight
o additional loads
01 POST AND LINTEL SYSTEM (COLUMN AND BEAM)
- The upper surface of the beam is under
- allowed for walls to be opened up for compression as it is squeezed together
openings and windows while the lower part of the beam is in
- LINTEL - the beam inserted in a wall to tension as it is stretched.
support the wall above such opening - Concrete material is strong in
- The lintels will rest upon POSTS OR compression and weak in tension
COLUMNS for support. o additional reinforcement bars
- The post and lintel system is also called are placed on the lower surface
Trabeated System from the latin word of beams to increase tensile
‘trab’ which means ‘beam’ strength of concrete
- The Valley Temple East Pyramid of Khafre, structures.
in Giza, Egypt seen is a good example

- Cantilevers are beams extended over the

- Simple supported beams deflect in the
end of the column
middle of its span due to:
 - the upper surface of cantilever beam is
stretched and in tension while the lower
surface is squeezed together
- reinforcement bars are located on the
upper part to increase tensile strength

02 CLASSICAL ORDERS

GREEK CLASSICAL ORDERS

o the most massive of the Greek

orders
o Height: four (4) to six and half
(6 ½) as tall as the column’s

- There are three basic parts for the Greek diameter

order which are: o Entablatures: one-fourth (1/4)
o Base the height
o Shaft o Shaft: composed of twenty (20)
o Capital broad scalloped indention or
- STYLOBATE – a three stepped temple base flutes
▪ sharp outer edges
composed of the top step where
▪ rises directly from the
columns rise up
stylobate
- STEREOBATE – two stepped
▪ no base
- Measurements of different components
of the Greek order are mostly derived
from the columns diameter.
- DORIC
 o Capital: frieze depicting a
▪ ECHNUS - banded necking narrative
with an outward o Shaft: composed of twenty-
swelling four (24) flutes
▪ FINAL SQUARE SLAB - an ▪ flattened edges.
abacus ▪ rises directly from the
- IONIC stylobate
▪ ornamental base
▪ Capital:
• curled volutes
with an egg
and dart
molding
• swelling
pulvinus
connecting
the volutes
- CORINTHIAN
o slightly slender
o has the tallest capital among the
three Greek orders
o Height: ten (10) times as tall as
the column’s diameter
o Entablature: similar to that of
o slenderer than the Doric order
Ionic
o Height: nine (9) times as tall as
o Shaft: twenty-four (24) flutes
the column’s diameter
▪ rise from the base
o Entablature
o Capital:
▪ one-fifth (1/5) the
▪ two to three
height of the column
concentric layers of
▪ made up of an
lush and outward
architrave with two (2)
looking acanthus leaves
or three (3) vertical flat
surfaces with a middle
 o has a smooth shaft with no
flutes

PILASTERS AND ENGAGED COLUMNS

- ENGAGED COLUMNS
o columns that merge with the
ROMAN CLASSICAL ORDERS wall which makes it seem that it
- COMPOSITE came out from the wall
o a combination of the Ionic and - PILASTERS
Corinthian o pier-like projections that are flat
o Volutes found on Ionic capitals 03 RCH
are placed atop the curled
acanthus leaves found in the
Corinthian order
- TUSCAN DORIC
o the Roman counterpart of the
Greek Doric
o adopted from the Greek Doric
with a few modifications - another alternative aside from the post

o slenderer than the Greek Doric and lintel system for spanning an opening

o has a base
- ADVANTAGES: ▪ buttressing may be
o no longer necessary to find and necessary
use a large stone lintel free o were excellent for aqueducts
from cracks or flaws ▪ Pont du Gard, a
▪ the masonry arch is combination of a bridge
made of small wedge- and an aqueduct built in
shaped voussoirs the south of France in
o the arch can span much greater the late first century.
distance compared to linted Total length of the
- DISADVANTAGES bridge is 274.3 m and
o during construction, a wooden the arch spans a
framework of support called distance of 19.5 m
centering must be used for the
04 VAULT
voussoirs until the keystone, the
uppermost voussoirs is inserted - Ching (2012) defines a vault as, “an arched
to keep the arch in place structure of stone, brick or reinforced
concrete, forming a ceiling or roof over
a hall, room or other wholly or partially
enclosed space.”

- ARCADE
o formed by placing arches from
end to end
o the lateral force on one arch is
counteracted by a lateral force
on the adjacent arch thereby - BARREL VAULT
making the resultant force o an extruded arch becomes a
towards the column purely tunnel or barrel vault that
vertical except on the very ends forms a ceiling over a space
of the arcade
 o The heavy weight of the barrel o represent the over-arching
vault causes the walls at the top heaven
to spread - POZZUOLANA - A volcanic ash used as the
o buttress and thick walls can help binding agent for Roman concrete
resist lateral forces in these - generated when an arch is rotated about
areas its center thus a semicircular arch
- GROIN VAULT creates a hemispherical dome
o combined two-barrel vaults that
are right angle to each other

o The forces are directed along

the groin of the vault and
become concentrated at the
foot of the vault - PANTHEON
- The transition from barrel vault to groin o One of the most impressive
vault also allowed for more lighted domes in the world
interiors as seen in the Basilica of o spans to about 43.40 m with a
Maxentius, Rome, Italy single opening called the OCULUS
05 DOMES at the top which spans to 9.10
m across
- Romans makes use of domes for
o deep recesses and coffers help
structural reasons as well as for symbolic
to reduce its weight
reasons
 o The thickness of the dome 06 TRUSSES, SPACE FRAMES AND GEODESIC DOME
increases from 1.20 m at the top
- TRUSS
to 6.40 m down to its base
o composed of straight timber or
- Byzantine architects used pendentives to
steel members that are used to
create a dome over a square plan which
form triangular shapes or cells
has not been done before since domes
o has been used for roof
typically have circular plans
construction in Roman buildings
o has been prevalent in the Middle
Ages
o Trusses made of steel was
capable of spanning long
distances

- HAGIA SOPHIA
o An excellent example of this is
the Hagia Sophia in Turkey
 - When trusses are extended in three
dimensions, it forms a space frame
- when a truss is curved in three
dimensions then it transforms into a
geodesic dome
- become prevalent only from 1945 and 1967
respectively
07 SHELLS
- constructed using concrete and have
varying thicknesses
o may be constructed thinner by
combining both the geometric
shape of shells and utilizing less
material like concrete on steel
wire mesh.

- These trusses were named after the

engineers who patented them or first
- Felix Candela’s restaurant in Mexico was
used them
built in 1958
- utilized the building shell in the design
 - used concrete on steel wire mesh to o PROXIMITY
reduce the thickness of the shell to only ▪ Points in space no
four inches matter the distance are
- may also be folded deduced to be located
- can be transformed into an accordion on only a single plane
fold shell ▪ When objects are close
to one another, they
DELIGHT: VENUSTAS
are seen to form a
- architecture that brings delight pattern
- considered the most complicated o REPETITION
principle as matters of beauty are partly ▪ If there is slight
subjective in nature that differs from difference in spacing or
culture to culture distance among points
- According to Roth (2018), beauty or or object, it will be seen
delight is the “most complex and diverse as equidistant or have
of all the components of architecture, equalities in spacing
for it involves how architecture engages ▪ Parallel lines are also
all our senses, how it shapes our seen as equal in length
perception and enjoyment of (or if there is only a minor
discomfort with) our built environment.” difference
- By 1965, architects, critics and historians o SIMPLEST AND LARGEST FIGURE/
have come together to argue that there CONTINUITY AND CLOSURE
can be an objective or “independent ▪ The mind works by
qualities of delight in architecture” to filling in missing pieces
which most esteemed architectures that form the simplest
around the world adhere to, that also and largest meaningful
satisfy principles of functionality and figure it can recognize
firmness ▪ related to continuity
- anchored to vision and perception of an and closure wherein the
architectural experience mind tries to form the
- The human mind works by organizing most familiar figure in
visual information according to built-in providing closure of
preferences figures.
 o FIGURE TO GROUND RELATIONSHIP - According to Vitruvius, the human
▪ The mind tries to body’s extremities lie on both a square
interpret a shape and a circle when the navel is taken as
against a background the center
similar to the figure - Many medieval churches arrange their
below plans based on proportional systems
- Greek temples follow proportional
systems of x to (2x +1)
o It can be observed that Greek
temples have typically six
columns (x=6) across the ends
and thirteen along the sides.
(2x+1=2*6+1=13)
- The most celebrated proportional system
PROPORTION: VENUSTAS
used in classical architecture is the Golden
- The mind tries to look for proportions of Mean
forms thru mathematical and
01 GOLDEN MEAN OR GOLDEN SECTION
geometrical relationships
o deemed to be the abstract law - used to describe the perfect relationship
that governs nature of two unequal parts as observed among
o the ancients believed that the Greek Architecture and other classical
form of the human body is architecture
based on heavenly figure - it can be expressed as:

o where a is the smaller unit and b

is the larger unit.
- can be rewritten as an equation of
b2=a2+ ab
o wherein the relationship of 1 and
1.618 is same to 0.618 and 1.
- The proportion of the Golden Section was square is marked at one end of the
demonstrated by the Greeks by drafting rectangle
or by the use of ropes and pegs on the
field following the instructions below:

- The connected corners of the nestled

rectangles will result to a logarithmic
spiral or volutes used in the Ionic order

02 FIBONACCI SERIES

- by Leonardo Fibonacci
o Designate Line A-B
- a proportional system that uses
o Bisect Line A-B
numerical series
o Swing a line at half of Line A-B
- starts with the number one (1), adding it
upto the perpendicular to form
to itself and then a series is generated by
triangle A-B-C
adding the last number to the number
o Using C as the center, locate B’
preceding it
by swinging up Line B-C to strike o 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89 and so
a point B’ along Line A-C forth
o Using A as the center, locate D - As the number got higher, the closer the
by swinging down Line A-B’ to last two values (55 and 89) got close to
strike a point D along the original the value of the Golden Section
Line A-B
03 MODULOR
o In conclusion, the length of D-B
is to A-D as A-D is to A-B - Based on the Fibonacci Series, Architect
- A logarithmic spiral can be derived using Le Corbusier devised the Modulor
the Golden Section rectangle wherein a
 - was well known for being used as a basis ▪ Identical offices found
for the design of the Unite d’ Habitation on both sides were
in Marsailles, France translated externally by
repetitive rhythm that
SCALE: VENUSTAS
changed at the center
- usually determines how big a building is in to asymmetrical
reference to the human size patterns
- in some instances, architectural elements ▪ This corresponds to a
are made larger than they seem to be different internal
that somehow distorts the sense of scale functional use.
o East exterior wall of Basilica of
TEXTURE: VENUSTAS
Saint Peter in Rome
▪ Building elements like - Using texture is another way to provide
the windows and variety in architecture
pilasters are two to o Visual pattern by looking at an
three times larger than architecture at a large scale to
the typical size see the contrast and variations
o Tactile pattern by looking close
RHYTHM: VENUSTAS
into the architectural surface
- used in architecture to provide “ordered for texture which can be felt
variety” - Secretariat Building at Chandigarh
o an interchange between incident o the regular forms of the side
and interval offices and the irregularly
o an alteration between voids and shaped center
solids - Unite d’Habitation apartment block in
- observed thru visual scanning of surfaces Marseilles
for patterns created which could be o Used tactile surface
translated into spacing/design of o was achieved when concrete
architectural elements was poured on specially made
o Secretariat Building, India rough lumbers
designed by architect Le o Checkerboard pattern, in
Corbusier particular can be seen on its
concrete surfaces
LIGHT: VENUSTAS o COOL COLORS
▪ sensed to be farther
- illuminates and uncovers all details of
away than it is in reality
the structure
▪ green or blue
- sets the mood and psychological
▪ muscular relaxation
response to spaces
▪ slight lowering of body
- utilized to create a “sense of mystery
temperature
and awe”
▪ the heart beat slows
o commonly used in the design of
down
religious buildings
▪ preferable for small
- The Church of Light
spaces to make it seem
o one of the most celebrated
larger
works of architect Tadao Ando
o features a cruciform found
behind the altar that is cut into UGLINESS: VENUSTAS
the concrete wall bringing in
- helps architects to question and
light
revalidate the norms and accepted
COLOR: VENUSTAS conventions in the practice of the
- elicits different moods and physiological profession.
responses. - According to Roth (2018), ugliness is a
o RED quality that is
▪ increases tension in the o “Confusing because it is
muscles ambiguous or displays an
▪ increases heartbeat absence of a perceivable pattern
▪ makes you feel hungry of relationships”
▪ creates sensation of o “Monstrous because it does not
strong consumer desire conform to accepted norms, or
o WARM COLORS as artistic willfulness and
▪ orange and brown capriciousness”
▪ have similar effect as - often observed that most periods
well. criticize unfairly the architecture
▪ interpreted by the mind immediately preceding it
to be closer to the eye
 o “Each generation thus rejects to last longer, an example of
its parents and embraces its which are gargoyles found in
grandparents; it tends to think Gothic cathedrals that serve as
of the work of the previous water spouts
generation as barbaric, since it o Drawing attention to functional
does not conform to components of buildings as can
contemporary standards or be seen in the Reims Cathedral in
values.” (Roth, 2018) France where the doors were
heavily accentuated by arched
ORNAMENT: VENUSTAS entranceway
- re-evaluated from time to time ERGONOMICS and
depending on historical context
anthropometrics
- In some periods, using ornament was an
essential component of architecture. ERGONOMICS
- In the mid-19thcentury, art and - Pheasant (2003) defines ergonomics as
architecture critic John Ruskin
“the science of work: of the people who
emphasized the importance of
do it and the ways it is done; the tools
ornaments and strongly believed that
and equipment they use, the places they
“ornament is the chief part of
work in, and the psychosocial aspects of
architecture”
the working situation.”
- During the onset of modernism, architect
- ERGOS + NOMOS
Adolf Loos advocated the removal of
o ‘ERGOS’ – work
ornaments with his statement, “the
o ‘NOMOS’ – natural law
evolution of culture is synonymous with
▪ ergonomics relates the
the removal of ornament from
natural laws that
utilitarian objects.”
govern the science of
- Ornaments may serve other purposes
work
such as:
- PROFESSOR HYWELL MURRELL - the first to
o Providing pure “visual delight”
use the word ergonomics in 1949 to
that can be seen in church
engage in the “study of human being in
interiors
their working environment.”
o Providing a functional
component integral for buildings
- concerned with the design of tools, o TASK ANALYSIS
artifacts and working environment for ▪ Pheasant (2003) - “a
human use to accomplish a specific task formal or semi-formal
or activity attempt to define and
- anchored in the Principle of User Center state what the
Design user/operator is
o the design of an environment, actually going to do
system or tool should be based with the
on the “physical and mental product/system/enviro
characteristics of its human nment in question”
users” ▪ help delineate what are
o provide the best harmonious the desired outcome,
relationship between the users requirements to
and the product in accomplishing accomplish and other
tasks limitations
o CRITERIA: o USER TRIAL
▪ Functional efficiency ▪ Pheasant (2003) - “is an
▪ Ease of Use experimental
▪ Comfort investigation in which a
▪ Health and Safety sample of people test a
▪ Quality of Life prototype version of
the product under
controlled conditions.”
▪ subjects for user trial
should be
representatives from a
sample size to which
the product was
designed for.
- The methodology used to properly
describe and define user centered
approach is thru two investigative
methods:
ANTHROPOMETRICS risk taking behavior to
properly incorporate
- a branch of ergonomics
more details
- defined as “the branch of the human
o PERSONAL SPACE IN CONNECTION
sciences that deals with body
TO PROXEMICS BY ROBERT HALL
measurements: body size shape strength
▪ Intimate space ranges
working capacity.” (Pheasant, 2003)
from 0 to 450 mm
- The following are components of human
▪ Personal space ranges
diversity in relation to anthropometric
from 450 to 1200 mm
data
▪ Social space ranges
o sex difference
from 1200 to 3500 mm.
o ethnic differences
▪ Public space ranges
o growth development
from 3500 mm above.
o secular trend
o Clearance Dimensions in Various
o social class
Positions (mm)
o occupation
o age

