Equations used in classical mechanics.

60o

By

Håkan Wirdelius and Sune Olsson

 STATICS  

Cartesian coordinate system with unit vectors   e x ,  ey  och  ez .  

Forcevector:   F = Fx e x + Fy e y + Fz e z

Norm (size):   F = F = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

Unit vector  definied by the orientation of the force  F:   , F = FeF

with  A  and  B  being two points on the line of action, i.e. have the same orientation as F.  

The projection of Fλ on a line  λ  defined by the unit vector  e :   λ

Fλ = Fλ eλ z
F B
i.e. the component of  F  in  direction  e  is: λ P

A λ
Fλ = F ⋅ eλ
e
z

e
λ

Note!  Scalar (dot) product  

This is also a general method to identify e
x
e
y

the projection of a general vector onto a

O
given direction.   x y

The moment vector (torque) produced by

the force  F  about  O:  

MO = r × F  

with  r =   being the position vector which runs from the moment reference
point O to any point on the line of action F (e.g point  P).  

1  
Equilibrium Conditions:  A rigid body remains in equilibrium if and only if all forces and
moments applied to it are in balance. These requirements are contained in the vector equations
of equilibrium:
R = ∑F = 0  ,     M =∑ MA = 0 ,  about any point A on or off the body.
(2  vector equations each with 3 components, gives 6 scalar equations)  

In the 2D case these reduces into:  

∑F x = 0 ,     ∑ Fy = 0 ,     ∑ MA = 0 ,  about any point A on or off the body  

Friction:  
P
Static equilibrium (at rest):   F ≤ µs N
In the limit of slipping:   F = µs N

N
When slipping (motion):   F = µk N
P
F
µ s  =  static friction coefficient  
µ k  =  kinetic friction coefficient   Q
F  =  friction force
N  =  normal force

A light rope (cable, belts)  wrapped over a

fix,  circular cylinder:  
S2 e −µα < S1 < S2 e µα   α
In the limit of slipping  and S1 > S2 :       S1 = S2e µα  
S1 S2
µ =  static friction coefficient
α =  is the total angle of contact (radians).

section at position x
The conventions for positive values
of shear T and bending moment M:  
x

M M T

N N
T

2  
Center of mass:  The position vector to the center of mass is defined as:

∑m r i i
System of particles:   r= i =1
N

∑m
i =1
i

Continuous mass distribution:   r=

∫ rdm = ∫ rρdV
∫ dm ∫ ρdV
N

∑m r i i
Composite bodies:   r= i =1
N

∑m
i =1
i

The mass center components of composite bodies:  

N N N

∑ mi x i ∑ mi y i ∑m z i i
x= i =1
N ;   y= i =1
N ;   z= i =1
N

∑m
i =1
i ∑m
i =1
i ∑m
i =1
i

For one or two dimensional bodies this may be reduced as:

N N

∑ λLi xi ∑L x i i
Slender rod, Lenght L, with density λ  (kg/m):   x= i =1
N = i =1
N

∑ λL
i =1
i ∑L
i =1
i

N N

∑ σAi xi ∑A x i i
Thin sheet, Area  A,  with density  σ  (kg/m2):   x= i =1
N = i =1
N

∑ σA
i =1
i ∑Ai =1
i

N N

∑ ρVi xi ∑V x i i
Body, Volym V, with uniform density  ρ  (kg/m3):   x= i =1
N = i =1
N

∑ ρV
i =1
i ∑V
i =1
i

(correspondingly for y and z coordinates)

3  
 DYNAMICS

Kinematics of Particles:  

Position,  velocity and acceleration:  

dr dv d 2 r
r (t ), v(t ) = ≡ r! , a(t ) = = = !r!
dt dt dt 2

Rectangular coordinates:  

r (t) = x(t)e x + y(t)e y + z(t)e z (x; y; z)

z
r
v(t) = r!(t) = x! (t)e x + y! (t)e y + z!(t)e z

a(t) = !r!(t) = !x!(t)ex + !y!(t)e y + !z!(t)ez x y

Normal and tangential (s) coordinates:  

e
v2 s

vn = 0 , vs = v = s! , an = , as = v! = !s!
ρ
en

s
If circular motion (defined by r(t) and ϕ(t)):  
C
v2
vn = 0 , vs = v = rϕ! , an = = rϕ! 2 , as = v! = rϕ!!
r

Polar coordinates:  

vr = r! , vϕ = rϕ! , ar = !r! − rϕ! 2 , aϕ = rϕ!! + 2r!ϕ!

