Chapter-2

NEET WEIGHTAGE

YEAR 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

NO OF
QUESTIONS 4 4 3 3 4 3 2 1
 2.1 Kingdom Monera
2.2 Kingdom Protista
2.3 Kingdom Fungi
2.4 Kingdom Plantae
2.5 Kingdom Animalia
2.6 Viruses, viroids, prions and lichens
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INTRODUCTION
• The process of grouping together
various organisms according to
their similarities, dissimilarities and
phylogenetic descent is known as
biological classification.
5
 Aristotle’s classification
• Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for classification
of organisms.
• He classified plants to trees, shrubs & herbs and animals into 2 groups, those
with red blood and without red blood.

Mammals,
Red Blood lizards, birds,
fish

ANIMALS
Hard bodied insects
No Red
Blood Shell Shellfish
Soft bodied
No shell Jellyfish
 Two-Kingdom classification
• It is proposed by Linnaeus (1758).
• This system classifies organisms into Two Kingdoms- Plantae & Animalia.

Kingdom
Plantae
Organisms
Kingdom
Animalia
 Two-Kingdom classification
Drawbacks of 2-kingdom classification
• Prokaryotes (Bacteria, cyanobacteria) & eukaryotes
(fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms & angiosperms)
were included under ‘Plants’ based on the presence of
cell wall. But they are widely differed in other features.

• It included unicellular & multicellular organisms in

same group. E.g. Chlamydomonas & Spirogyra were
placed under algae. Chlamydomonas Spirogyra

• It did not differentiate between heterotrophic fungi

and autotrophic green plants. Fungi have chitinous cell
wall while the green plants have cellulosic cell wall.
• Ernst Haeckel(1866) proposed a three-kingdom
system of classification.
• Haeckel's three kingdoms were;
Animalia, Plantae, and Protista.
• Members of the kingdom Protista included
the protozoa, fungi, bacteria, and other
microorganisms.
• In 1938, Herbert F. Copeland proposed a four-
kingdom classification
• The Three Domain System, developed by Carl
Woese in 1990, is a system for classifying
biological organisms.
• Three domains are: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
11
 Five-Kingdom classification
• It is proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969).
• It includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae & Animalia.
• This classification is based on cell structure, thallus organisation, mode of
nutrition, reproduction & phylogenetic relationships.

Organisms

Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
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 Characteristics of the five Kingdom
Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Non-cellulosic Present
Present
Cell wall (polysaccharide + Present in some (Chitin & poly- Absent
(cellulose)
amino acid) saccharides)
Nuclear
Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Multicellular, Tissue/organ/
Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
organization loose tissue organ system
Autotrophic
(photosynthetic &
Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Mode of chemosynthetic)
(photosynthetic) (saprophytic (photo- (holozoic,
nutrition and heterotrophic
& heterotrophic or parasitic) synthetic) saprophytic etc)
(saprophyte/
parasite)
 2.1 KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

• Bacteria are the most abundant microorganisms.

• Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil.
• They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs,
deserts, snow & deep oceans.
• Many are parasites.
 2.1 KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

Based on the shape, bacteria are 4 types:

Coccus (Spherical)

Bacillus (Rod-shaped)

Vibrium (Comma-shaped)

Spirillum (Spiral)
8/13/2021 18
2.1 KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)

• Bacterial structure is very simple

but they are complex in
behaviour and show metabolic
diversity.
• Some bacteria are autotrophic
(synthesize food from inorganic
substrates).
• Majority are heterotrophs (they
do not synthesize the food but
depend on other organisms or on
dead organic matter for food).
2.1 KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA) CLASSIFICATION

Halophiles

Thermo-
Archaebacteria acidophiles

Methanogens

Bacteria Photosynthetic
autotrophs
Autotrophs
Chemosynthetic
autotrophs
Eubacteria
Parasitic
Heterotrophs
Saprophytic
 2.1.1 ARCHAEBACTERIA
• They live in harshest habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs
(thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
• Archaebacteria have a different cell wall structure for their survival in extreme
conditions.
• Methanogens are present in the guts of ruminant animals (cows, buffaloes etc). They
produce methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals.
 2.1.2 EUBACTERIA

• They are True Bacteria having a rigid cell wall and a flagellum (if motile).
• They include Autotrophs (photosynthetic & chemosynthetic) and Heterotrophs.
 2.1.2 EUBACTERIA
A. Photosynthetic autotrophs (E.g. Cyanobacteria)
• They have chlorophyll a similar to that of
green plants.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
• Unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
marine or terrestrial algae.
• The colonies are generally surrounded by
gelatinous sheath.
• They often form blooms in polluted water
bodies.
• Some of them fix atmospheric N2 in
specialized cells called heterocysts.
• E.g. Nostoc & Anabaena.
AnabaenaNostoc
 2.1.2 EUBACTERIA
B. Chemosynthetic autotrophs

