Chapter 21

Introduction to
Transaction
Processing
Concepts and
Theory
 1 Introduction to Transaction Processing
 Single-User System:
 At most one user at a time can use the system.
 Multiuser System:
 Many users can access the system concurrently.
 Concurrency
 Interleaved processing:
 Concurrent execution of processes is interleaved in
a single CPU
 Parallel processing:
 Processes are concurrently executed in multiple
CPUs.

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 1 Introduction to Transaction Processing
 Single User vs. Multiuser Systems
 A and B users, executing concurrently in an
interleaved fashion.
 Interleaving keeps the CPU busy when a process
requires an input or output (I/O) operation, such as
reading a block from disk.
 The CPU is switched to execute another process
rather than remaining idle during I/O time.
 Interleaving also prevents a long process from
delaying other processes.
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 1 Introduction to Transaction Processing
 Single CPU vs. Multi-CPU (Parallel) Systems
 A and B users, executing concurrently in an
interleaved fashion on a single CPU System
 C and D users, executing concurrently in an
interleaved fashion on a Multi-CPU (Parallel)
System

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 IMPORTANT
 During this lecture, we will only consider
Multi-User Single CPU Systems
 A and B users (Multi-Users), executing
concurrently in an interleaved fashion on a single
CPU System

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 What is Concurrency?
 Interactions among concurrently executing transactions
can cause the database state to become inconsistent.
 Timing of individual steps of different transactions
needs to be regulated in some manner.
 This regulation is the job of the scheduler component of
the DBMS, and the general process of assuring that
transactions preserve consistency when executing
simultaneously is called concurrency control.

• The scheduler takes

read/write requests from
transactions and
either executes them in
buffers or delays them
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 What is Transaction?

 A Transaction:
 Logical unit of database processing that includes one or more
access operations (read -retrieval, write - insert or update,
delete).

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 What is Transaction?

 A transaction (set of operations) may be stand-alone

specified in a high level language like SQL submitted
interactively, or may be embedded within a program.
 Transaction boundaries:
 Begin and End transaction.
 An application program may contain several
transactions separated by the Begin and End transaction
boundaries.

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 Introduction to Transaction Processing (3)
SIMPLE MODEL OF A DATABASE (for purposes of
discussing transactions):
 A database is a collection of named data items

 Granularity of data - a field, a record , or a whole disk

block (Concepts are independent of granularity)
 Basic operations are read and write

 read_item(X): Reads a database item named X into a

program variable. To simplify our notation, we assume
that the program variable is also named X.
 write_item(X): Writes the value of program variable X
into the database item named X.

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 Introduction to Transaction Processing (4)
READ AND WRITE OPERATIONS:
 Basic unit of data transfer from the disk to the computer
main memory is one block. In general, a data item (what
is read or written) will be the field of some record in the
database, although it may be a larger unit such as a
record or even a whole block.
 read_item(X) command includes the following steps:
 Find the address of the disk block that contains item X.
 Copy that disk block into a buffer in main memory (if that disk
block is not already in some main memory buffer).
 Copy item X from the buffer to the program variable named X.

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 Do you remember
Introduction to Transaction Processing (4)

from the last topic

READ AND WRITE OPERATIONS:
 Basic unit of data transfer from the disk to the computer
main memory is one block. In general, a data item (what
is read how
or written) willto find
be the the
field of some record in the
database, although it may be a larger unit such as a
record or even a whole block.


address
read_item(X) of the
command includes disk
the following steps:
Find the address of the disk block that contains item X.



block that contains
Copy that disk block into a buffer in main memory (if that disk
block is not already in some main memory buffer).
Copy item X from the buffer to the program variable named X.

record X?
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 Introduction to Transaction Processing (5)
READ AND WRITE OPERATIONS (cont.):
 write_item(X) command includes the following steps:
 Find the address of the disk block that contains item X.
 Copy that disk block into a buffer in main memory (if that disk
block is not already in some main memory buffer).
 Copy item X from the program variable named X into its correct
location in the buffer.
 Store the updated block from the buffer back to disk (either
immediately or at some later point in time).