P
r
If circular motion (defined by r(t) and ϕ(t)):   e
ϕ
e
r

ϕ
vr = 0, vϕ = rϕ! , ar = −rϕ! , aϕ = rϕ!!  
2 O fixed axis

4  
Kinetics of Particles:  

Newton's  second law:   ∑ F = ma

Work:  

A force F is acting on a particle.   The work

done by the force during the displacement ds:   dW = F ⋅ ds  

P2

The total amount of work done,  from point P1 to  P2:   W12 = ∫ F ⋅ ds  

P1

Potential  energy:  

In one dimension:  
If the force  F(x)  has the potential V(x):   dV
F ( x) = − ex
dx

Three examples:  

⎧ F ( z) = −mge z
1. Gravitational potential energy ⎨
⎩V ( z) = mgz

⎧ F ( x) = − kxe x
⎪
2. Elastic potential energy ⎨ 1 2
⎪⎩V ( x) = 2 kx
k  =  stiffness  and  x  =  deformation  

⎧ F (r ) = − GmM e
M r
3. Gravitational force
m F F ⎪⎪ r2
⎨
e
r ⎪V (r ) = − GmM
⎪⎩ r
r

1
Kinetic  energy:   T= mv 2
2

5  
Principle of work and kinetic energy:   W  =  ∆T  

W  =  total work done by all forces acting on a particle.  

∆T  =  T2  –  T1  =  change of kinetic energy of the particle.  

Introduce:   W(c)  =  work done by all conservative forces  =  –  ∆V

W(nc)  =  work done by all non-conservative forces:  

W(c) + W(nc) = ∆T,  i.e.    W(nc) = ∆T + ∆V

If a "conservative"  system  (i.e.  W(nc)  =  0):     ∆T + ∆V = 0,  i.e.  T1 + V1 = T2 + V 2

dW ds
Power:   P= = F ⋅ = F ⋅v
dt dt

Poutput
Efficiency:   η=
Pinput

Linear momentum:   p = mv  

Then Newton's second law:   ∑ F = p!

t2

The linear impulse-momentum principle:   ∫ Σ F dt = p

t1
2 − p1

Angular momentum  about the origin  O:   LO = r × p = r × mv  

Rate of change of angular momentum about the origin  O:   ∑M O = L! O

t2

The angular impulse-momentum principle:   ∫ΣM

t1
O dt = LO , 2 − LO ,1

6  
Kinetics of System of Particles:  

Newton's second law (center of mass):   ∑ F = ma = m!r!

Linear momentum:   p = ∑ pi = ∑ mi vi = mv  

Then Newton's second law:   ∑ F = p!

t2

The linear impulse-momentum principle:   ∫ Σ F dt = p

t1
2 − p1

Angular momentum about the origin O:   LO = ∑ LOi = ∑ ri × mi v i

Rate of change of angular momentum about the origin O   ∑M O = L! O

Angular momentum about the center of mass:   L = ∑ ρi × mi ρ! i

(with ρi = ri − r )  

!
Rate of change of angular momentum about the center of mass:   ∑M = L
Relationship L O  and   L :   LO = r × mv + L

1 1 1
T = ∑ Ti = ∑ mi vi2 = mv 2 + ∑ mi ρ! i
2
Kinetic energy:  
2 2 2

If all particles energy are summed up   ⇒

Principle of work and kinetic energy:   W  =  ∆T  

and  law of energy:   W (ik ) = ∆ T + ∆ V  

7  
 Plane Kinematics of Rigid Bodies:  
If  A  and  B  are two points on a rigid body and ω  is its angular-velocity vector normal to the plane
of motion (right-hand rule):  

vA = vB + vA / B = vB + w × r  

with   r = BA  and   v A / B  being A's relative velocity (relative B).  

aA = aB + aA / B = aB + (aA / B )n + (aA / B )s = aB + w × (w × r ) + w
! ×r

with  a A / B  as A's  acceleration  relative  B  and  (aA / B )n ,   (aA / B )s the normal and
tangential components of   a A / B .  

Plane Kinetics of Rigid Bodies:  

Fixed-Axis Rotation:  

Newton's second law (mass center):  

∑F n = mrω 2 = mrϕ! 2
∑F s = mrω! = mrϕ!!