APPLICATION OF ANTHROPOMETRY IN DESIGN:

Workspace Design

- CLEARANCE o Minimum Dimensions for

o directly related to the space Passageways in Areas of
needed to accomplish a Restricted Access (mm)
particular task although
additional space may be added
for comfort
o SAFETY CLEARANCE
▪ For walking a
▪ design should take into
trapezoidal space which
account not only
is 630 mm wide at
physical dimensions but
shoulder height and 145
also the behavior of
mm wide at floor level
users which include
will suffice
their normal task
behavior as well as the
 ▪ Stature of a 99th
percentile man wearing
shoes and protective
helmet
▪ For prone crawling, a
width of 1015 mm is
preferable to allow for
lateral elbow
movements. o Increments to Forward Grip

o Space Requirements for Reach (mm)

Circulation (mm)

o The Normal Working Area

- REACH
o the area or workspace envelope
where performance of manual
tasks is done easily
o highly dependent on the extent - VISION AND THE POSTURE OF THE HEAD AND
of reach to which stretching or NECK
leaning forward is acceptable
and if tasks require hand and
finger operation
o Zones of Convenient Reach (ZCR)
 o visual tasks such as reading or ▪ For lifting and handling
recognizing faces are usually tasks: between mid-
allocated for the central part of thigh and mid-chest
the visual field level, preferably close
o downward eye movement is to waist level
recommended to be limited to ▪ For hand-operated
24 to 270 controls (e.g., switches,
▪ If not, tension can be levers, etc.): between
felt in the neck muscles elbow height and
for supporting the shoulder height
weight of the head o Architectural Design Data
- WORKING HEIGHT, POSTURE AND STRENGTH
o Recommended Working Height
for Specific Tasks
▪ For manipulative tasks
involving a moderate
degree of both force
and precision: 50 to 100
mm below elbow height
▪ For delicate
manipulative tasks
(including writing): 50 to
100 mm above elbow
height
• wrist support
will generally
be necessary
▪ For heavy manipulative
tasks (particularly if
they involve downward
pressure on the
workpiece): 100 to 250
mm below elbow height
 o the sequence for a left-handed
person would be better if it
starts from right to left, the
reverse for the right handed
- SECOND PRINCIPLE: FREQUENCY OF USE
o ‘work triangle’: refrigerator,
sink and cooker
o interruptions in the circulation
should be avoided
o Below are the prescribed sums
of lengths of the triangle
depending on kitchen size:
o 7000 mm for small to medium-
sized kitchens
o 8000 mm for large kitchens
o Kitchen Layout

ERGONOMICS AT HOME

01 KITCHEN

- FIRST PRINCIPLE: SEQUENCE OF USE

o activity for a right-handed LAYOUT
person - Possible kitchen layout and dimension in
o proceeds from left to right Philippine context depending on users
o may start from the “sink to
main work surface to cooker to
accessory work surface for
putting things down”
o should be continuous
o should not be broken by
passageways or tall cupboards.
 STORAGE

- 95% of elderly population can use shelves

that are 300 mm for only up to the
WORKTOP HEIGHT
height of 1350 to 1400 mm
- considers both the anthropometric - worktops become the most accessible
diversity of users as well as the range of storage space in the kitchen
activities needed to be accomplished - Standard Kitchen Tall Unit
- Appropriate worktop heights:
o food preparation - 850 mm to
1000 mm
o washing up - 900 to 1050 mm.
o ISO 3055 (1985) specifies 850 mm
or 950 mm as the standard
worktop height but adjustments
may be necessary
- Optimum Heights (mm) of Kitchen Sinks
and Worktops WORKTOP HEIGHT AND STORAGE

- Possible worktop and storage heightin

Philippine context depending on users

- Standard Kitchen Units

 o Couple on opposite side(95th
%ile couple: 625 mm)
- Ergonomically designed bathtub (mm).

HANDBASIN/LAVATORY

- mainly used for washing of hands, face

and hair
- Different criteria
o Minimized possibility of bending
o Basin rim should be at elbow
height of short user (5th %ile
woman: 930 mm)
02 BATHROOM o Water source should be set at
915 to 965 mm and located 100
BATHTUB
mm above the basin rim
- should be comfortable for one person o When getting hands wet, water
(or perhaps two persons) should not be running down the
- the depth and volume should not require forearms
the filling up of excessive water
WATER CLOSET
- Widths of bath to accommodate the
maximum body breadth of: - The preferred toilet seat height is
o Single bather (95th %ile man: 580 o 430 mm for men
mm) o 404 mm for women with
o Couple side by side (95th %ile variability of 30 to 33 mm
couple: 920 mm) - Recommended water closet height is at
400 mm
- Other constraints:
o Some toilets have limited space
o Other items used in the toilet
are not properly considered in
the design of the toilet
o Accessible toilet should be
integrated in the design by:
▪ Providing a cleat area
ACCESSIBLE TOLER AND BATH
of 1.50 m diameter for
a wheelchair turning
space
▪ Comfortable room
length and width for a
fully accessible toilet
should be 2.20 m x 2.0
m
- Bathroom Design and Dimensions
o Below are illustrations of
bathroom design guide in
Philippine context
 - Bed Sizes

03 BEDROOM

BED

- Length of single and double beds range

from 1.90 m to 2.36 m which means that
bed lengths of the following will be:
o 1980 mm will be too short for 1
man in 10(10%)
o 2055 mm will be too short for 1
man in 100(1 %)
o 2105 mm will be too short for 1
man in 1000(0.10%)
04 STAIRS
o 2150 mm will be too short for 1
man in 10,000(0.01 %) - Grandjean (1988), recommends:
o stair riser (step height) of 170
- Bed widths should also be wide enough to
mm (17 cm)
accommodate different changes in
o tread depth of 290 mm (29 cm)
posture
o he adds the following ‘stair
formula’:
 Space articulation and
kinesthetics of space
- British standard BS 5395 recommends:
ARTICULATION OF FORM
o Riser:
▪ Min – 100 mm
▪ Max – 220 mm
(preferably less)
o Tread Depth
▪ Min – 225 mm
▪ Max – 350 mm
- U.S. military standard MIL-STD-1472F
ARTICULATION
(Department of Defense, 1999)
recommends: - the manner in which the surfaces of a
o stair riser height of 165 to 180 form come together to define its shape
mm and volume
o treads depths of 280 to 300 mm. - A form can be articulated by
- Philippines PD 1096 stipulates: o Differentiating adjoin planes
o Riser with a change in material, color,
▪ Max – 200 mm texture or pattern
o Tread Depth o Developing corners as distinct
▪ Min – 250 mm linear elements independent of

- Philippines BP 344 recommends: the abutting planes

o Riser o Removing corners to physically

▪ Max – 150 mm separate neighboring planes

o Lighting the form to create
o Tread Depth
sharp contrast in tonal value
▪ Min – 300 mm
along edges and corners
EDGES AND CORNERS

- Opening introduced to one side of the

corner

- articulated by simply contrasting the - Rounding off the corner emphasizes the
surface qualities of the adjoining planes continuity
- All plane that is bent only slightly will
SURFACE ARTICULATION
appear to be a single flat plane

- shape, size, scale, proportion and visual

- define the meeting of two planes

- Contrast between the surface color of a

plane and that of the surrounding field
- can be visually reinforced
can clarify its shape

- Frontal views
 01 APPROACH

- The distant view

- the first phase of the circulation system
during which we are prepared to see,
- Visual context of a plane
experience, and use the spaces within a
building

- Texture and color affects

o the visual weight and scale of a
plane
o the degree to which it absorbs
- FRONTAL APPROACH
or reflects light and sound
o leads directly to the entrance of
a building along a straight, axial
path
o The visual goal that terminates
the approach is clear
- Directional oversize optical patterns can
▪ it may be the entire
distort the shape or exaggerate the
front facade of a
proportions of a plane
building or an
CIRCULATION: MOVEMENT THROUGH SPACE elaborated entrance
- The path of our movement links the within the plane
spaces of a building, or any series of
interior or exterior spaces, together
- we experience a space in relation to
where we’ve been and where we
anticipate going

- OBLIQUE APPROACH
o enhances the effect of
perspective on the front facade
and form of a building
 o The path can be redirected on
eor more times to delay and
prolong the sequence of the
approach
o If a building is approached at an 02 ENTRANCE
extreme angle, its entrance can - From outside to inside
project beyond its facade to be
more clearly visible

- involves the act of penetrating a

vertical plane that distinguishes one
space from another and separates
”here” from “there.”

- SPIRAL PATH
o prolongs the sequence of the
approach
- can be signified in more subtle way than
o emphasizes the three-
punching a hole in a wall
dimensional form of a building as
o may be a passage through an
we move around its perimeter
implied plane established by two
o The building entrance:
pillars or an overhead beam.
▪ might be viewed
- In a situations where greater visual and
intermittently during
spatial continuity between two spaces is
the approach to clarify
desired, even a change in level can
its position or it
establish a threshold and mark the
▪ may be hidden until the
passage from one place to another
point of arrival
- In the normal situation where a wall is o RECESSED
used to define and enclose a space or ▪ also provides shelter
series of spaces, an entrance is and receives a portion
accommodated by an opening in the plane of exterior space into
of the wall. the realm of the
o can range from a simple hole in building
the wall to an elaborate,
articulated gateway.