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 Two Sample Transactions

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 Introduction to Transaction Processing (6)
Why Concurrency Control is needed:
 The Lost Update Problem
 This occurs when two transactions that access the same database
items have their operations interleaved in a way that makes the value
of some database item incorrect.
 The Temporary Update (or Dirty Read) Problem
 This occurs when one transaction updates a database item and then
the transaction fails for some reason (see Section 21.1.4).
 The updated item is accessed by another transaction before it is
changed back to its original value.
 The Incorrect Summary Problem
 If one transaction is calculating an aggregate summary function on a
number of records while other transactions are updating some of
these records, the aggregate function may calculate some values
before they are updated and others after they are updated.

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 Concurrent execution is uncontrolled:
(a) The lost update problem.

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 Concurrent execution is uncontrolled:
(b) The temporary update problem.

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 Concurrent execution is uncontrolled:
(c) The incorrect summary problem.

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 Why recovery is needed:
(What causes a Transaction to fail)
1. A computer failure (system crash):
A hardware or software error occurs in the computer system
during transaction execution. If the hardware crashes, the
contents of the computer’s internal memory may be lost.

2. A transaction or system error:

Some operation in the transaction may cause it to fail, such as
integer overflow or division by zero. Transaction failure may
also occur because of erroneous parameter values or
because of a logical programming error. In addition, the user
may interrupt the transaction during its execution.

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 Why recovery is needed:
(What causes a Transaction to fail)
3. Local errors or exception conditions detected by the
transaction:
Certain conditions necessitate cancellation of the transaction.
For example, data for the transaction may not be found. A
condition, such as insufficient account balance in a banking
database, may cause a transaction, such as a fund
withdrawal from that account, to be canceled.
A programmed abort in the transaction causes it to fail.
4. Concurrency control enforcement:
The concurrency control method may decide to abort the
transaction, to be restarted later, because it violates
serializability or because several transactions are in a state
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 Why recovery is needed:
(What causes a Transaction to fail)
5. Disk failure:
Some disk blocks may lose their data because of a
read or write malfunction or because of a disk
read/write head crash. This may happen during a
read or a write operation of the transaction.
6. Physical problems and catastrophes:
This refers to an endless list of problems that includes
power or air-conditioning failure, fire, theft,
sabotage, overwriting disks or tapes by mistake,
and mounting of a wrong tape by the operator.

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 2 Transaction and System Concepts (1)
 A transaction is an atomic unit of work that is
either completed in its entirety or not done at all.
 For recovery purposes, the system needs to
keep track of when the transaction starts,
terminates, and commits or aborts.
 Transaction states:
 Active state

 Partially committed state

 Committed state

 Failed state

 Terminated State

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  Transaction states:
 Active state

 Partially committed state

 Committed state

 Failed state

 Terminated State

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 START TRANSACTION;
-- Step 1: Find the average salary in the company
SELECT AVG(Salary) INTO @avg_salary FROM employee;
-- Step 2: Find the lowest salary among employees
SELECT MIN(Salary) INTO @min_salary FROM employee;
-- Step 3: Update the salaries of employees
-- with the lowest salary to the average salary
UPDATE employee
SET Salary = @avg_salary
WHERE Salary = @min_salary;
COMMIT;

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 Transaction and System Concepts (2)
 Recovery manager keeps track of the following
operations:
 begin_transaction: This marks the beginning of transaction
execution.
 read or write: These specify read or write operations on the
database items that are executed as part of a transaction.
 end_transaction: This specifies that read and write
transaction operations have ended and marks the end limit of
transaction execution.
 At this point it may be necessary to check whether the
changes introduced by the transaction can be permanently
applied to the database or whether the transaction has to be
aborted because it violates concurrency control or for some
other reason.