Green sulphur bacteria Purple sulphur bacteria

• They oxidize inorganic substances such as

nitrates, nitrites & ammonia and use the
released energy for ATP production.
• They help in recycling nutrients like nitrogen,
Venenivibrio stagnispumantis
phosphorous, iron & sulphur.
 2.1.2 EUBACTERIA
C. Heterotrophic bacteria

• They are the most

Hetero- abundant in nature.
trophic
bacteria • The majority are important
decomposers.
 2.1.2 EUBACTERIA
C. Heterotrophic bacteria: Impacts on Human affairs
Rhizobium
 They are used to make curd
from milk.
 Production of antibiotics.
 Fixing nitrogen in legume
roots etc.
Vibrio cholerae
 Some are pathogens
causing diseases.
E.g. Cholera, typhoid,
tetanus, and citrus canker.
Salmonella typhi
 REPRODUCTION

• Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission.

• Under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores.
• They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction (DNA transfer from
one bacterium to other).
 MYCOPLASMAS

• They are organisms without a cell wall.

• They are the smallest living cells known.
• They can survive without oxygen.
• Many are pathogenic in animals and plants.
Diseases:
• Yellow dwarf disease of
rice
• Little leaf disease of
Brinjal
• Mycoplasma
pneumoniae is an causes
lung infection.
2.2
 Well defined
It includes nucleus & other Some have
single-celled membrane- flagella or
eukaryotes. bound cilia.
organelles.
 Reproduce
Protists are It is a link with asexually and
primarily plants, animals sexually (cell
aquatic. and fungi. fusion & zygote
formation).
 CLASSIFICATION

Protista

Chrysophytes

Dinoflagellates

Euglenoids

Slime moulds

Protozoans
 I. CHRYSOPHYTES
• Found in fresh water and marine environments.
• Microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
• Most of them are photosynthetic.
• It includes diatoms & golden algae (desmids).
 I. CHRYSOPHYTES
DIATOMS
• They have siliceous cell walls forming two thin overlapping
shells, which fit together as in a soap box.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
 I. CHRYSOPHYTES
DIATOMS
• They have siliceous cell walls forming two thin overlapping shells, which fit
together as in a soap box.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
• The cell wall deposit of diatoms over billions of years in their habitat is
known as ‘diatomaceous earth’. This is used in polishing, filtration of oils
and syrups.
 II. DINOFLAGELLATES
• Mostly marine and photosynthetic.
• They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the
main pigments in cells.
• Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
 II. DINOFLAGELLATES
• Most of them have 2 flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other
transversely in a furrow between wall plates.
• Red dinoflagellates (E.g. Gonyaulax) undergo rapid multiplication so that the
sea appears red (red tides). They release toxins that kill marine animals like
fishes.

Red tides
 III. EUGLENOIDS
• Mainly fresh water organisms found in stagnant water.
• Instead of cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle. It
gives flexibility to body.
• They have 2 flagella, a short and a long one.
 III. EUGLENOIDS
• They are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight.
• In the absence of sunlight, they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other organisms.
• The pigments are identical to those of higher plants.
• E.g. Euglena.
 IV. SLIME MOULDS
• They are saprophytic protists.
• The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material.
• Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium. It
may spread over several feet.
 IV. SLIME MOULDS
• Under unfavourable conditions, plasmodium differentiates and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.
• Spores have true walls. They are highly resistant and survive for many
years.
• Spores are dispersed by air currents.
 V. PROTOZOANS
• They are heterotrophs (predators or parasites).
• They are primitive relatives of animals.
4 groups of Protozoans

Amoeboid Protozoans

Flagellated Protozoans

Ciliated Protozoans

Sporozoans

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 V. PROTOZOANS
A. AMOEBOID PROTOZOANS
• Live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil.
• They move and capture prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet). E.g.
Amoeba.
• Marine forms have silica shells on their surface.
• Some are parasites. E.g. Entamoeba.

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 V. PROTOZOANS
B. FLAGELLATED PROTOZOANS
• Free-living or parasitic.
• They have flagella.
• Parasitic forms cause diseases like sleeping sickness. E.g.
Trypanosoma.

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 V. PROTOZOANS
C. CILIATED PROTOZOANS
• Aquatic, actively move using cilia.
• They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to outside.
• Due to the movement of cilia, water with food enters into gullet.
• E.g. Paramecium.

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 V. PROTOZOANS
D. SPOROZOANS
• They have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
• E.g. Plasmodium (malarial parasite). It causes malaria.

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2.3
• Unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms.
• They are cosmopolitan.
• They grow in warm and humid places.
• E.g. Bread Mould, Orange Rots, Mushroom, Toadstools etc.
• White spots on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus.