- can be similar to, and serve as a preview

of the form of the space being entered
- the entrance into the space is best - can contrast with the form of the space
signified by establishing a real or implied to reinforce its boundaries and emphasize
plane perpendicular to the path of the its character as a place.
approach

- Entrances may be grouped formally into - LOCATION:

the following categories: o can be centered within the

o FLUSH frontal plane of a building

▪ maintains the o be placed off-center to create a

continuity of the condition of local symmetry

obscured about its opening

o PROJECTED o will determine the configuration

▪ forms a transitional of the path and the pattern of

space, announces its the activities within the space

function to the
approach, and provides
overhead shelter
 - When the paths at a crossing are
equivalent to each another, sufficient
space should be provided to allow people
to pause and orient themselves
- The form and scale of entrances and
paths should also convey the functional
- The notion of an entrance can be visually
and symbolic distinction between public
reinforced
promenades, private halls, and service
o Lower
corridors
o Wider
o narrower than anticipated.
o Making the entrance deep or
circuitous
o Articulating the opening with
ornamentation or decorative
embellishment

- The nature of the configuration of a

03 CONFIGURATION OF THE PATH path both influences and is influenced by
the organizational pattern of the spaces
- The sequence of spaces
it links
- The configuration of a path
o may reinforce a spatial
organization by Paralleling its
pattern
o may contrast with the form of
- The contour of a path depends on our the spatial organization and
mode of transportation serve as visual counterpoint to
- The continuity and scale of each path at it
an intersection can help us distinguish
between major paths leading to lesser
spaces
 - SPIRAL CONFIGURATION
o a single, continuous path that
originates from a central point,
revolves around it, and becomes
increasingly distant from it

- All paths are linear

- straight path can be the primary
organizing element for a series of spaces
- it can be
o curvilinear - GRID CONFIGURATION
o segmented o consists of two sets of parallel
o intersect other paths paths that intersect at regular
o have branches intervals and create square or
o form a loop rectangular fields of space

- RADIAL CONFIGURATION
o has linear paths extending from - NETWORK CONFIGURATION

or terminating at a central, o consists of paths that connect

common point. established points in space

o These nodes punctuate the
paths of movement through a
building and provide
opportunities for pause, rest,
and reorientation
o To avoid the creation of a
disorienting maze, a hierarchical
 order among the paths and - Terminate in a Space
nodes of a building should be - The location of the space establishes the
established by differentiating path
their scale, form, length, and - This path-space relationship is used to
placement. approach and enter functionally or
symbolically important spaces.

04 PATH-SPACE RELATIONSHIPS
05 FORM OF THE CIRCULATION SPACE
- Edge, Node, and termination of the Path
- Corridors, halls, galleries, stairways, and
rooms
- should accommodate the movement of
people as they promenade, pause, rest, or
take in a view along a path.
- The integrity of each space is maintained
- varies according to how:
- The configuration of the path is flexible
o its boundaries are defined;
- Mediating spaces can be used to link the
o its form relates to the form of
path with the spaces
the spaces it links;
o its qualities of scale, proportion,
light, and view are articulated;
o entrances open onto it; and
o it handles changes in level with
- The path may pass though a space axially,
stairs and ramps
obliquely, or along its edge
- In cutting through a space, the path
creates patterns of rest and movement
within it.

- A circulation space may be:

o ENCLOSED
 ▪ forming a public galleria private hall, and a
or private corridor service corridor
that relates to the
spaces it links though
entrances in a wall
plane;
o OPEN ON ONE SIDE
▪ forming a balcony or - A narrow, enclosed path naturally
gallery that provides encourages forward motion
visual and spatial - To accommodate more traffic as well as
continuity with the to create spaces for pausing, resting, or
spaces it links; viewing, sections of a path can be
o OPEN ON BOTH SIDES widened
▪ forming a colonnaded - The path can also be enlarged by merging
passageway that with the spaces it passes through.
becomes a physical
extension of the space
it passes through

- a path can be random, without form or

definition, and be determined by the
activities and arrangement of furnishings
▪ width and height of
within the space
a circulation space
should be
proportionate with
the type and amount
of movement it
must handle
▪ A distinction in scale
should be established
between a public
promenade, a more
- STAIRS AND STAIRWAYS
o provide for our vertical
movement between the levels
of a building or outdoor space
o The slope of a stairway,
determined by the dimensions of
its risers and treads, should be
proportioned to fit our body
movement and capability - LANDINGS
o should be wide enough to o interrupt the run of a stair and
comfortably accommodate our enable it to change direction
passage as well as any o provide opportunities for rest
furnishings and equipment that and possibilities for access and
must be moved up or down the outlook from the stairway
steps o the locations of landings
determine the rhythm and
choreography of our
movements as we ascend or
descend its steps

o The width of a stairway also

provides a visual clue to the - Stairs can reinforce the path of
public or private nature of the movement, interrupt it, accommodate a
stairway change in its course, or terminate it prior
▪ Wide, shallow steps can to entering a major space
serve as an invitation o The configuration of a stairway
▪ A narrow, steep determines the direction of our
stairway can lead to path as we ascend or descend its
more private places steps.
- There are several basic ways in which to
configure the runs of a stairway.
o STRAIGHT-RUN STAIR
o L-SHAPED STAIR
o U-SHAPED STAIR
o CIRCULAR STAIR
o SPIRAL STAIR

o woven into the boundaries of a

- The space a stairway occupies: space or be extended into a
o can be great, but its form can series of platforms for seating
be fitted into an interior in or terraces for activity
several ways - The path of a stair can rise between walls
o can be treated as an additive through a narrow shaft of space to
form or as a volumetric solid offer access to a private place or signify
from which space has been unapproachability
carved out for movement as - On the other hand, landings that are
well as rest visible on approach invite ascent, as do
treads that spill out at the bottom of a
stairway

Light, color, and texture

WHAT IS COLOR?

- a perception
- the “sensation produced by light rays
that strike the visual organs depends on
the wavelength.”
 - relies on our cognitive organs, and it is all ▪ those wavelengths
but impossible to share an experience between approximately
that is intimately subjective 400 (violet) and 700
- As the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (red) nanometers (nm),
asked, “How do I know that I mean the with slight variations
same by the words primary colors as among observers.
some other person?” ▪ Note that some
animals, including cats
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE
and dogs, perceive as
- Without light, there is no color. visible light wavelengths
- in a dark room, objects either have no that are ultraviolet
color or they are black (under 400 nm), which
- In physics, light is considered to be any are invisible to humans.
kind of electromagnetic radiation that - In 1666 Sir Isaac Newton showed that
spreads in a straight line with undulating when a beam of visible light passes
movement at the speed of 300,000 through a prism, dispersion causes a
kilometers per second rainbow to appear that includes the
- Only a small set of these electromagnetic following spectral colors, from shorter
wavelengths is visible to the human eye. to longer wavelengths: violet, blue, cyan,
green, yellow, orange, and red.

RGB: ADDITIVE MIXING AND COLOR-LIGHT

- The eye is spherical, slightly flattened

from front to back.
o SCLERA
▪ an outer white
membrane
o CORNEA
▪ The front portion of
this membrane
▪ Transparent
▪ through which light
o VISIBLE SPECTRUM penetrates
o CHOROID • specialized for
▪ the inner surface of the perception
the sclera of lightness
▪ a membrane with a but not color
system of blood vessels (hue)
that irrigate the eye o MACULA LUTEA
▪ The choroid’s dark ▪ Immediately opposite
pigments eliminate light the pupil
reflections so that the ▪ CENTRAL FOVEA
eye acts as a darkroom. • a small, oval
o CILIARY MUSCLES depression
▪ Located in the front • the most
part of the choroid is sensitive part
equipped of the retina
▪ hold the lens in place • where we have
and allow it to focus, the greatest
terminating in the iris. visual acuity,
o PUPIL or ability to
▪ The lens has a circular distinguish
opening colors.
▪ regulates the amount o THE BLIND SPOT
of light that reaches ▪ the point where the
the retina optic nerve joins the
o RETINA retina
▪ a delicate membrane ▪ it lacks photoreceptors
▪ covers the inner side of
PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND TERTIARY COLORS
the eye cavity
▪ contains receptor cells.
▪ CONES
• specialized for
color vision
▪ RODS
- PRIMARY COLORS ▪ RED absorbs all but the
o three colors that can be mixed long wavelengths (L).
to obtain all the remaining o it absorbs all the visible light it
colors of the visible spectrum. receives
o red, green, and blue (RGB)
CYMK: SUBTRACTIVE MIXING AND COLOR-PIGMENT
o ADDITIVE MIXING - combining
them o CMYK corresponds to the initials
o WHITE LIGHT – the result if the of the three primary colors for
three primary color-lights subtractive mixing (cyan,
overlap, magenta, and yellow), to which a
o “ADDING LIGHT TO LIGHT” - black ink (K) is added
o the standard color notation for
adding radiant energy at
offset printing and therefore
different wavelengths to rebuild
for the realm of printed paper
a complete light beam
o described using the dithering
containing energy throughout
percentage of each of these
the whole visible spectrum
primary tints
- PRIMARY MATERIAL COLORS
o expressed either as a percentage
o Pigments and paints
or with a value from 0 to 1
o cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY)
o SUBTRACTIVE MIXING – THE PANTONE COLOR LANGUAGE
combining them
o BLACK – if the three primary
color-pigments are mixed
▪ CYAN surface absorbs
more or less all the
radiant energy reaching
it except within the
range of short
wavelengths (S);
▪ YELLOW absorbs all but
the medium
wavelengths (M);
 - supports the textile, apparel, beauty, to be closer or farther away from the
interiors, and architectural and industrial picture plane
design industries - can be used to give a two-dimensional
- encompasses over ten thousand color canvas the illusion of depth
standards across multiple materials, - JOSEF ALBERS
including: o a key figure in the study of the
o printing inks interaction of colors and their
o textiles kinetic capacity
o plastics o showed that each color
o pigments corresponds to a certain depth
o coatings and that by juxtaposing it with
o THE PANTONE MATCHING SYSTEM other colors, a sensation of
(PMS) varying depth can be achieved
▪ gives designers around o worked with the illusion of
the world a common transparency that happens when
language to promote two colored papers are placed
accurate and together and a third paper of a
consistent specification specific color is placed at their
and production of spot intersection;
color for print and ▪ we may perceive that
packaging design one of the papers

COLOR AND PERCEPTION overlaps the other and

is transparent or
- Color is a fugitive and unstable translucent
phenomenon - In general:
- Depending on the perception, a color’s o DULL AND BLUISH COLORS -
hue, saturation, value, or sense of recede from the viewer
distance from the observer can shift o SATURATED AND REDDISH COLORS
TEXTURE IN ARCHITECTURE – advance
- SFUMATO
- COLOR KINETICS – a phenomenon when a
o as aerial perspective
colored surface in a painting may appear
o a technique used by Leonardo da
Vinci
 o blurs background colors to give ▪ embellishing the facade
a paler and more bluish look with a sequence of
- COLOR SHIFT TOWARD BLUISH, CLEARER, triangles of different
AND LESS SATURATED COLORS colors,
o to provide the effect of ▪ show the proportions
increased distance that justify the
o similar to our experience when dimensions
observing nature o Le Corbusier’s Heidi Weber
- PROFESSOR LOIS SWIRNOFF Pavilion in Zurich, Switzerland
o a disciple of Albers (1965)
o offers that “color hue is ▪ color identifies the
inherently spatial and each of structure’s rectangular
the colors of the spectrum has building module, which
its own spatial depth has a two-to-one
proportion
COLOR AND ARCHITECTURAL FUNCTION

- When color is used as a strategy to SHAPE, FORM, AND UNITY

describe architectural shape it FORM

communicates some aspects of:
- reference to both internal structure and
o the metric
external outline and the principle that
o the structural system
gives unity to the whole.
o the logic of formal operations
- includes a sense of three-dimensional
used in the design
mass or volume
o the function, among other
elements
- can provide information about the size
of a building and the proportional
relationships among its different parts
- EXAMPLES:
o Le Corbusier - the Pilgrim House SHAPE
in Notre Dame du Haut, - refers more specifically to the essential
Ronchamp, France (1955), aspect of form that governs its
appearance
- the characteristic outline or surface ▪ the attribute that
configuration of a particular form most clearly
- the principal aspect by which we identify distinguishes a form
and categorize forms. from its environment
- In addition to shape, forms have visual ▪ Also affects the visual
properties of: weight of a form

o SIZE o TEXTURE
▪ The physical dimensions ▪ visual and especially
of length, width, and tactile quality given to
depth of a form a surface by the size,
o SCALE shape, arrangement,
▪ determined by its size and proportions of the
relative to other forms parts
in its context ▪ also determines the
degree to which the
surfaces of a form
reflect or absorb
incident light

PROPERTIES OF FORM

o COLOR
▪ A phenomenon of light
and visual perception
▪ may be described in
terms of an individual’s - POSITION
perception of hue, o The location of a form relative
saturation, and tonal to its environment or the visual
value field within which it is seen
 shapes or aspects of a form to
our eyes
o Our distance from a form
determines its apparent size
o The lighting conditions under
- ORIENTATION
which we view a form affects
o The direction of a form relative
the clarity of its shape and
to the ground plane, the
structure
compass points, other forms, or
o The visual field surrounding a
to the person viewing the form
form influences our ability to
-
read and identify it.
SHAPE - SHAPE
o The characteristic outline of a
plane figure or the surface
configuration of a volumetric
form
o the primary means by which we
recognize, identify, and
categorize particular figures and
forms
o Our perception of shape depends
- VISUAL INERTIA
on the degree of visual contrast
o The degree of concentration and
that exists along the contour
stability of a form
separating a figure from its
o depends on its geometry as well
ground or between a form and
as its orientation relative to the
its field
ground plane, the pull of gravity,
- In architecture, we are concerned with
and our line of sight
the shapes of are:
- All of these properties of form are in
reality affected by the conditions under
which we view the:
o A changing perspective or angle
of view presents different
 o floor, wall, and ceiling planes that - CIRCLE
enclose space o A plane curve every point of
which is equidistant from a fixed
point within the curve

o Door, window openings within

spatial enclosure

o a centralized, introverted figure

o normally stable and self-
o Silhouettes and contours of centering in its environment
building form o Placing a circle in the center of
a field reinforces its inherent
PRIMARY SHAPE
centrality
o Associating it with straight or
angular forms or placing an
element along its circumference,
- Given any composition of forms, we tend
however, can induce in the circle
to reduce the subject matter in our
an apparent rotary motion
visual field to the simplest and most
regular shapes
o The simpler and more regular a
shape is, the easier it is to
perceive and understand
- TRIANGLE
o A plane figure bounded by
three sides and having three
angles
 ▪ deviations from the
norm by the addition
of height or width
o Like the triangle, the square is
stable when resting on one of
its sides