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 Transaction and System Concepts (3)

 Recovery manager keeps track of the following

operations (cont):
 commit_transaction: This signals a successful
end of the transaction so that any changes
(updates) executed by the transaction can be
safely committed to the database and will not be
undone.
 rollback (or abort): This signals that the
transaction has ended unsuccessfully, so that any
changes or effects that the transaction may have
applied to the database must be undone.
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 Transaction and System Concepts (4)

 Recovery techniques use the following operators:

 undo: Similar to rollback except that it applies to a
single operation rather than to a whole
transaction.
 redo: This specifies that certain transaction
operations must be redone to ensure that all the
operations of a committed transaction have been
applied successfully to the database.

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 State Transition Diagram Illustrating the
States for Transaction Execution

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 Transaction and System Concepts (6)

 The System Log

 Log or Journal: The log keeps track of all
transaction operations that affect the values of
database items.
 This information may be needed to permit recovery
from transaction failures.
 The log is kept on disk, so it is not affected by any
type of failure except for disk or catastrophic failure.
 In addition, the log is periodically backed up to
archival storage (tape) to guard against such
catastrophic failures.
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 Transaction and System Concepts (7)
 The System Log (cont):
 T in the following discussion refers to a unique transaction-id
that is generated automatically by the system and is used to
identify each transaction:
 Types of log record:
 [start_transaction,T]: Records that transaction T has started
execution.
 [write_item,T,X,old_value,new_value]: Records that
transaction T has changed the value of database item X from
old_value to new_value.
 [read_item,T,X]: Records that transaction T has read the
value of database item X.
 [commit,T]: Records that transaction T has completed

successfully, and affirms that its effect can be committed

(recorded permanently) to the database.
 [abort,T]: Records that transaction T has been aborted.

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 Transaction and System Concepts (8)

 The System Log (cont):

 Protocols for recovery that avoid cascading
rollbacks do not require that read operations be
written to the system log, whereas other protocols
require these entries for recovery.
 Strict protocols require simpler write entries that do
not include new_value (see Section 21.4).

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 Transaction and System Concepts (9)
Recovery using log records:
 If the system crashes, we can recover to a consistent
database state by examining the log and using one of
the techniques described in Chapter 19.

1. Because the log contains a record of every write operation

that changes the value of some database item, it is possible
to undo the effect of these write operations of a transaction T
by tracing backward through the log and resetting all items
changed by a write operation of T to their old_values.

2. We can also redo the effect of the write operations of a

transaction T by tracing forward through the log and setting
all items changed by a write operation of T (that did not get
done permanently) to their new_values.
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 Transaction and System Concepts (10)
 Definition a Commit Point:
 A transaction T reaches its commit point when all its
operations that access the database have been executed
successfully and the effect of all the transaction operations on
the database has been recorded in the log.
 Beyond the commit point, the transaction is said to be
committed, and its effect is assumed to be permanently
recorded in the database.
 The transaction then writes an entry [commit,T] into the log.

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 Transaction and System Concepts (10)
 Roll Back of transactions:
 Needed for transactions that have a [start_transaction,T] entry
into the log but no commit entry [commit,T] into the log.

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 Transaction and System Concepts (11)
 Redoing transactions:
 Transactions that have written their commit entry in the log must
also have recorded all their write operations in the log; otherwise
they would not be committed, so their effect on the database can
be redone from the log entries.

 (Notice that the log file must be kept on disk. At the time of a
system crash, only the log entries that have been written back to
disk are considered in the recovery process because the contents
of main memory may be lost.)

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 Transaction and System Concepts (11)
 Force writing a log:
 Before a transaction reaches its commit point, any portion of the
log that has not been written to the disk yet must now be written to
the disk.
 This process is called force-writing the log file before committing a
transaction.