Rate of change of angular momentum:   ∑M O = L! O = I Oω! = I Oϕ!!  

1
Kinetic  energy:   T= IOω 2
2

General Plane Motion:  

Newton's second law (mass center):  

∑F x = max = m!x!  
∑F y = ma = m!y!  
y

!
Rate of change of angular momentum:   ∑ M = L = Iω! = Iϕ!!
Kinetic energy:   1 1 1
T= mv 2 + Iω 2 = ICω 2
2 2 2
C, point of instantaneous zero velocity.  

8  
Impact  (Oblique and  central  impact):  
vʹ′2ʹ′n − v1ʹ′ʹ′n
Coefficient of Restitution  defines as:   e=
v1ʹ′ n − vʹ′2 n

pn = constant ⇒ m1v1ʹ′ n + m2 vʹ′2n = m1v1ʹ′ʹ′n + m2 vʹ′2ʹ′n

pt = constant ⇒ m1v1ʹ′t + m2 vʹ′2t = m1v1ʹ′ʹ′t + m2 vʹ′2ʹ′t

If friction free impact  pt  =  constant  for  each body, i.e.  

m1v1ʹ′t = m1v1ʹ′t ʹ′ and m2 vʹ′2t = m2 vʹ′2ʹ′t

Central impact occurs when the directions of motion of the two colliding
particles are along the line of impact.  

Oscillations – Free oscillations (damped and undamped):

Differential equation:   − kx − cx! = m!x!  
with  m  =  mass,  k  =  spring constant and  c  =  damping constant  

Parallel connected  springs:   k = ∑ ki

i

1 1
Serially connected springs   =∑
k i ki

c
Introducing (the dimensionless)  damping coefficient   ζ=  and the undamped
2 km
k
oscilators  natural angular frequency  ω =   (eigenfrequency) we get:
m  
m

!x! + 2ζω x! +ω 2 x = 0  

Characteristic equation:   λ2 + 2ζωλ + ω 2 = 0    with roots    λ1,2 = ω(−ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 )  

The general solution to the differential equation is then:

x(t ) = C1e λ1t + C2 e λ2t  

Depending on whether the characteristic equation has double root, different real
roots or complex-conjugated roots (i.e., depending on ζ ), the solution takes on
the following form:

9  
1. Weak damping  (ζ  <  1):

x(t ) = e −ζωt ( B1 cos ωd t + B2 sin ωd t )= Ae −ζωt sin(ωd t + δ )

with the damped natural angular frequencyωd = ω 1 − ζ 2

2. Strong damping  (ζ  >  1):

x(t ) = C1e λ1t + C2 e λ2t   with (

λ1,2 = ω −ζ ± ζ 2 − 1   )
3. Critical damping  (ζ  =  1):

x(t ) = ( D1t + D2 )e −ζωt

The constants above, i.e. B1, B2, (alternatively A and the phase shift δ ) C1, C2, D1
and D2 are determined from initial conditions.

Oscillations – Forced oscillations:  

Caused by exiting motion, ξ(t), or excitatory force, F(t).  

Differential equation:   !x! + 2ζωx! + ω 2 x = f (t )  

Spec. in the case of harmonic excitation:   f (t) = f0 sin Ωt  

the partial solution as: x p (t) = C sin(Ωt − ψ )  

Ω
2ζ
with   fo / ω 2 ω
C= 1/ 2
and   tanψ = (0 ≤ ψ ≤ π )
⎧⎪ 2 Ω 2 ⎡ Ω 2 ⎤ 2
⎫⎪ Ω2
1−
⎨4ζ + 1− ⎬ ω2
⎪⎩ ω 2 ⎢⎣ ω 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭

When  exiting motion,  ξ (t) = ξ0 sin Ωt ,  is   f (t) = ω 2ξ (t)  such that:   f0 = ξ0ω 2  and   C = λξ0 .  

1 F F
When excitatory Force,   F(t) = F0 sin Ωt ,  with f (t) = m F(t) such that: f0 = m0 and   C = λ 0 2 .
mω

With λ as the amplification factor.