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR FORMS

o signifies stability
o When resting on one of its sides,
the triangle is an extremely
stable figure
o When tipped to stand on one of
its vertices, however, it can
OVERHEAD PLANE
either be balanced in a
precarious state of equilibrium
or be unstable and tend to fall
over onto one of its sides

- SQUARE
o A plane figure having four equal
sides and four right angles
- ROOF PLANE
o represents the pure and the
o can visually express how its
rational
pattern of structural members
o a bilaterally symmetrical figure
resolves forces and transfers
having two equal and
loads to a system of supports
perpendicular axes
o can be the major space-defining
o All other rectangles can be
element of a building and visually
considered variations of the
organize a series of forms and
square
 spaces beneath its sheltering a path of movement through it,
canopy or allow natural light to enter it
from above

- CEILING PLANE
o can reflect the form of the
structural system supporting - FORM, COLOR, TEXTURE, AND PATTERN
the overhead floor or roof o can be manipulated as well to
plane improve the quality of light or
o need not resist any weathering sound within a space or give it a
forces nor carry directional quality or orientation
o any major loads
o can also be detached from
o the floor or roof plane
▪ become a visually
active element in a
space.
- Well-defined negative areas or voids
within an overhead plane, such as for
skylights, can be seen as positive shapes
that establish the presence of spatial
fields below their openings.

VERTICAL ELEMENTS DEFINING SPACE

- As in the case of the base plane

o can be manipulated to define
and articulate zones of space
within a room
o can be lowered or elevated to
alter the scale of a space, define
 - SINGLE VERTICAL PLANE
- have a greater presence in our visual field o articulates the space on which it
than horizontal planes fronts
- more instrumental in defining a discrete
volume of space and providing a sense of
enclosure and privacy for those within it
- serve to separate one space from
another
- TWO PARALLEL VERTICAL PLANES
- establish a common boundary between
o define a volume of space
the interior and exterior environments
between them that is oriented
axially toward both open ends
of the configuration

- serve as structural supports for floor

and roof planes
- U-SHAPED PLANE
- provide shelter and protection from the
o defines a volume of space that
climatic elements
is oriented primarily toward the
- aid in controlling the flow of air, heat,
open end of the configuration
and sound into and through the interior
spaces of a building

- FOUR VERTICAL PLANES

o establish the boundaries of an
- define the perpendicular edges of a
introverted space and influence
volume of space
 the field of space around the o buttresses the plane
enclosure o articulates its surface
- At the corner of a space, a column
o punctuates the meeting of two
wall planes
- Standing free within a space, a column
o defines zones of space within
the enclosure
- establishes a point on the ground plane
and makes it visible in space
o column
o obelisk
o tower
- SLENDER LINEAR ELEMENT
o Standing alone and upright
o nondirectional except for the
path that would lead us to its
- When centered in a space, a column will
position in space
o assert itself as the center of the
- Any number of horizontal axes can be
field
made to pass through it
o define equivalent zones of space
between itself and the
surrounding wall planes
- When offset, the column will
o define hierarchical zones of
space differentiated by size,
form, and location
- When located within a defined volume of
space, a column will
o generate a spatial field about
itself
o interact with the spatial
enclosure
- A column attached to a wall
- No volume of space can be established o establishing its upper limits with
without the definition of its edges and beams spanning between the
corners columns or with an overhead
- Linear elements serve this purpose in plane
marking the limits of spaces that require - REPETITIVE SERIES OF COLUMN ELEMENTS
visual and spatial continuity with their o Would further strengthen the
surroundings definition of the volume

- TWO COLUMNS
o establish a transparent spatial
membrane by the visual tension - Vertical linear elements can
between their shafts. o terminate an axis, mark the
- THREE OR MORE COLUMNS center of an urban space
o can be arranged to define the o provide a focus for an urban
corners of a volume of space space along its edge
o does not require a larger spatial
context for its definition, but
relates freely to it

- The edges of the volume of space can be

visually reinforced by:
o articulating its base plane
- In the example above, the tokobashira, - Four columns can establish the corners
often a tree trunk in natural form, is a of a discrete volume of space within a
symbolic element larger room or setting.
- Supporting a canopy, the columns form
an AEDICULE
o a diminutive pavilion that serves
as a shrine or the symbolic
center of a space
- Traditional Roman houses typically were
organized about an atrium open to the
- A bosket or grove of trees defining a sky and surrounded by a roof structure
shady place in a garden or park supported at the corners by four
columns.
- Vitruvius termed this a TETRASTYLE
ATRIUM

- various forms of minarets mark the

corners of a platform and establish a
field of spacea three-dimensional
framework—for the Mogul mausoleum
structures.

- During the Renaissance, Andrea Palladio

incorporated the tetrastyle theme in the
vestibules and halls of a number of villas
and palazzi
- The four columns:
o supported the vaulted ceiling
and the floor above
 o adjusted the dimensions of the - GRID OF COLUMNS
rooms to Palladian proportions o serves to support the floor or
roof plane above
o punctuate the spatial volume,
mark off modular zones within
the spatial field, and establish a
measurable rhythm and scale
that make the spatial dimensions
comprehensible

- COLONNADE
o Formed by a regularly spaced
series of columns or similar
vertical elements
o effectively defines an edge of a
spatial volume while permitting
visual and spatial continuity to
exist between the space and its - In 1926, Le Corbusier stated what he
surroundings believed to be the “Five Points of the
- PILASTRADE New Architecture.”
o A row of columns - REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
o supports the wall o began in the late nineteenth
o articulates its surface, and century
tempers the scale, rhythm, and o use of concrete columns to
proportioning of its bays. support floor and roof slabs
o afforded new possibilities for
the definition and enclosure of
spaces within a building
- CONCRETE SLABS
o could cantilever beyond their
column supports
 o enable the “free facade” of the o secondary zones will be created
building to be “light within a multidirectional and
membranes” of “screen walls dynamic field

and windows.”
- Within the building, a “free plan” was
possible since the enclosure and layout of
spaces were not determined or restricted
by the pattern of heavy load-bearing
walls - If the field is entered through the open
- Interior spaces could be defined with end of the configuration
non-load-bearing partitions, and their o the rear plane, or a form placed
layout could respond freely to in front of it, will terminate our
programmatic requirements. view of the space
- On the facing page, two contrasting - If the field is entered through an opening
examples of the use of a column grid are in one of the planes
illustrated o the view of what lies beyond the
o establishes a fixed, neutral field open end will draw our attention
of space in which interior spaces and terminate the sequence
are freely formed and
distributed.
o corresponds closely to the
layout of the interior spaces;
there is a close fit between
structure and space - If the end of a long, narrow field is open
U-SHAPED PLANES o the space will encourage
movement and induce a
progression or sequence of
events
- If the field is square, or nearly square
o the space will be static and have
the character of a place to be
- If openings are introduced at the corners
of the configuration:
 in, rather than a space to move - When an element is placed along the open
through end of its field
- If the side of a long, narrow field is open o it gives the field a point of
o the space will be susceptible to focus as well as a greater sense
a subdivision into a number of of closure
zones

- have the inherent ability to capture and

define outdoor space
- can be seen to consist essentially of linear
forms - A U-shaped organization
- The corners of the configuration: o can define a forecourt for the
o can be articulated as approach to a building
independent elements o form an entrance recessed
o can be incorporated into the within the building volume
body of the linear forms

- A U-shaped building form:

o can serve as a container
- can serve to define an urban space and o can organize within its field a
terminate an axial condition cluster of forms and spaces.
- can also focus on an important or
significant element within their fields.
 FOUR PLANES: CLOSURE

- U-shaped enclosures of interior space - the most typical, and certainly the
o have a specific orientation strongest, type of spatial definition in
toward their open ends architecture
o can group themselves around a - space is naturally introverted
central space to form an - To achieve visual dominance within a
introverted organization space or become its primary face
o one of the enclosing planes can
be differentiated from the
others by its:
▪ size
▪ form
▪ surface articulation
▪ the nature of the
- THE HOTEL FOR STUDENTS AT OTANIEMI,
openings within it
FINLAND
o by Alvar Aalto
o demonstrates the use of U-
shaped enclosures to define the
basic unit of space in double-
loaded schemes for dormitories,
apartments, and hotels
o extroverted
▪ turn their back on the
corridor and orient - Well-defined, enclosed fields of space can
themselves to the be found in architecture at various scales
exterior environment o a large urban square
o q courtyard or atrium space
 o a single hall or room within a
building complex

- historically used to define a visual and

spatial field for a sacred or significant
building that stands as an object within - In an urban context, a defined field of
the enclosure space can organize a series of buildings
- The enclosing planes may be: along its perimeter
o Ramparts - The enclosure may consist of arcades or
o Walls gallery spaces that promote the inclusion
o fences of surrounding buildings into their domain
and activate the space they define
 continuous load path
to the ground

OPENINGS IN SPACE – DEFINING ELEMENT

- DIAGRID STRUCTURES
o networks of intersecting
members connected at specially
- CORNERS
jointed nodes to create a
o can be located along one edge
diagonal grid across a building
or at a corner of a wall or
surface
ceiling plane
o the diagonal members are
o the opening will be at a corner
capable of carrying both gravity
of a space
and lateral loads through
triangulation
▪ results in a relatively
uniform load
distribution
o give a space and the planes in
o allows for the possible reduction
which they are located a
in the number of internal
diagonal orientation
supports
▪ This directional effect
▪ saving on space and
may be desirable for
building materials
compositional reasons
▪ providing for greater
▪ the corner opening may
flexibility in interior
be established to
layouts
capture a desirable view
o the number of possible load
or brighten a dark
paths in case of a localized
corner of a space
structural failure results in a
high degree of redundancy
▪ each diagonal can be
viewed as providing a
o visually erodes the edges of the o The light that enters a space
plane in which it is located and through a corner opening
articulates the edge of the plane washes the surface of the plane
adjacent and perpendicular to it adjacent and perpendicular to
o The larger the opening, the the opening
weaker will be the definition of ▪ This illuminated surface
the corner itself becomes a source
o If the opening were to turn the of light
corner, the angle of the space • enhances the
would be implied rather than real brightness of
and the spatial field would the space
extend beyond its enclosing ▪ The level of illumination
planes can be enhanced
further by turning the
corner with the
opening or adding a
skylight above the
o If openings are introduced opening
between the enclosing planes at
all four corners of a space, the
individual identity of the planes
will be reinforced and diagonal or
pinwheel patterns of space, use, - BETWEEN PLANES
and movement will be o can extend vertically between
encouraged the floor and ceiling planes or
horizontally between two wall
planes
o can grow in size to occupy an
entire wall of a space
o A vertical opening that extends o Locating a linear skylight along
from the floor to the ceiling the edge where a wall and ceiling
plane of a space visually plane meet allows incoming light
separates and articulates the to wash the surface of the wall,
edges of the adjacent wall illuminate it, and enhance the
planes brightness of the space
▪ The form of the
skylight can be
manipulated to capture
direct sunlight, indirect
daylight, or a
combination of both

o Turning a corner with a

horizontal opening
▪ reinforces the
horizontal layering of a
space
▪ broadens the
panoramic view from
within the space
o If the opening continues around
the space
▪ it will visually lift the
ceiling plane from the
wall planes, isolate it,
and give it a feeling of
lightness
o WINDOW-WALLS offer more linear members of a frame,
expansive views and permit a become obscure and tenuous
greater amount of daylight to
penetrate a space than any of
the previous examples of
openings.
▪ sun shading devices - WITHIN PLANES
may be necessary to o An opening located wholly within
reduce glare and a wall or ceiling plane often
excessive heat gain appears as a bright figure on a
within the space if they contrasting field or background
are oriented to capture
direct sunlight
o While a window-wall weakens the
vertical boundaries of a space, it
creates the potential for visually o CENTERED: will appear stable and
expanding the space beyond its visually organize the surface
physical boundaries around it.
o OFF-CENTER: will create a degree
of visual tension between the
opening and the edges of the
plane toward which it is moved