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 3 Desirable Properties of Transactions (1)

ACID properties:
 Atomicity: A transaction is an atomic unit of processing; it is either
performed in its entirety or not performed at all.
 Consistency preservation: A correct execution of the transaction
must take the database from one consistent state to another.
 Isolation: A transaction should not make its updates visible to other
transactions until it is committed; this property, when enforced strictly,
solves the temporary update problem and makes cascading rollbacks
of transactions unnecessary (see Chapter 21).
 Durability or permanency: Once a transaction changes the
database and the changes are committed, these changes must never
be lost because of subsequent failure.

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 Schedule
 Transaction schedule or history:
 When transactions are executing concurrently in an interleaved
fashion, the order of execution of operations from the various
transactions forms what is known as a transaction schedule
(or history).

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 Schedule
 A schedule (or history) S of n transactions T1, T2, …,
Tn:
 It is an ordering of the operations of the transactions subject to
the constraint that, for each transaction Ti that participates in
S, the operations of T1 in S must appear in the same order in
which they occur in T1.
 Note, however, that operations from other transactions Tj can
be interleaved with the operations of Ti in S.

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Recoverability (2)
 Recoverable schedule:
 One where no transaction needs to be rolled
back.
 A schedule S is recoverable if no transaction T
in S commits until all transactions T ’ that have
written an item that T reads have committed.
 Cascadeless schedule:
 One where every transaction reads only the
items that are written by committed
transactions.

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Recoverability (3)

 Schedules requiring cascaded rollback:

 A schedule in which uncommitted
transactions that read an item from a failed
transaction must be rolled back.
 Strict Schedules:
 A schedule in which a transaction can neither read
or write an item X until the last transaction that
wrote X has committed.

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 5 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (1)

 Serial schedule:
 A schedule S is serial if, for every transaction T
participating in the schedule, all the operations of
T are executed consecutively in the schedule.
 Otherwise, the schedule is called nonserial
schedule.

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 Serial schedule:
 A schedule S is serial if, for every transaction T
participating in the schedule, all the operations of
T are executed consecutively in the schedule.

Given the below 2 transactions:

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 Serial schedule:
 A schedule S is serial if, for every transaction T
participating in the schedule, all the operations
of T are executed consecutively in the
schedule.

S1 S2

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 Serial schedule:
 Are S3 and S4 serial schedules?

S3 S4

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 5 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (1)

 Serializable schedule:
 A schedule S is serializable if it is equivalent to
some serial schedule of the same n transactions.
 Example: Consider following Serial Schedules S1
and S2

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 Serializable schedule example

 Consider the following Serial Schedules S1 and

S2
 Note the difference in the final values of A and B!

S1 S2

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 Serializable schedule example
 Consider the following Concurrent Schedules S3
 Compare S3 result with the S1 and S2!
S3

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 Serializable schedule example
 S3 results are the same as S1 but not S2
 Thus; S3 is not a Serial but Serializable Schedule!
 Why?

S3

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 5 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (1)

 Serializable schedule:
 S is serializable if there is a serial
schedule S' such that for every initial database
state, the effects of S and S‘ are the same.

 A schedule S is serializable if it is equivalent to

some serial schedule of the same n transactions.

 “equivalent” means what?

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 Serializable schedule example
 Is the following Concurrent Schedules S4 a
Serializable schedule?
S4

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (2)

 Result equivalent:
 Two schedules are called result equivalent if they
produce the same final state of the database.

 Conflict equivalent:
 Two schedules are said to be conflict equivalent if
the order of any two conflicting operations is the
same in both schedules.

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (2)

 Result equivalent:
 Two schedules are called result equivalent if they
produce the same final state of the database.

 Conflict equivalent:
 Two schedules are said to be conflict equivalent if
the order of any two conflicting operations is the
same in both schedules.
 What are the “conflicting operations”?

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (2)

 Conflict serializable:
 A schedule S is said to be conflict serializable if
it is conflict equivalent to some serial schedule S’.

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (3)

 Being serializable is not the same as being

serial
 Being serializable implies that the schedule is a
correct schedule.
 It will leave the database in a consistent state.
 The interleaving is appropriate and will result in a
state as if the transactions were serially executed,
yet will achieve efficiency due to concurrent
execution.