10  
Square moments of mass distributions:
The body has the mass m and the axes x0, y0, z0 go through the center of mass
MC with the coordinates (x, y, z).

z0

z
dz

dm
(x; y; z)
MC
d x

dy
y
x x y
0

The moment of inertia with respect to the x-axis: I x = ∫ ( y 2 + z 2 )dm  

The moment of inertia with respect to the y-axis: I y = ∫ ( z 2 + x 2 )dm  

The moment of inertia with respect to the z-axis: I z = ∫ ( x 2 + y 2 )dm  

J O = ∫ r dm = ∫ (x + y + z )dm
2 2 2 2
The polar moment with respect to origo  O:  

The parallel moment theorem (Steiners):  

I x = I x + mdx 2 ,   dx 2 = y 2 + z 2  

I y = I y + mdy 2 ,   dy 2 = z 2 + x 2  

I z = I z + mdz 2 ,   dz 2 = x 2 + y 2  

Ix
Mass inertia radius:   kx =
m

11  
Body   Mass centre   Moment of Inertia  
Thin wire,  arc segment  

mr 2 ⎛ 1 − sin 2α ⎞  
Ix = ⎜ ⎟
r sin α 2 2α ⎠
x= ⎝
α
mr 2 ⎛ sin 2α ⎞
Iy = ⎜ 1 + ⎟  
2 ⎝ 2α ⎠

Thin wire,  quarter arcs  

2r mr 2
x=y= Ix = Iy =
π 2

Thin sheet,  area of circular sector  

mr 2 ⎛ sin 2α ⎞
Ix = ⎜ 1 − ⎟  
2r sin α 4 ⎝ 2α ⎠
x=
3α
mr 2 ⎛ sin 2α ⎞
Iy = ⎜ 1 + ⎟  
4 ⎝ 2α ⎠

Thin sheet, quarter-circular area

4r mr 2
x=y= Ix = Iy =
3π 4

12  
Body   Mass centre   Moment of Inertia  
Thin sheet,  rectangular area  
ma 2
Ix =
3

ma 2
Ix =
12

m 2
Iz = (a + b2 )
12

Thin sheet,  triangular area  

a+b mh 2
x= Ix =
3 6

h mh 2
y= Ix =
3 18

Uniform slender rod  

1
I x = ml 2
3

1 2
Ix = ml
12

I z = 0  

Rectangular parallelepiped  
1 1
Ix = mb2 + mc 2
12 3

1 1
Iy = ma2 + mc 2
12 3

1
Iz = m(a2 + b2 )
12

1
Ix = m(b2 + c 2 )
12

13  
Body   Mass centre   Moment of Inertia  
Circular cylinder  
1 1
I x = mr 2 + mh 2
4 3

1 1
I x = I y = mr 2 + mh2
4 12

1
I z = mr 2
2

Semicylinder  
1 1
I x = I y = mr 2 + mh2
4 3
4r
x= 1
3π I z = mr 2
2

1 16
I z = ⎛⎜ − 2 ⎞⎟mr 2
⎝ 2 9π ⎠

Circular cylindrical  shell (thin)

1 1
I x = mr 2 + mh 2
2 3

1 1
I x = I y = mr 2 + mh2
2 12

I z = mr 2  

Half cylindrical shell (thin)

1 1
I x = I y = mr 2 + mh2
2 3
2r
x=
π I z = mr 2  

4
I z = ⎛⎜ 1 − 2 ⎞⎟mr 2
⎝ π ⎠

14  
Body   Mass centre   Moment of Inertia  
Right circular cone  
3 1
Ix = mr 2 + mh 2
20 10
h
z= 3
4 Iz = mr 2
10

3 3
Ix = Iy = mr 2 + mh 2
20 80
Right half cone  
3 1
Ix = Iy = mr 2 + mh2
h 20 10
z=
4
3
Iz = mr 2
r 10
y=
π
3 1
I z = ⎛⎜ − 2 ⎞⎟mr 2
⎝ 10 π ⎠

Conical shell (thin)  

1 1
I x = I y = mr 2 + mh2
4 6
h
z= 1
3 I z = mr 2
2

1 1
I x = I y = mr 2 + mh2
4 18
Half conical shell  (thin)
h 1 1
z= I x = I y = mr 2 + mh2
3 4 6

4r 1
y= I z = mr 2
3π 2

1 16
I z = ⎛⎜ − 2 ⎞⎟mr 2
⎝ 2 9π ⎠

15  
Body   Mass centre   Moment of Inertia  
Sphere  

2
I z = mr 2
5

Hemisphere  

2
I x = I y = I z = mr 2
3r 5
z=
8
83
Ix = Iy = mr 2
320

Spherical shell (thin)  