- naturally appear brighter than their

o Combining a window-wall with a adjacent surfaces

large skylight overhead creates a - If the contrast in brightness along the

sun room or greenhouse space edges of the openings becomes excessive:

o The boundaries between inside o the surfaces can be illuminated

and outside, defined by the by a second light source from

within the space
 o a deep-set opening can be
formed to create illuminated
surfaces between the opening
and the surrounding plane
- SZIE
o As an opening within a plane
increases in size, it will at some
point cease to be a figure within
an enclosing field and become
- SHAPE
instead a positive element in
o will create a redundant
itself, a transparent plane
compositional pattern
bounded by a heavy frame
▪ if similar to the shape
of the plane in which it QUALITIES OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACE
is located
o may contrast with the enclosing
plane to emphasize its
individuality as a figure
o The singularity of the opening
may be visually reinforced with - The degree of enclosure of a space (in
a heavy frame or articulated relation to its configuration and
trimwork openings) has a significant impact on our
perception of its form and orientation
o From within a space, we see only
the surface of a wall. It is this
thin layer of material that
- MULTIPLE OPENINGS forms the vertical boundary of
o may be clustered to form a the space.
unified composition within a o The actual thickness of a wall
plane plane can be revealed only along
o may be staggered or dispersed the edges of door and window
to create visual movement openings.
along the surface of the plane
- Openings within planes DO NOT weaken o The visual emphasis is on the
the edge definition nor the sense of enclosing planes rather than the
closure of the space volume of space defined by the
o The form of the space remains planes.
intact and perceptible. - LIGHT

- Openings along the edges of planes

visually WEAKEN the corner boundaries of o THE SUN is the rich source of

the volume natural light for the illumination

o erode the overall form of a of forms and spaces in

space architecture

o also promote its visual o the quality of light (direct

continuity and interaction with sunlight or diffuse daylight)

adjacent spaces. varies with the time of day,

from season to season, and
from place to place
o As the luminous energy of the
sun is dispersed by clouds, haze,
and precipitation, it transmits
- Openings between planes visually ISOLATE ▪ the changing colors of
the planes and articulate their the sky
individuality ▪ the weather to the
o As these openings increase in forms and surfaces it
number and size: illuminates
▪ the space loses its
sense of enclosure
▪ becomes more diffuse
▪ begins to merge with
adjacent spaces
 on the forms and surfaces of
the room
o The color and texture of these
forms and surfaces, in turn,
affect their reflectivity and the
ambient light level within the
o Penetrating a space through space
windows in a wall plane, or - VIEW
through skylights in the
overhead roof plane, the radiant
energy of the sun falls upon the
surfaces within the room,
enlivens their colors

o its focus and orientation must

be considered in establishing
openings in the enclosure of a
room
▪ some rooms have an
internal focus, such as
a fireplace
▪ others have an
outward orientation
given to them by a
view to the outdoors
or an adjacent space
- ADDITIONAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE o Window and skylight openings
THE QUALITY OF LIGHT WITHIN A ROOM provide this view and establish a
o The shape and articulation of an visual relationship between a
opening is reflected in the room and its surroundings.
shadow pattern cast by sunlight o Factors that determine the
nature of the outlook
 ▪ Size
▪ Location
▪ Degree of visual privacy
(interior)

o As an opening expands, it opens

up a room to a broad vista.
▪ can dominate a space
▪ serve as a backdrop for
the activities within it

o A long, narrow opening, whether o Interior openings offer views

vertical or horizontal from one space to another
▪ separate two planes ▪ can be oriented upward
▪ hint at what lies beyond to offer a view of
treetops and the sky

o A group of windows
▪ can be sequenced to
fragment a scene
▪ encourage movement
within a space
o A bay window can project a Design and design
person into a scene process
▪ If large enough, the
WHAT IS DESIGN?
projected space can
become an alcove able - Both a VERB (to design) and a NOUN (a
to be occupied design)
- Both PROCESS & a PRODUCT (The process
of designing and product that is designed)

WHAT IS ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN?

- An idea/concept that focuses on

components or elements of a structure.
- ARCHITECT
o the one in charge of the
architectural design
o They work with space and
elements to create a coherent
and functional structure

DESIGN PROCESS

1 CLIENT PROFILE/INTERVIEW/PROBLEM
STATEMENT
- What is the nature of the project?
(Vacation home, primary residence, rental
home, office, restaurant, hotel etc)
- Establish a client profile: a brief
statement that identifies the client,
o Views should not be limited to location, project, purpose, and extent of
the outdoors or adjacent spaces work
o Interior design elements can Why is the initial meeting so important for both
also provide subjects for visual the designer and the customer?
attention
- Evaluate compatibility (don’t take every
job, may not be profitable...)
 - Does the project fit the firm’s area of - Identify and analyze customer needs
specialization? - Interviewing Customers and end users
o Is there a reasonable time frame o User profile
and does the firm have the o Inventory products to be used
appropriate staff load to o Lifestyle and Function
complete the project? o Relationships/adjacencies
- Deadlines are critical in the design business o Space allocations
- Penalties may apply o Environmental factors
- Work backwards from the expected o Mechanical systems (HVAC)
completion date to set schedule for each o Psychological/Sociological
phase. o Economic factors –extremely
- If you see the time frame is not feasible, important
walk away or convince them that the o Building codes
time frame needs to be longer o Design preferences

2 LETTER OF AGREEMENT Residential Programming: (Basic Information)

- A legal contract between you and your
- Personal Information
client
o Age, number, gender, size,
- Outlines the responsibilities of the
activities and relationships of
designer
everyone living in the house
- Outlines financial obligations of the client
- Stage in the lifecycle
for reimbursement, fees, time of
o flexible spaces
payment
- Lifestyle
- Serves to protect you from wasting
o Hobbies, activities,
your time on projects that may not
entertainment, meals, music
come to reality or a client using a
games, TV, cooking etc.)
different designer
o How long do they plan to live in
- Get this contract signed before you do
the house?
ANY work or you may be giving away
o Taste...likes and dislikes of the
your services
family. How do you find this
3 PROGRAMMING AND ANALYSIS out?
- PROGAMMING - Information gathering - Functional Goals
Research
 o Special needs, universal design,
media room, home office,
energy efficiency
- Space Requirements
o Areas/Spaces needed
- Equipment Needs
o TV, cable, video, computers,
security system
- Site and Orientation
o Restrictions on placement, color,
size etc.
5 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
o Solar orientation, south
- Approval from customer on schematic
windows, fading
design has been given
o Wind
- Construction Documents
o View
o Floor plan
4 CONCEPT AND SCHEMATIC DESIGN o Elevations
- The formulation of preliminary broad- o Sections
based concepts o Furniture and finish plans
- Written concept statement o Power and Communication Plans
- Decisions on character, function and o Lighting, Reflected Ceiling Plan
aesthetics - Write Bid Specifications
- Matrix: indicates relationships of spaces - Work with other professionals
- Bubble diagram o Electricians
- Block diagrams o Structural Engineers
- Preliminary Floor plans/ space plan o Mechanical Engineers
- Selecting preliminary color options
6 CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION
- Preliminary furniture/fixture options
- All design decisions become reality –most
rewarding of the phases
- Orders are placed
- General contractor, subcontractors begin
building, installing products
 - Coordination is critical in order for subs o often do a zoning analysis in pre-
not to interfere with each other’s work design to determine what we
- Site visits become regular to check can build.
quality and to stay on schedule o Land Survey and Site Analysis is
- Punch list is established part of pre-design
- Furniture is installed ▪ The client gets a
property survey by a
7 EVALUATION
licensed land surveyor
- Follow-up on job to measure the success
o The developer may want to
of the products specified
establish a project budget in the
- How effective was the design?
Pre-Design Architecture phase.
- Did it meet the needs of the customer?
- Here are a few factors to consider:
- Are the products specified holding up?
o SITE ANALYSIS
- Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE)
▪ Survey, Geo technical,
o provides the professional
financial, etc...
designer with the information
▪ If we are dealing with
needed to evaluate and measure
an existing building:
a successful or unsuccessful
asbestos testing, lead
design
testing, or other
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN PHASES hazardous materials
investigation
~ PRE-DESIGN PHASE/FEASIBILITY STUDY
o ZONING ANALYSIS/ CODE
- PRE-DESIGN is a general term for what we
ANALYSIS
do before we start designing a building
▪ Establish what you can
- will be determining the information we
build, as for use and
need to begin design
size
- include preliminary research on the
▪ Specific Code Issues
property owner’s part and the architect
that may affect the
- Clients do not always hire an architect
project
for this portion
o PROJECT SCOPE
- PRE-DESIGN ARCHITECTURAL SERVICES
▪ Client must identify to
o include helping developers decide
the best of their ability
if they should purchase a
property
 the project scope of - THE PROGRAM OF REQUIREMENTS
work. o your design professional will ask
o PROJECT GOALS you a lot of questions and do a
o BUILDING PROGRAM lot of listening
▪ a list of the proposed o possibly some onsite
uses observations, interviews, and
o PROJECT BUDGETING workshops with your
o PROJECT SCHEDULE organization.
▪ Sometimes this may be o involves a lot of research on the
too preliminary to part of your design professional
establish and a lot of participation from
o SELECTION OF PROJECT TEAM you
- IT’S VITALLY IMPORTANT TO GET THIS
FIVE PHASES OF DESIGN
PHASE RIGHT
- Your design professional will work closely
with you to:
o determine your space needs
o how they can be arranged and
used most efficiently
- Your architect will start to:
o look at applicable zoning,
~ PROGRAMMING building code, and other
- The main goal during this phase is to regulatory requirements
figure out o work with you to develop a
o how much space you need now project schedule that meets
o how much you’re likely to need your needs.
in the future - produces a tabulation that lists the types
o how that space should be used, of spaces and square footages of each
organized, and arranged – the - You may also see some basic diagrams
that illustrate things like department
“program of requirements.”
adjacencies and anticipated workflow or
circulation
1 SCHEMATIC DESIGN - also helps the team estimate the project
- to develop the shape and size of the costs
building with some basic design
2 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
- develop the general plan and basic
- to define and develop the important
exterior design in Schematic
aspects of the project
- figure out more or less how the building
- building’s exterior will be more fully
will look and operate
designed
- has a great deal of sketching, lots of
- interior layouts will be completed, room
meetings with the clients, and basic
sizes are finalized
design
- most materials are selected
- doing the general design, but not getting
- In this phase, the design is advanced
into deep detail
significantly
- Program of Requirements is translated
- The engineers will further develop the
into an efficient building design
HVAC, plumbing, and electrical systems.
- fairly conceptual in nature, so it doesn’t
- The deliverable in this phase is:
go into much detail yet
o a much more detailed set of
- will begin to lay out the site, the interior
drawings
spaces, and develop basic exterior design
o a specification book
- will prepare a cost estimate as part of
▪ can be thought of the
this phase as well
written instructions
- include preliminary drawings:
for the drawings
o floor plans
▪ will specify the
o elevations
materials that have
o a site plan if applicable
been selected
- may also see some sketches or computer
▪ provide things like
renderings to help one visualize and get a
installation
sense of how the spaces will look and feel
instructions, quality
- will prepare a narrative as part of
control requirements,
schematic design
and other technical
o which describes broadly the
information
project and what kinds of
- An updated cost estimate is usually
systems (e.g., HVAC, electrical)
produced as well.
the building will use
3 CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS - architects can help you explore your
- This phase basically takes the design options
development drawings and specifications - During the bidding or procurement phase,
and fills in the details that will enable a architects will:
contractor to actually build your o answer contractors’ questions
project. o issue formal clarifications to the
- All necessary technical information is drawings or specifications if
finalized necessary
- will include the information that’s o help evaluate the bids to make
required in order to obtain a building sure the contractors’ prices
permit from whichever local authority include everything they’re
has jurisdiction supposed to
- The deliverable in this phase is a complete
5 CONSTRUCTION ADMINISTRATION
set of drawings and specifications,
- involve architects monitoring the
referred to as the Construction
construction to verify that it is
Documents
happening in accordance with the
will get submitted for permit
Construction Documents they prepared
given to contractors to develop
- The frequency of an architect’s visits to
bids/quotes for the work
- an updated cost estimate is usually the site during construction varies widely:

produced as well o it could be daily, weekly, or

monthly
4 BIDDING/PROCUREMENT o depending on the project and
- obtaining bids from contractors to do your needs
the work. - Architects will:
- There are a lot of different ways of o take photos
hiring contractors: o write field reports to document
o choose a contractor based on the progress
their qualifications, and then o verify that the contractor’s
negotiate only with them
billings accurately reflect the
o select a few contractors to get
amount of work that they’ve
quotes from so that you feel
done.
confident you’re getting a
competitive bid
 - Architects will also work with the - We need less light by day and lighter at
contractor: night time than is offered by the natural
o to answer their questions, world
o verify that the materials the - We need services that provide energy,
contractor is using are correct communications, water and disposal
o issue formal modifications and ofwastes.
corrections to the Construction - So we gather materials and assemble
Documents them into constructions we call
o to solve problems that arise in BUILDING to satisfy these needs
the field
MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING
▪ there are always
unforeseen issues to
resolve; what’s
important is that the
architect and the
contractor work
together to quickly
handle them so that
your project isn’t
delayed
- SUPERSTRUCTURE
building construction o the portion of the building
and materials above the ground
- SUBSTRUCTURE
WHY DO WE NEED BUILDLINGS?
o the habitable portion of the
- Protection and Shelter for wind, sun and building found below the ground
rain - FOUNDATION
- We need areas and platform for different o the structural portion of the
activities building that transfer the
- On these platforms and within our buildings load into the soil
shelter, we need air which is warmer or
cooler or less humid than the outdoors
BUILDING LOADS o Transfer loads perpendicular to
its length
- Various loads are taken into account
o Types of Beams:
while designing the foundation of a
▪ Simple beam
structure
▪ Continuous beam
- DEAD LOADS
▪ Cantilever beam
o do not change, the weight of
▪ Lintel
the structure stays the same
▪ Girder
o weight of any permanent part
▪ Joist
of a building
▪ Truss and Purlin
▪ Beams
- COLUMNS
▪ Floor
▪ Walls
- LIVE LOADS
o change as a structure is used
o any load that is not fixed or
permanent
▪ People
▪ Furniture
▪ Cars
▪ Trucks

DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING

o any structural component that
- Buildings are an assembly of structural
transmits a compressive force
elements designed to transfer loads to
parallel through its center
the earth
o typically support beams and
- BEAMS
other columns
o generally vertical supports of
building
o can be vertical, horizontal, or
diagonal
- WALLS
o Really long, but slender column
 o LOAD-BEARING WALLS ▪ Some composites fail
▪ Carries weight of through exposure to
beams, other walls, heat without burning
floors, roofs, other - STEEL
structural elements o Mixture of carbon and iron ore
o NON-LOAD-BEARING WALLS o Excellent tensile, shear, and
▪ Need only support its compressive strength
own wight o Popular choices for:
▪ Eg. Partition wall ▪ Girder
between two stores in ▪ Lintels
a strip mall ▪ Cantilevered beams
▪ Columns
BUILDING MATERIALS
o Loses strength as temperatures
- FACTORS THAT DETERMINE WHICH increases
MATERIAL IS USED TO FORM STRUCTURAL - MASONRY
ELEMENTS o Common term that refers to
o Cost brick, concrete block, and stone
o Application o Used to form load-bearing walls
o Engineering capabilities o Veneer wall supports its own
o Adaptability weight
- WOOD o Mortar hold units together and
o Most common building material have little or no tensile or shear
o Relatively inexpensive strength
o Marginal resistance to forces o Excellent fire-resistive qualities
compared to weight o CEMENT
o Native wood with more mass ▪ Mixture of calcium
takes longer to burn before silicates, aluminum
strength is lost silicate and aluminum
o Engineered Wood ferrite
▪ Plywood delaminates ▪ has good compressive
when exposed to fire strength
▪ used as binding
materials
o CONCRETE ▪ the exterior and
▪ A plastic mass which interior finishing
can be cast, molded or material
formed into ▪ the flooring material
predetermined size or ▪ in many cases the
shape roofing material
▪ Upon hydration, ▪ also used for all types
becomes stone-like in of sculpture, statuary,
strength, hardness and and decorative and
durability. The hardening ornamental applications
of concrete is called ▪ Today, stone is largely
setting used as a surface
▪ When mixed with water finishing material for
and a fine aggregate of both the exterior and
LESS THAN 6mm (¼“) is interior of buildings
known as mortar,
stucco or cement - PLASTIC
plaster o used to describe a product of
▪ When mixed with synthetic origin which is capable
water, fine aggregate of being shaped at some stage
and a large aggregate of its manufacture
of MORE THAN 6mm o can be hard, soft, clear, opaque,
(¼”) in size produces light, heavy, heat resistant or
concrete. easily softened by hot water
▪ When strengthened by Structures as expression
embedded steel, is called of architectural design
reinforced concrete
▪ When without STRUCTURES
reinforcement, is called “Structure is columnar, planar, or a combination
plain or mass concrete
of these which a designer can intentionally use to
o BUILDING STONES
reinforce or realize ideas. In this context, columns,
▪ the structural material
walls and beams can be thought of in terms of
concepts of frequency, pattern, simplicity,
regularity, randomness and complexity. As such, ▪ carries both lateral and
structure can be used to define space, create vertical loads to the
units, articulate circulation, suggest movement, substructure.
or develop composition and modulations. In this o As the main enclosure system,
way, it becomes inextricably linked to the very walls also provide a means for
elements which create architecture, its quality and expressing architectural forms
excitement.” (Clarke and Pause, 1985) through different shape and
sizes, ornaments and
STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
decorations
Ching (2014) defines structural systems as “as a o Examples:
stable assembly of elements designed and ▪ Hagia Sophia (Istanbul,
constructed to function as a whole in supporting Turkey)
and transmitting applied loads safely to the ▪ Heidi Weber Pavilion
ground without exceeding the allowable stresses (Zurich, Switzerland)
in the members”. - CONCEALINGTHE STRUCTURE
o structures may also be hidden
Structures have architectural qualities that can be
and concealed inside the building
used to enhance and enrich architectural
by the use of exterior cladding
experience. (Charleson, 2015)
and roofing systems
According to Ching (2014), there are three o primarily used when the designer
fundamental ways that structural systems relate do not want to use structures
to architectural design form. as the main tool for expressing
architectural forms and would
- EXPOSING THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
like to be given more freedom in
o Wall bearing systems of stone
expressing design
and masonry were the most
o Example:
commonly used structural
▪ Philharmonic Hall (Berlin,
systems until the late 18th
Germany)
century.
▪ used walls as the main - CELEBRATING THE STRUCTURE

structural support of o uses structures as a main

the building architectural design feature

o celebrates the form and
material used in the structure
 o sometimes provides expressions o The lowest division of the
that emphasize how the building
structure responded to the o mainly consisting of the
different forces that acted foundation that provides
upon them support to the superstructure
o Example: and safely transmit all structural
▪ Hong Kong and Shanghai loads to the soil
Bank (Hong Kong, China) - SUPERSTRUCTURE
o Structural expressions must be o consisted of enclosures and
carefully distinguished from interior structures
expressive forms which merely o the vertical extension of the
provide the appearance of a building from the foundation
‘functioning’ structural
ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL FORMS
member.
According to Charleson (2015), buildings usually
SUPERSTRUCTURE AND SUBSTRUCTURE
have two or three structural systems consisting
According to Ching (2015), physical systems of mainly of a.) gravity load resisting system (GLRS)
structures and enclosures may be categorized and b.) lateral load resisting system (LLRS) in both
into superstructure and substructure. orthogonal directions.

In the case of the Mont-Cenis Academy, a wooden

frame construction is used:

- the GLRS are wooden poles that carry

wooden trusses to support the roof
system
- the LLRS are steel tension bracing found
along the perimeter wall and roof planes.
(Charleson, 2015)
- SUBSTRUCTURE
There are different attitudes towards the SYNTHESIS OF ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL
relationship of architecture and structure: FORMS

Structures are either viewed as a ‘form- - SHELL STRUCTURE

follower’ or a ‘form-giver’. o known as surface structures
o considered the purest synthesis
- In a study conducted by Suckle, it was
of architectural and structural
found out that architects usually
forms
determine form and planning without
o Curved geometry, correct
including structures in the initial design
orientation and placement of
stages making structures an
supports are used to adequately
afterthought leading to the ‘form-
provide structural support to
follower’ scenario. the building. (Charleson,2015)
- On the other hand, Erickson argues that o Example: Palazzetto dello Sport
structure is a powerful determinant of (Rome, Italy)
form that has the capacity to distort or
modify other design considerations.
o It is important to find balance
between the relationship of
architecture and structure
depending on culture and
context of the design project.

Charleson (2015) also emphasized that structures

has the capacity to enrich architectural form
which is the overall goal.

“What is of utmost importance, however, is the

degree to which structure, whatever its
relationship to architectural form, helps to
express the architectural concepts, and
contributes to a successful realization of intended - FABRIC STRUCTURE
architectural qualities.” (Charleson, 2015) o also provide a clear synthesis
between architectural and
structural form
 o Tensioned fabrics are stretched
out to provide resistance
against self-weight and lateral
loads
o additional and separate
compression members are added
to properly support the
structure
o Example:
▪ Stellingen Ice Skating
Rink and Velodrome
(Germany)

o Portuguese Pavilion in Lisbon,

Portugal
▪ a catenary arc of steel
cables are draped
between two porticoes
▪ These are further
infilled with pre-
stressed concrete that
- CATENARY STRUCTURES
allows the self-weight
o defined as the “curve formed by
of the roof to maintain
a wire, rope, or chain hanging
stability and prevent
freely from two points and
uplift and vertical
forming a U shape.” (Oxford
movement.
Dictionary) - RIBBED STRUCTURE
o transfer their load thru tension o become building enclosures that
members which can be encased somehow restricts the height of
in reinforced concrete that very high storey buildings into a
creates the smooth surfaces. single volume
(Charleson, 2015)
 o Reichstag Cupola in Berlin
▪ radial ribs and
circumferential tubes
were used for the
building. (Charleson,
2015)

- FOLDED PLATES
o typically used for roofs and
walls
o The synthesis of structural and
architectural form is
demonstrated by introduction
of folds that stiffens the
structure resulting to less
- ARCHES
deflection
o characterized by a single convex
o The Hong Kong Gymnasium
curvature whose shape varies
▪ used 200 mm thick
from semicircular, pointed or
reinforced concrete
even parabolic
folded plates as a
o The Paul Klee Museum in Berlin,
structure and building
Germany
enclosure that spans
▪ characterized with 37
the entire length of the
arches that form three
gymnasium and then
different sized ‘hills’
folded down to the
which clearly expresses
walls. (Charleson, 2015)
the adjacent rolling hills.
(Charleson, 2015)
 - WALLS
o provide a means for synthesizing
architectural and structural
form
o provide not only building
enclosure but also serves as the
main structural support for the
building
o Zollverein School of Management
and Design
- FRAMED STRUCTURES ▪ Load bearing concrete
o Orthogonal skeletal structural walls with irregularly
framework and rectilinear forms shaped fenestrations
creates a harmonious synthesis are used to exhibit
of structural and architectural architectural character
form as exemplified by the Fuji and support the entire
TV building that uses varying structure. (Charleson,
sizes of structural frames that 2015)
merge with the rectilinear form
of the building. (Charleson, 2015)
CONTRAST OF ARCHITECTURAL AND STRUCTURAL Semiotics: signs and
FORMS symbols

- Architectural and structural forms may SEMIOTICS

also exhibit contrast in terms of:
- the study of meaning-making or
o Geometry
interpretation of signs
o Materials
- the study of sign processes and
o Scale
meaningful communication
o Texture
o signs
- Contrasting forms are characterized with
o sign processes indication
an element of surprise as observers
o designation
typically have a preconceived expectation
o likeness
of what the structure will be based on
o analogy
architectural experience
o metaphor
- If there is deviation from this
o symbolism
expectation, then there is contrast
o signification
between the architectural and structural
o communication
form. This allows for innovative and
- Ferdinand de Saussure (“so-SIR”) (1857-
creative architecture which must always
consider the culture and context of the 1913)

site. (Charleson, 2015) o “It is possible to conceive of a

- Example: science which studies the role of
o Santa Caterina Market (Barcelona, signs as part of social life. It
Spain) would form part of social
psychology, and hence of general
psychology. We shall call it
semiology. It would investigate
the nature of signs and the laws
governing them.”
- Signs and symbols can be studied, not
only in language (both written and spoken
forms), but also in rituals, culture, images
and art –in fact, anything that can be
‘read’.
- Semiotics is the study of signs and their - SIGNIFIER
meaning o The suggestion of a word,
o Words gesture, image, sound, or
o Gestures pattern that refers to a
o Images meaning
o Sounds - SIGNIFIED
o Objects o the idea or interpretation of
what the signifier is relating to

SEMIOTIC MESSAGES IN ARCHITECTURE

- SEMIOTICS
- Saussure and American philosopher o study of signs
Charles Sanders Peirce o the study of signs and symbols
o brought the term into of all kinds, what they mean, and
awareness how they relate to the things or
o the founders of Semiotics ideas they refer to
- COMMUNICATION
ELEMENTS OF SEMIOTICS
o Particularly nonverbal
- DENOTATION communication
o What we actually see - SUBLIMINAL MESSAGE
o The surface meaning o any message delivered beneath
o The primary or literal meaning of the human conscious threshold
a word and not the feeling or of perception
ideas the word conjures up o may be visual (words or images
- CONNOTATION flashed between the frames of
o What you associate with this a motion picture or television
image film) or aural (a radio message
o The deeper or hidden meanings broadcast constantly at very
and associations or low volume)
INTERPRETATIONS - SEMANTICS
o the feelings or ideas and cultural o study of symbols: the study of
meaning that is associated with the relationship between
a word or object
 symbols and what they On the hypothesis that “all cultural phenomena
represent are, in reality, systems of signs, or that culture
o “the form of the object must, can be understood as communication”
besides making the function
- One of the fields in which semiotics will
possible, denote that function
undoubtedly find itself most challenged is
clearly enough to make it
that of architecture.
practicable as well as desirable”
SEMIOTICIAN AND ARCHITECTURAL CRITIC
(RETHINKING ARCHITECTURE)