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (4)

 Serializability is hard to check.

 Interleaving of operations occurs in an operating
system through some scheduler
 Difficult to determine beforehand how the
operations in a schedule will be interleaved.

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (5)
Practical approach:
 Come up with methods (protocols) to ensure
serializability.
 It’s not possible to determine when a schedule
begins and when it ends.
 Hence, we reduce the problem of checking the
whole schedule to checking only a committed
project of the schedule (i.e. operations from only
the committed transactions.)
 Current approach used in most DBMSs:
 Use of locks with two phase locking

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (6)
 View equivalence:
 A less restrictive definition of equivalence of
schedules

 View serializability:
 Definition of serializability based on view
equivalence.
 A schedule is view serializable if it is view
equivalent to a serial schedule.

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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (7)
NOTATION:
1. 3 important operations:
 R: Read an item’s value from the database
 W: Write an item’s value to the database
 C: Commit the transaction
2. Operation Ri(X) means that the transaction with the
number I (T i ) in the schedule S reads the item X’s values
from the database.
3. Operation Wj(X) means that the transaction with the
number J (T j ) in the schedule S writes the item X’s values
to the database.
4. Operation Ck means that the transaction with the number
k commits.
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 View Serializability
 Let S and S´ be two schedules with the same set of transactions. S
and S´ are view equivalent if the following three conditions are
met, for each data item Q,
1. If in schedule S, transaction Ti reads the initial value of Q, then
in schedule S’ also transaction Ti must read the initial value of
Q.
2. If in schedule S transaction Ti executes read(Q), and that value
was produced by transaction Tj (if any), then in schedule S’ also
transaction Ti must read the value of Q that was produced by the
same write(Q) operation of transaction Tj .
3. The transaction (if any) that performs the final write(Q) operation
in schedule S must also perform the final write(Q) operation in
schedule S’.
As can be seen, view equivalence is also based purely on reads and
writes alone.
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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (8)

 The premise behind view equivalence:

 As long as each read operation of a transaction
reads the result of the same write operation in
both schedules, the write operations of each
transaction must produce the same results.
 “The view”: the read operations are said to see
the same view in both schedules.

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 View Serializability (Cont.)
 A schedule S is view serializable if it is view equivalent to a
serial schedule.
 Every conflict serializable schedule is also view serializable.
 Below is a schedule which is view-serializable but not conflict
serializable.

 What serial schedule is above equivalent to?

 Every view serializable schedule that is not conflict serializable
has blind writes.
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 Characterizing Schedules Based on
Serializability (9)
 Relationship between view and conflict
equivalence:
 The two are same under constrained write
assumption which assumes that if T writes X, it is
constrained by the value of X it read; i.e., new X =
f(old X)
 Conflict serializability is stricter than view
serializability. With unconstrained write (or blind
write), a schedule that is view serializable is not
necessarily conflict serializable.
 Any conflict serializable schedule is also view
serializable, but not vice versa.
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 Relationship between view and conflict
equivalence (cont):
 Consider the following schedule of three transactions
 T 3: r3(Q), w3(Q); T 4: w4(Q); and T 6: w6(Q):

 Schedule Sa: r3(Q); w4(Q); w3(Q); w6(Q); c1; c2; c3;

 Is Sa view serializable?

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 Relationship between view and conflict
equivalence (cont):
 Schedule Sa: r3(Q); w4(Q); w3(Q); w6(Q); c1; c2; c3;

 In Sa, the operations w4(Q) and w6(Q) are blind writes,

since T4 and T6 do not read the value of Q.
 Sa is view serializable, since it is view equivalent to the serial
schedule T3, T4, T6.
 However, Sa is not conflict serializable, since it is not conflict
equivalent to any serial schedule.