2
I z = mr 2
3

Hemispherical shell (thin)  

2
I x = I y = I z = mr 2
r 3
z=
2
5
Ix = Iy = mr 2
12

16  
Analytic geometry:  

r  =  radius,  α =  angle,  s  =  arc lenth,  A  =  area,  p  =  cirumference,  V  =  volume  

r
p
Circle:   A = πr , 2
p = 2πr A

s
A
sr α
Circle sector:   A= , s = αr   r
2

A
2
r α x
Segment of a circle :   A= (α − sin α ), x = 2r sin
2 2 α r

4
Sphere:   A = 4πr 2 , V = πr 3
3

B  =  base,  h  =  height  

Cylinder:   V = Bh

Spec.  right circular cylinder:   V = πr 2 h  

Cone:   1
V= Bh  
3

Spec.  right circular cone:   1

V = πr 2 h  
3

a,  b,  c  =  lengths (sides),   α, β, γ  =  corresponding angles  

Triangle:   A  =  (base× height)/2  

γ
sin α sin β sin γ b
a
Law of sines:   = =  
a b c
β α
2 2 2
Law of cosines:   a = b + c − 2bc cos α c

17  
Miscellaneous relations:  
2 tan α
1. sin 2 α + cos2 α = 1 10.   tan 2α =
1 − tan 2 α

α 1 − cos α
2. sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β 11.   sin 2 =
2 2

α 1 + cos α
3. sin(α − β ) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β 12.   cos2 =
2 2

α sin α
4. cos(α + β ) = cosα cos β − sinα sin β 13.   tan =
2 1 + cos α

α sin α
5. cos(α − β ) = cosα cos β + sinα sin β 14.   cot =
2 1 − cos α

tan α + tan β α +β α −β
6.   tan(α + β ) = 15.   sin α + sin β = 2 sin cos
1 − tan α tan β 2 2

tan α − tan β α −β α+β

7.   tan(α − β ) = 16.   sin α − sin β = 2 sin cos
1 + tan α tan β 2 2

α +β α −β
8. sin 2α = 2sin α cosα 17.   cos α + cos β = 2 cos cos
2 2

cos2α = cos α − sin α = α −β α +β

2 2

9.   18.   cos α − cos β = −2 sin sin

= 2cos 2 α − 1 = 1 − 2sin 2 α 2 2

Some trigonometric values:  

Vinkel   sin   cos   tan  
o
0 = 0   0   1   0  
π 1 1 2 − 3  
15 o = ( 6 − 2 )   ( 6 + 2 )  
12 4 4
π 1 3 1
30 o =
6 2 2 3
π 1 1 1  
45 o =
4 2 2
π 3 1 3
60 o =
3 2 2
5π 1 1 2 + 3  
75 o = ( 6 + 2 )   ( 6 − 2 )  
12 4 4
90 o =
π
2
1   0   –

18  
Limit values:  
x
a sin x
1.   lim ⎛⎜ 1 + ⎞⎟ = e a 5. lim =1
x→±∞ ⎝ x ⎠ x→0 x

xq an
2. lim =0 if p >0 6. lim =0
x →∞ e px n→∞ n!

3.
(ln x)q 7.
1
lim =0 if p >0 lim n = 1  
n
x→∞ xp n→∞

q
4.   lim+ x p ln x = 0 if p > 0  
x→0

Derivatives and integrals:  

d 1
1.   ln x = x≠0
dx x

da 1
2.   log x = x≠0
dx x ln a

d f ʹ′( x)
3.   ln f ( x) = f (x) ≠ 0
dx f ( x)

d x
4. e = ex all x  
dx

d x
5. a = a x ln a all x  
dx

d a
6. x = ax a−1 x  >  0  
dx

d
7   sin x = cos x   all x  
dx

d
8.   cos x = − sin x   all  x  
dx

d 1 π
9.   tan x = 2
= 1 + tan 2 x   x≠ + nπ  
dx cos x 2

d 1
10.   cot x = − 2
= −(1 + cot 2 x ) x ≠ nπ
dx sin x

19  
 d ⎧ e x − e − x ⎫
11. sinh x = cosh x   all  x   ⎨sinh x = ⎬
dx ⎩ 2 ⎭

d ⎧ e x + e − x ⎫
12.   cosh x = sinh x   all  x   ⎨cosh x = ⎬
dx ⎩ 2 ⎭

d 1
13   arcsin x = all   − 1 < x < 1
dx 1 − x2

d 1
14.   arccos x = − all   − 1 < x < 1
dx 1 − x2

d 1
15.   arctan x = all  x  
dx 1 + x2

16. ∫ f ʹ′ (x)g(x)dx = f (x)g(x) − ∫ f (x)gʹ′ x)dx   (Part. integation)