- Most architectural objects do not

communicate, but function.
- Thus, Architectural objects
communicate through their form and
function accordingly.
In human perception, the urban architectural-and- ARCHITECTURE AS COMMUNICATION
spatial environment acts as a system of mutually
replacing and interacting emotional-aesthetic - A phenomenological consideration of our

signs, symbols and images recognized in relationship with architectural objects

architectural bodies tells us that we commonly do experience

architecture as communication, even
- causes and determines the emotional- while recognizing its functionality.
aesthetic, symbolic and figurative - The Architectural Sign
perception of the image of the world by o the presence of a sign vehicle
man whose denoted meaning is the
Directly or indirectly, all the object-spatial function it makes possible
world surrounding man acts on him. o Example: Stairs
▪ Different forms
- From 85 to 90% of information about
▪ Same denotations
the surrounding world comes to humans ▪ Different
by vision connocatation
- Only 10-15%, by the senses of hearing,
smell, touch and kinesthetic feelings.
(Barabanov, 1991, 1992, 1997)
WHAT IS THE CONNECTION OF THE FORM AND - the ogive has no structural value, even if
FUNCTION? it gives the opposite impression;

- Through materialization in the o it is the webs of the ogival vault

architectural-spatial environment, that have the structural value

society leaves its anthropomorphic trace, - the ogive had a structural value in the

reflecting direct and indirect course of construction, functioning as a

interrelations between man and his sort of provisional framework;

environment, between human ideas, o the interplay of thrusts and

intentions, bodies, human organism counterthrusts was picked up by
proper and the architectural spatial the webs and by the other
environment, rich in volumes, shapes and elements of the structure, and
volumes in theory the ogives of the
- Even these interrelations manifest cross vaulting could have been
themselves in the interaction of the eliminated
signifier and the signified, with the latter
able to act both as a denotation and
connotation

- THE PARTHENON
o Powerful stylobate underscored
with rows of repeating steps,
producing a general feeling of
- the ogive has a structural function,
peace, satisfaction and strength
o the entire lofty and elegant
o Bunches of vertical lines rush
structure of a cathedral stands
upwards, and line-vectors of the
upon it
fluted columns converge above
▪ by virtue of the miracle
generating the feeling of noble
of equilibrium it allows
loftiness and exaltation
 o At that, an ultimate feeling of
strength, nobleness, reliance,
exaltation and balance is born in
the whole system of interacting
line vectors and shapes.
- FORM LINES are the emotional-aesthetic
signs personifying certain sensations,
ideas, phenomena, human virtues and
culture, appearing as kind of substitutes
to some

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SHAPES

- CIRCLE
- The combination of ideas as well as the o Signifies positive emotional
different kinds of memory involved in the message
process of human perception allows both o Promotes the sense of
the architect creator and the perceiving community, love, and unity
consumer, to reconstruct and create - SQUARE
new ideas. o Elicits stability and balance
- This is strongly dependent on subjective o Depict strength, professionalism,
factors of perception, such as ability to and efficiency in logo design
aesthetic perception, orientation to - TRIANGLE
perception, emotional state, etc. o Conveys mystery and power
o Often used as a part of sci-fi,
religious or law related brands
- VERTICAL LINE
o Communicates commitment and
strength
 o When used in logos, it reflects - In the absence of these, the importance
goals and progress should be given to unique things which
- HORIZONTAL LINE are difficult to obtain such as piece of
o Gives a sense of moving through art, marble for flooring, antique carpet
time because the variety of fabrics and paints
o Conveys futuristic and tech- is available in market in plenty
savviness in a logo design
For planning a color scheme, we must
APPLICATION OF COLORS consider three main components of shell:

- WALLS, FLOORS, CEILING

o People feel more comfortable in
room with light ceiling, medium
walls and dark floors and it
corresponds to the color of sky,
foliage and earth respectively
- PROPORTIONS OF THE ROOM
- Color scheme should be based upon the
o If a room is too large, the
certain concept and concept depends
effect can be subdued by using
upon the nature of space.
dark colors and complementary
o Concepts changes for formal
color schemes
space or informal space;
o If the room is too small, it can
▪ whether you want to
be made to appear larger by the
have fresh effect or
use of light colors and
aged effect
monochromatic and analogous
▪ whether you want to
color schemes
have organized
- BALANCE OF SOLIDS AND VOIDS
discipline or controlled
- determines the amount of light entering
chaos
into a room
- The first considerations are:
- If a room lighted more than the desired
o the orientation of the room
comfort level, then the effect can be
o existing finishes
subdued by use of dark colors
o furniture and the artifacts to
- If amount of light entering into the
be placed in room
room is lesser than the desired level then
 the effect can be subdued by use of light ▪ Examples: red, yellow,
colors orange with
- depends on the extent of windows in a complimentary colors.
room - For Nursery Schools, bright colors like red
- Proportions of each color in a color and yellow with complimentary color
scheme are also important schemes are used which depicts childhood
o You have to balance entire o RED depicts childhood
design scheme by use of light o YELLOW depicts youth
and dark colors o GREEN depicts maturity
o You have to identify the objects o BLUE depicts old age
which are to be painted with - Color concept for exterior façade
light color or dark color depends upon the weather building should
▪ smaller objects should merge with surrounding or it should be
be in dark colors isolated with the surrounding.
- Choice of color scheme also depends o When building is to merge with
upon the nature of projects surroundings, colors used are
o For residential areas, harmonious greens, light browns, blues which
color schemes (monochromatic are close to nature.
or analogous) are preferred and o For building which should be
preferably cool colors are used isolated from surrounding red,
on southern sides and little bit magenta colors are used.
of warm colors are used on - Larger areas on facade should be painted
northern side (Indian context) with light colors with small horizontal
o For Health Centers, soothing bands painted in dark colors.
colors are used with a little bit
CONCLUSION
of warmth such as combination
of off-whites and browns - The form of the building itself suggests
o For Hotels and Restaurants, its mode of inhabitation or function.
bright and warm colors are used - Its aesthetic properties like volume, mass,
with complimentary color texture, material suggest the concept
schemes. These colors are used behind it.
to provide stimulating and - Several ancient to postmodernist
exciting effects. architectural buildings have been
 purposefully designed to evoke certain architecture and architectural
feelings into people’s minds signification conditions
o might be seen as somewhat
CODIFICATION
analogous to a second
- The principle that form follows function articulation in verbal languages
might be restated: ▪ one is still short of
o the form of the object must, meanings there are
besides making the function certain formal
possible, denote that function conditions of
clearly enough to make it signification.
practicable as well as desirable,
2 SYNTACTIC CODES
clearly enough to dispose one to
- exemplified by typological codes
the actions through which it
concerning articulation into spatial types
would be fulfilled
(circular plan, Greek-cross plan, ‘open’
- Then all the ingenuity of an architect or
plan, labyrinth, high-rise, etc.)
designer cannot make a new form
- there are certainly other syntactic
functional (and cannot give form to a
conventions to be considered (a stairway
new function) without the support of
does not as a rule go through a window,
existing processes of codification
a bedroom is generally adjacent to a
1 TECHNICAL CODES bathroom, etc.)
- articulations of the kind dealt with in the
3 SEMANTIC CODES
science of architectural engineering
- concern the significant units of
- The architectural form resolves into
architecture, or the relations established
beams, flooring systems, columns, plates,
between individual architectural sign
reinforced-concrete elements, insulation,
vehicles and their denotative and
wiring, etc.
connotative meanings
- There is at this level of codification no
- might be subdivided as to whether,
communicative ‘content’, except of
through them, the units
course in cases where a structural (or
o denote primary functions (roof,
technical) function or technique itself
stairway, window)
becomes such;
o there is only a structural logic,
or structural conditions behind
 o have connotative secondary people, that are dynamic and
functions (tympanum, triumphal heterogeneous
arch, neo-Gothic arch) - “the whole way of life, material,
o connote ideologies of intellectual, and spiritual, of a given
inhabitation (common room, society” (KENNEY, 1994)
dining room, parlour) - “the complex of distinctive attainments,
o at a larger scale have typological beliefs, traditions which establish the
meaning under certain background of aracial, religious, or social
functional and sociological types group” (KENNEY, 1994)
(hospital, villa, school, palace,
- offers order, direction and guidance in
railroad station).
phases of human problem solving:
“Architecture is the art of wasting space.” Philip o When to socialize?
Johnson o Where to socialize?
o What to prepare for the
- Space and form is needed to
gathering?
o prepare us for the change of
o What to present during the
mood
gathering?
o To establish relationships
- embraces complex ways of living, value
o To separate activities
systems, traditions, beliefs and habits;
o To suggest or invite proper
including knowledge, morals, law and
behavior
customs, acquired by those within that
o It creates settings to organize
society
our lives, activates and
o provide for a set of ‘cultural
relationships
objects’
In architecture, space does this to us without
▪ symbolize a shared
noticing.
schematic experience,
Cultural basis of and which we recognize
architectural design as having cultural value
(Report, 2011)
CULTURE

- Learned patterns of perception, values

and behaviors, shared by a group of
TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE o an essential requirement for
survival
- ACCULTURATION
o the very first familiarization
o the process in which the people
process to a particular cutlure
of one culture adopts the
- LANGUAGE
culture of the other that is not
o a symbolic system through
originally their own
which people communicate and
▪ The original culture of
through which culture is
the person changes due
transmitted
to adoption of the
▪ Some languages contain
culture of the others
a system of symbols
o People who spend much of the
used for written
time in the foreign are likely to
communication
adopt the foreign culture and
▪ others rely on only
hence are the examples of the
spoken communication
acculturation
and nonverbal actions
o often seen in language, style of
- SYMBOLS
clothing, food habits, etc.
o a mark, sign, or word that
o the amalgamation of two
indicates, signifies, or is
cultures
understood as representing an
o not an essential requirement for
idea, object, or relationship
survival
- RITUALS
o not first but second or third
o a sequence of activities involving
familiarization to various
gestures, words, actions, or
cultures
objects, performed in a
- ENCULTURATION
sequestered place and according
o the process by which an
to a set sequence
individual learns about his/her
o may be prescribed by the
own culture
traditions of a community,
o simply a process where a child
including areligious community
learns about the own culture
o characterized, but not defined,
and adopts into it
by formalism, traditionalism,
o the acquisition of one’s own
invariance, rule-governance,
culture
 sacral symbolism, and CULTURE AND ARCHITECTURE
performance
The Relationship Between Culture And Architect
- SHARING OF CULTURE
o It’s important to share culture - “The culture of each society is identified
because, we still have a lot to through its manifestations such as
learn. language, art, and architecture, and
o it really is a matter of life and analysis in the field of culture is related
death to the study of cultural manifestations.
▪ culture is a way to (Ettehad et al., 2014).”
sustain people in the - “Architecture as a matter of human life
worst times reflects the culture in every society
▪ culture is a way to lift interacting closely with structural,
us up in our best times historical, political, economic and social
features of society. People in every
CULTURAL EFFETCS ON ARCHITECTURE
country try to follow their norms and
- Assimilation of social values maintain their values in making of
o Respect for church, state, laws architecture by applying the material
o Respect for human values such things. Changing the cultural and social
as conception of truths, attitudes in communities has the
manners, education greatest impact on the architecture.
o Love for arts ex. dancing, singing Therefore, the role of culture in
and sculpture promoting architectural identity seems
HOW TO INTEGRATE CULTURE AND ARCHITECTURE? essential. (Ettehad et al., 2014).”
- “The result is that the culture of each
- Use the site context –environment,
community defines the identity of the
people, climate, etc
community and architecture as a social
- Understand the local attitudes, behaviors,
phenomenon was originated from the
beliefs
culture and its effects. Art and
- Know the indigenous crafts, arts,
architecture are of the most important
materials
symptoms and characteristics of each
- Understand the traditions, gatherings,
nation and every historical period that
rituals
indicate the environment human’s lives
- Appreciate the clothing, music
at any time.” (Ettehad et al., 2014)
 - ARCHITECTURE IS THE PORTRAY IF A accomplishments of
NATION’S CULTURE human beings
o integrated with all aspects of o Ancient Greek Art
human life and has a profound ▪ emphasized the
impact on it importance and
o Architecture is the results accomplishments of
ofthe culture of the society human beings
(Parvizi, 2009) ▪ was meant honor the
▪ architecture is a gods, but the gods
reflection of city were created in the
culture, image of humans
▪ architecture can o Art and architecture were a
change our culture tremendous source of pride for
citizens and could be found in
In some cities you can study and understand the
various parts of the city as this
culture of its people from its buildings.
building became a symbol copied
- The Parthenon: The magnificent temple in many other countries
of Athens - THE GREAT PYRAMID
o The birth place of democracy o their environment and culture
o “In this building the Greeks produced the great pyramids
incorporated a fundamental o Their massive scale reflects the
principle of their culture: arête. unique role that the pharaoh