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 Conflict-Serializability
 There are three situations where we may not
swap the order
of actions:
 ri(X); wi(Y), always conflict.
 wi(X); wJ(X) is a conflict.
 ri(X); wJ(X) is a conflict, and so is wi(X); rJ(X).
 The conclusion we draw is that any two actions of
different transactions may be swapped unless:
 They involve the same database element, and
 At least one is a write.

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 Conflict-Serializability
 We may take any schedule and make as many
nonconflicting swaps as we wish, with the goal
of turning the schedule into a serial schedule.

 If we can do so, then the original schedule is

serializable, because its effect on the database
state remains the same as we perform each of the
nonconflicting swaps.

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 Relationship between view and conflict
equivalence (cont):
 Schedule Sa: r3(Q); w4(Q); w3(Q); w6(Q); c1; c2; c3;

 Is Sa conflict serializable?

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 Relationship between view and conflict
equivalence (cont):
 Schedule Sa: r3(Q); w4(Q); w3(Q); w6(Q); c1; c2; c3;

 In Sa, the operations w4(Q) and w6(Q) are blind writes,

since T4 and T6 do not read the value of Q.
 Sa is not conflict serializable, since it is not conflict
equivalent to any serial schedule.

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 Testing for conflict serializability:
Algorithm 21.1:
 Looks at only read_Item (X) and write_Item (X)
operations
 Constructs a precedence graph (serialization
graph) - a graph with directed edges
 An edge is created from Ti to Tj if one of the
operations in Ti appears before a conflicting
operation in Tj
 The schedule is serializable if and only if the
precedence graph has no cycles.

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 Precedence Graph: Testing Conflict Serializability of a
Schedule S
 For each transaction Ti participating in schedule S, create a node
labeled Ti in the precedence graph.
 For each case in S where TJ executes a read_item(X) after Ti
executes a write_item(X), create an edge (Ti → TJ) in the precedence
graph.
 w i (X), r J (X)  (Ti → TJ)
 For each case in S where TJ executes a write_item(X) after Ti
executes a read_item(X), create an edge (Ti → TJ) in the precedence
graph.
 r i (X), w J (X)  (Ti → TJ)
 For each case in S where TJ executes a write_item(X) after Ti
executes a write_item(X), create an edge (Ti → TJ) in the precedence
graph.
 w i (X), w J (X)  (Ti → TJ)
 The schedule S is serializable if and only if the precedence graph has
no cycles.
Extended & Improved
by
KMK
 Examples of serial and nonserial schedules involving
transactions T1 and T2. (a) Serial schedule A: T1 followed
by T2. (b) Serial schedule B: T2 followed by T1.

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KMK
 (c) Two nonserial schedules C and D with interleaving of
operations.

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KMK
Constructing the precedence graphs for to test for conflict
serializability.

(a) Precedence graph for serial schedule A

(b) Since schedule is serial, it is a conflict serializable schedule.

Extended & Improved

by
KMK
 Constructing the precedence graphs for to test for conflict
serializability.

(a) Precedence graph for serial schedule B

(b) Since schedule is serial, it is a conflict serializable schedule.

Extended & Improved

by
KMK
 Constructing the precedence graphs for to test for conflict
serializability.
(a) Precedence graph for serial schedule C
(b) Since there is a cycle, schedule C is not a conflict
serializable schedule!

Extended & Improved

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KMK
 Constructing the precedence graphs for to test for conflict
serializability.
(a) Precedence graph for serial schedule D
(b) Since there is no cycle, schedule D is a conflict
serializable schedule!
(c) schedule D is equivalent to schedule A, why not schedule
B?
Extended & Improved
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KMK
 WORK@HOME: Another Example of
Serializability Testing

Extended & Improved

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KMK
 WORK@HOME: Another Example of
Serializability Testing

Extended & Improved

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KMK
 WORK@HOME: Another Example of
Serializability Testing

Extended & Improved

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KMK
 Summary
 Transaction and System Concepts
 Desirable Properties of Transactions
 Characterizing Schedules based on
Recoverability
 Characterizing Schedules based on Serializability

Extended & Improved

by
KMK