17. ∫ f (x)dx = [x = g(t)] = ∫ f (g(t))gʹ′ (t)dt   (Subst. of variable)

x 2 a
18. ∫ x 2 + a dx = x + a + ln x + x 2 + a + C
2 2

1
19.   ∫ 2
dx = ln x + x 2 + a + C  
x +a

1 1 x2 + a2 + a
20.   ∫ x x2 + a2 dx = − a ln + C  
x

x 2 a2 x
21.   ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = a − x 2 + arcsin + C
2 2 a

1 1 x2 − a2 ⎛ = 1 arccos a
22.   ∫ x x2 − a2 dx = arctan ⎜ om x > 0 ⎞⎟  
a a ⎝ a x ⎠

Taylor:  
f ʹ′ʹ′( a) f ( n) ( a)
f ( x) = f ( a) + f ʹ′( a)(x − a) + ( x − a) 2 + ..... + ( x − a)n + Rn ( x)  
2! n!

f ( n+1) (ξ ) any
with    Rn ( x) = ( x − a)n+1 ξ ∈ ( a , x) .  
(n + 1)!

20  
Series:  

Bi  being limited functions as x->0.  

x2 xn
1.   ex = 1 + x + + ..... + + x n+1 B1 ( x)  
2! n!

x3 x5 x 2 n−1
2.   sin x = x − + − ..... + ( −1)n−1 + x 2n+1 B2 ( x)  
3! 5! (2n − 1)!

x2 x4 x 2n
3.   cos x = 1 − + − ..... + (−1)n + x 2( n+1) B3 ( x)  
2! 4! (2n)!

x2 x3 ( −1) n−1 n
4.   ln( 1 + x) = x − + − ..... + x + x n+1 B4 ( x)  
2 3 n

x3 x5 ( −1)n−1 2 n−1
5.   arctan x = x − + − ..... + x + x 2 n+1 B5 ( x)  
3 5 2n − 1

p( p − 1) 2 p( p − 1)...( p − n + 1) n
6.   (1 + x) p = 1 + px + x + ..... + x + x n+1 B6 ( x)  
2! n!

Arithmetric  sum:   an = an−1 + d = a1 + (n − 1)d   (d  =  difference)  

n n
n( a1 + an ) n[2a1 + (n − 1)d]
∑ ak =∑ [a1 + ( k − 1)d] =
k =1 k =1 2
=
2

Geometric  sum:   an = an−1 x = a0 x n−1 (x  =  quota)  

n−1
1 − xn
∑ ax k = a + ax + ..... + ax n−1 = a
k =0 1− x
, ( x ≠ 1)  

Geometric  series:  
∞
a
∑ ax
k =0
k
= a + ax + ax 2 + ..... =
1− x
, (  -­‐‑1  <  x  <  1  )  

21  
Spherical coordinates:   z
⎧x = r sin θ cos ϕ (x,  y,  z)  
⎪ r
⎨ y = r sin θ sin ϕ θ
⎪z = r cos θ
⎩
ϕ
y
r ≥ 0, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π , 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π x

⎧er = sin θ cos ϕ e x + sin θ sin ϕ e y + cos θ e z

⎪
⎨eθ = cos θ cos ϕ e x + cos θ sin ϕ e y − sin θ e z
⎪e = − sin ϕ e + cos ϕ e
⎩ ϕ x y

Cylindrical coordinates:  
z
⎧x = ρ cos ϕ
⎪ (x,  y,  z)  
⎨ y = ρ sin ϕ
⎪z = z
⎩
ϕ
ρ ≥ 0, 0 ≤ ϕ < 2π , − ∞ < z < ∞ x ρ y

⎧e ρ = cos ϕ e x + sin ϕ e y

⎪
⎨eϕ = − sin ϕ e x + cos ϕ e y
⎪e = e
⎩ z z

Radius of curvature:  

A curve defined by  y  =  y(x)  has the radius  r  with curvature  κ  =  1/r  given by:  

yʹ′ʹ′( x)
κ=
[1 + yʹ′( x)2 ]3 / 2

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