Bread Mould Orange rots Mushroom Toadstool (Toxic mushroom)

• Some fungi are the source of antibiotics. E.g. Penicillium.
• Some unicellular fungi (e.g. Yeast) are used to make bread and beer.
• Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals. E.g. wheat rust-
causing Puccinia.
• Except yeasts, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist
of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae.
• The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
• Hyphae are 2 types:
o Coenocytic hyphae: They are continuous tubes filled
with multinucleated cytoplasm.
o Septate hyphae: They have septae or cross walls.
• Fungal cell wall is made of chitin & polysaccharides.

Fungal cell wall

Septate hyphae Coenocytic hyphae
• Most fungi are saprophytes (absorb soluble organic matter from dead
substrates).
• Some are parasites.
• Some live as symbionts. E.g. Lichens (fungi+ algae), mycorrhiza (fungi + roots
of higher plants).

Lichen Mycorrhiza
 REPRODUCTION
Fragmentation
Vegetative
Fission
propagation
budding

Conidia
Asexual reproduction
Reproduction (By asexual spores)
Sporangiospores
Zoospores

Oospores
Sexual reproduction
Ascospores
(By sexual spores)
Basidiospores
 REPRODUCTION
1. Vegetative Propagation
By fragmentation, fission & budding.
 REPRODUCTION
2. Asexual Reproduction
By spores such as Conidia, Sporangiospores & Zoospores.
 REPRODUCTION
3. Sexual Reproduction
• By oospores, ascospores & basidiospores.
• They are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies.
 REPRODUCTION
3. Sexual Reproduction
• Plasmogamy: Fusion of protoplasm of two motile or non-motile gametes.
3 steps of
• Karyogamy: Fusion of two nuclei.
sexual cycle
• Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
 REPRODUCTION
3. Sexual Reproduction
• In sexual reproduction, two haploid hyphae come together and fuse.
• In some fungi, fusion of 2 haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells (2n).
 REPRODUCTION
3. Sexual Reproduction
• In ascomycetes & basidiomycetes, a dikaryotic stage or dikaryophase (n + n i.e. two
nuclei per cell) occurs. Such a condition is called a dikaryon.
• Later, parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid.
 REPRODUCTION
3. Sexual Reproduction
• Fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of
haploid spores.
 CLASSIFICATION
Based on the morphology of mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting
bodies, Fungi are classified as follows:

4 classes of Fungi

Phycomycetes

Ascomycetes

Basidiomycetes

Deuteromycetes
 I. PHYCOMYCETES (Lower Fungi)
• They occur in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist and damp places or as
obligate parasites on plants.
• The mycelium is aseptate & coenocytic.
• E.g. Mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould) and Albugo (parasitic fungi on mustard).
 I. PHYCOMYCETES (Lower Fungi)
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

• By motile zoospores or non-motile • Fusion of two gametes form Zygospores.

aplanospores. • Gametes are isogamous (similar) or
• These are produced in sporangium. anisogamous or oogamous (dissimilar).
 II. ASCOMYCETES (Sac-Fungi)

• Unicellular (e.g. yeast, Sacharomyces) or multicellular (e.g.

Penicillium).
• Mycelium is branched and septate.
• They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous
(growing on dung).
 II. ASCOMYCETES (Sac-Fungi)
• By conidia produced exogenously on the special mycelium called
Asexual conidiophores.
reproduction
• Conidia germinate to produce mycelium.
 II. ASCOMYCETES (Sac-Fungi)

Sexual • By ascospores produced endogenously in sac like asci (sing. ascus).

reproduction • Asci are arranged to form ascocarps (fruiting bodies).
 II. ASCOMYCETES (Sac-Fungi)
• Aspergillus, Claviceps & Neurospora.
Examples • Neurospora is used in biochemical and genetic work.
• Morels & truffles are edible and are delicacies.
 III. BASIDIOMYCETES

• Includes mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.

• They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant
bodies as parasites (e.g. rusts & smuts).
• Mycelium is branched & septate.

Mushrooms Bracket fungi Puffballs

 III. BASIDIOMYCETES
• The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by
fragmentation is common.
• Sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy occurs by fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic. It gives rise
to basidium.
 III. BASIDIOMYCETES
• Karyogamy & meiosis occur in basidium producing 4 basidiospores
exogenously.
• Basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
• E.g. Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) & Puccinia (rust fungus).
 IV. DEUTEROMYCETES

• Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only

their asexual or vegetative phases are known.
• When perfect (sexual) stages were discovered they
were often moved to ascomycetes or
basidiomycetes.
• It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative
stage have been given one name placing under
deuteromycetes and the sexual stage another
name placing under another class. When the
linkages were established, the fungi were correctly
identified and moved out of deuteromycetes.
 IV. DEUTEROMYCETES
• Deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores (conidia).
• Mycelium is septate and branched.
• Some are saprophytes or parasites. Majority are
decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling.
• E.g. Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.