▪ To the Greeks, arête played in ancient Egyptian

society
meant excellence and
o The scale of in comparison to
reaching ones’ full
human size reflects the image
potential.
that the pharaoh wanted to
▪ Arete now means
present himself to others as he
“excellence of any
is the god, he is the most
kind” or “moral virtue”
important thing in the country
▪ Parthenon’s culture o Egyptians’ pyramids culture
emphasized on the
emphasized on the importance
importance and
of one human being.
- THE HOUSE OF WISDOM o Further translating books into
o Famous buildings in any Arabic, scholars associated with
civilization reflects its culture in the House of Wisdom also made
786-809 during Islamic Golden many remarkable original
Age contributions to diverse fields
o a multi-cultural library and (Al-Khalili, 2011).
intellectual center o From this building we can
o transformed the Western understand cultural aspects
Civilization (Lyons, 2010) regards Islamic empire during
o MID-NINTH CENTURY - the House that era:
of Wisdom had the largest ▪ Islamic rule at that
selection of books in the world time encourages
(Al-Khalili, 2011)” Interfaith Dialogue and
o destroyed in the sack of the city did not reject people
following the Mongol Siege of just because of they
Baghdad (1258) believe and religion
o a reflection of Arabic culture Education and learning
at that time was a strong element
▪ Harun al-Rashid was the of Islamic culture
Caliph who founded it ▪ The House of wisdom
and culminated it was built to be a
reputation under his multicultural library,
son al-Ma'mun. which embrace Islamic
o During al-Ma’mun rule, many culture at that time,
well-known scholars brought to which encourages
this building in order to share discovering different
information, ideas and culture people cultures around
(Al-Khalili, 2011). the world as it admires
o welcomed scholars and people the diversity of
of Jewish or Christian cultures to enrich the
background who were allowed society
to study in this building (Meri,
1973).
 ▪ The value of knowledge o In 1930, President Herbert Hoover
no matter from where employed the appropriation bill
it came. for the Boulder Dam
▪ Collaboration and ▪ Work started on the
working together was dam in 1931
an important value of ▪ Las Vegas' population
this culture increased from around
5,000 citizens to 25,000,
Other’s cities the architecture of buildings create
with most of the
the culture of the city
newcomers looking for
- MECCA a job building the dam
o known to the Muslim faithful as o Business owner here start
the mother of Cities thinking how to make money
o holiest place in the Islamic world from this increase male
o It was here that Muhammad the population
Prophet was born in 570, ▪ build a market for large
o the Great Mosque that Al-Ka'aba, scale entertainment
the most sacred monument of ▪ Mafia gangs think of
Islam, awaits the Muslim pilgrim. this market as a
o was a desert, a building (Al- suitable place for drags
Ka'aba) changed the culture of money laundry
this city to what we know today o A combination of local Las Vegas
- LAS VEGAS business owners, and Mafia crime
o From a Mormon-funded desert lords helped develop the casinos
town to a beacon of organized and showgirl theatres to
crime entertain the largely male dam
o Starting out as a small railroad construction workers,
town, over the past 150 years ▪ changed Las Vegas local
this desert oasis transformed to culture for today
a major hub for crime, gambling culture
and parties o that changes in the culture of
this city required a building
 designed with a specific function o leaves an imprint on the city, as
to create this change it effects human culture and
lifestyle
THE COMPLEXITY OF CUTLURE
o Religious structures dominate
- should be understood as involving more many landscapes
than the values and needs of a group of o Religious traditions leave their
people but the entire "way of life" of mark on the physical appearance
that society of an area.(Park, 2004)
- a system or complex of distinctive o Example:
attainments and traditions ▪ Hindu ritual bathing in
- a system of interconnected beliefs and the Ganges
values (KENNEY, 1994) ▪ Religious observance –

FACTORS THAT AFFECT A SOCIETY CULTURE: church attendance

o “it is remarkable how much
- RELIGION
time, energy and –above all –
o the religious person is one who
money are put into the
seeks coherence and meaning in
construction of religious
his world
buildings all over the world
o a religious culture is one that
(Verkaaik, 2013)
has a clearly structured world
o SAGRADA FAMÍLIA
view
▪ Construction began in
o The religious impulses to tie
1882 and still not
things together
finished until today
o All human beings are religious if
▪ an anticipated
religion is broadly defined as the
completion date of
impulse for coherence and
2026
meaning
▪ Paul Goldberger
o The strength of the impulse
describes it as, "The
varies enormously from culture
to culture, and from person to most extraordinary

person personal interpretation

of Gothic architecture
since the Middle Ages."
Religion affect architects in three different ways: details of the
responsibilities and
- PLACE FOR WORSHIP, OR “SACRED
rights of its followers
ARCHITECTURE”
(Saleh, 1998)
o Religious architectural practice
▪ Islamic architecture
that was designed and
and Islamic cities were
constructed for worship, such
built on the Islamic
as:
principles and guidelines
▪ Mosque
inspired by the Qur’an
▪ Church
and the Sunnah since
▪ Temple
the beginning of Islam
▪ synagogue
(611 AD)
- VISUAL DESIGN ELEMENTS
- IDENTITY
o Islamic geometries, Rose
- SOCIAL LIFE
windows, cross, sculptures,
- POLITICS
domes
- GLOBALIZATION

behavioral basis of
architectural design

BEHAVIOR

- The range of actions and mannerisms

made by organisms, systems, or artificial
entities in conjunction with their
environment
o includes the other systems or
- PRINCIPLES THAT ORGANIZE THE WAY organisms around as well as the
PEOPLE LIVE physical environment
o Islam as an example - communicates valuable information that
▪ Islam is a way of living otherwise may go unknown
▪ sets out principles and - In psychology, behavior consists of an
guidelines for the life organism's external reactions to its
style of Muslims, giving environment
 - may be modified according to positive or ▪ Material and Color
negative reinforcements from the ▪ Ventilation and Lighting
organism's environment or according to ▪ Ornaments and Details
self-directed intentions ▪ Non-visual Qualities
- SOCIAL CULTURAL BACKGROUND
o SOCIAL PARAMETERS
▪ Family Structure
▪ Neighborhood
Organization
▪ Privacy and Territory
▪ Public Relations
▪ Economical Aspect
▪ Political Aspect
o CULTURAL PARAMETERS
▪ History
▪ Religion
THE SEMIOLOGY APPROACH IN ARCHITECTURE ▪ Ideology
▪ Traditions and Customs
- ARCHITECTURAL MECHANISM ▪ Beliefs
o SPATIAL ORGANIZATION ▪ Ideals
▪ Type of Spatial
Organization BEHAVIORAL DESIGN IN ARCHITECTURE

▪ Circulation System - a sub-category of design, which is

▪ Behavioral System concerned with how design can shape, or
▪ Space-Sequence (Open, be used to influence human behavior
Semi-open, and Closed - Areas in which design for behavior change
Spaces) has been most applied include
▪ Functional Areas o health and wellbeing
Classification o sustainability
▪ Private and Public Zones o safety and social context,
o PHYSICAL STRUCTURE o crime prevention
▪ Climatic Features
▪ Building Configuration
▪ Proportions and Scale
HOW DOES ARCHITECTURE INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR? o always seeking to understand
how the physical environment
- An architect can control human behavior
impacts individuals through:
with his design by understanding the way
▪ the liberation of
that a building's design can influence a
chemical substances
person's behavior
such as hormones or
- modifying the individual's mood and
neurotransmitters
perception, whether the environment is
▪ gene expression
natural or man-made
▪ brain plasticity or the
- NEURO ARCHITECTURE
alteration of mental
o the application of neuroscience
states, emotions and
in constructed spaces
behaviors.
o to better comprehend the
o Studies areas
impact of architecture on the
▪ wayfinding and memory
brain and human behavior
▪ Illumination
o has an interdisciplinary character
▪ Perception
o establishes rich interfaces with
▪ Biophilia
traditional architecture and
- GOALS OF NEURO ARCHITECTURE
urbanism
o to make human action more
▪ relation between
effective
constructed
o to create healthier spaces
environments and their
o ‘Efficiency with quality of life
users
▪ improving the and personal well-being’ through

comprehension of the conception and the

various messages that strategic use of space
the environment - BEHAVIOR MODELING
transmits, including o The study of the way people will
those on less conscious move through a space under a
levels of perception given set of conditions
o Studies molecular and the o used to analyze the design of
cellular to the level of systems buildings that accommodate
and behaviors large crowds though the range
 of events and decisions that can ▪ PERSONAL (18 inches to
be modeled is quickly expanding. 4 feet)
▪ shopping complex ▪ SOCIAL (4 to 10 feet)
▪ transit centers ▪ PUBLIC (over 10 feet)
▪ stadiums
▪ airports
▪ multi-modal facility

PROXEMICS

- a theory of non-verbal communication

- explains how people perceive and use
space to achieve communication goals
- Introduced by anthropologist Edward T. - The distances outlined are those
Hall in the 1960s deliberately chosen by individuals.
- emerged from studies of animal behavior - Forced closeness DOES NOT factor in
conducted in the 19th and early 20th proxemics
centuries - Proxemics behavior is learned mostly
- humans use personal space and concrete from observing others rather than from
objects to establish territories explicit instruction
- Proxemics is one of five non-verbal o personal distance and physical
communication theories contact varies by culture
o semiotics (sign language) - The physical distance between
o kinesics (body language) communicators indicates the type of
o haptics (touch) relationship they have
o chronemics (time) o Body angles, touch and eye
In his book, The Silent Language, Edward Hall contact further reveal the
outlined the following ideas behind proxemic familiarity between people
theory: o Americans generally prefer 18
inches of personal space
- There are four types of distances people
keep:
▪ INTIMATE (0 to 18
inches)
ISSUES IN BEHAVIOR AND ARCHITECTURE - TYPES OF TERRITORIES
o BODY TERRITORY
- Hall believed that proxemics could:
▪ refers to the personal
o help illuminate relationships and
space, or “bubble,”
communication goals
that one maintains
o explain other cultural and
around their person
anthropological phenomena,
▪ Invisible boundary
such as the organization of
surrounding the
towns and living spaces
- Furniture, walls, streets, buildings and person’s body into

fences are arranged in ways that which intruders may

delineate one’s territory, whether for not come
o PRIMARY TERRITORY
living, working or meeting others.
▪ one’s home, vehicle or
TERRITORY
other living space
- designed to provide comfort for their o SECONDARY TERRITORY
owners and produce anxiety within ▪ a structured place
intruders where entry is reserved
- color is used to identify certain kinds of for particular
territories and the behavior expected individuals
from those who enter them ▪ certain norms are
o a bright purple sofa in a small expected, such as a
apartment would encourage a school, office or
fun, carefree attitude church.
o a pristine white sofa in the same o PUBLIC TERRITORY
apartment would indicate an ▪ an open space where
owner who prefers formality anyone can come and
and restraint go, such as a park or
o Restaurants painted in soothing shopping mall
pastels invite diners to linger - Territories can overlap
over their meals o a book club might meet in a
o those decorated with loud, person’s home
obnoxious tones say, “Eat
quickly and leave.”
 ▪ For the homeowner, barriers to control
the home is a primary unwanted intrusions
territory - CROWDING
▪ For the book club o associated with a feeling of lack
members, it’s a of control over the
secondary territory environment
- Territories function as a way to protect o leads to negative behavior
their owners’ comfort, interests and because they are related to
possessions from unwelcome invaders social overload
o results from overmanning of
PRIVACY
behavior settings
- the ability of an individual or groups of - DESIGN IMPLICATIONS
individuals to control their visual, o need for privacy greater for
auditory, olfactory interactions with introverts than for extroverts
others o extroverts like contrast with
- the ability to have options and to achieve the environment
desired level of interactions. o introverts like courtyards
- KINDS OF PRIVACY o extroverts like strong central
o SOLITUDE plans
▪ state of being free o introverts like complex internal
from observation by relationships and clear territorial
others patterns
o INTIMACY o people under stress need more
▪ state of being with privacy for workplaces
another person but - LEVELS OF PRIVACY AND CULTURE
free from the outside o traditional Islamic dwelling vs.
world Traditional American dwelling
o ANONYMITY o the delineation of spaces in the
▪ state of being unknown traditional Bahay Kubo, the
even in a crowd Bahay na Bato
o RESERVE - LEVELS OF PRIVACY AND CLIMATE
▪ state in which a person o trade-offs between privacy and
employs psychological comfort
 o physiological comfort vs. o monitored by computers or
cultural requirements cameras
- PERSONALIZATION - TERRITORIAL VARIATION
o staking claims to places o as a factor of:
o manifestation of desire for ▪ social class
control and expression of ▪ civil status
aesthetic tastes ▪ religion
o effort to make an environment - SOFT ARCHITECTURE
fit activity better o the building or environment can
o done for psychological security be personalized without damage
to them or without difficult
TERRITORIALITY
surgery
- a delimited space that a person or a o residential buildings
group uses and defends as an exclusive
preserve
- involves psychological identification with
a place
- BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRITORIES
o ownership of and rights to a
place
o personalization of marking of an
area
o defense against intrusions
o serve functions ranging from
physiological to self-
actualization
- SYSTEM OF HUMAN TERRITORIES
o DEFENSIBLE SPACE: a space that
affords easy recognition and
control of activities
o Levels:
o visual access
o adjacency