Physical EDUCATION-XII

PHYSIOLOGY AND INJURIES

UNIT VII
IN SPORTS

Overview

WW Physiological factors determining components of Physical Fitness

WW Effect of exercise on Muscular System
WW Effect of exercise on Cardio- Respiratory System
WW Physiological changes due to ageing
WW Sports injuries: Classification (Soft Tissue Injuries – Abrasion, Contusion,
Laceration, Incision, Sprain & Strain; Bone & Joint Injuries - Dislocation,
Fractures - Green Stick, Comminuted, Transverse, Oblique & Impacted)

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

WW recognize the physiological factors determining the components
of physical fitness
WW comprehend the effects of exercise on Muscular system
WW know the effects of exercise on cardiorespiratory system
WW figure out the physiological changes due to ageing
WW identify and classify sports injuries

Discussion
WW The injuries you have suffered on the Games field.
WW The Sport/Game you were playing when the injury occurred.
WW The cause of the injury.
WW The treatment.
WW Could the injury have been prevented?
WW Share your information with the class.

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7.1 P
 hysiological Factors Determining the Component of Physical
Fitness

Exercise physiology is a study of the body’s response to exercise. In the human body
we majorly study skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, metabolic,
respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems which are somehow affected
by exercises. During exercise, all systems of our body work jointly but responses
of these systems are independent. Metabolic system produces energy and takes
care of intake and output of energy. Cardiovascular system controls circulation,
transports oxygen and energy to muscles and waste products from muscles to
kidney. Respiratory system takes in air, diffuses oxygen to lungs and muscle tissue
and removes carbon dioxide from body. Neuromuscular and skeletal system allows
body movements through muscle contraction. Neuroendocrine and Immune system
help to maintain homeostasis of the body. To develop fitness, each component has a
different exercise, which is performed with different intensity, and volume, so the
responses of systems are different. Here we will study on three major physiological
factors that determine the various components of fitness.

7.1.1 SKELETAL MUSCLES FACTOR

Skeletal muscles are made up of muscles fibres which are divided into two categories
Slow twitch fibres or Type I fibres and Fast twitch fibres or Type II fibres. Mostly
muscles contain a mix of both fast and slow twitch fibres and the proportion of theses
fibres is dependent on genetics, hormones, and habits of exercises. Composition of
fibres in muscles plays a dominant role in development of strength, endurance, and
speed performance. Skeletal muscles have four properties contractility, excitability,
extensibility, and elasticity. These characteristics present in muscles determine
different components of fitness.

Slow twitch fibres or Type I fibres or slow oxidative fibres contain large numbers of
oxidative enzymes, have more capillaries, higher concentration of myoglobin and
mitochondrial enzyme than fast twitch fibres which promote aerobic activity and
resistance against fatigue. Due to higher concentration of capillaries the colour of
fibres becomes red and has greater supply of blood. Such types of fibres contract at
low rate and keep contracting for longer duration without fatigue; thus, producing
large amounts of energy slowly. Slow twitch fibres help in long distance running,
swimming, cycling etc.

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Fast twitch fibres or Type II fibres or Fast glycolytic fibres contain a good volume of
glycolytic enzymes which promote anaerobic activity but due to a smaller number
of mitochondria they have limited aerobic capacity and low fatigue resistance. Fast
twitch fibres do not require blood supply to produce energy, so their colour is lighter
as compared to slow twitch fibre. Such fibres have fast contraction rate, tire rapidly
and Type consume lots of energy, and can produce small amount of energy quickly.
Fast twitch muscle fibre helps in anaerobic activities like jumps, throws, sprint etc.

Muscles fibres play a dominant role in sports performance. Regular training can
change the proportion of slow and fast twitch fibres.

There are variations of types of fibres among athletes participating in the same
sports also Sprinters generally have a higher percentage of Type II fibres and a lower
percentage of Type I fibres, while endurance athletes have a higher percentage of
Type I fibres and a lower percentage of Type II fibres. The amount of force generated
through muscle contraction depends on the number and types of motor units, length
of muscles, nature of neural stimulation of the motor units and contractile history
of muscle.

Do you Know?
Sports Slow Twitch Fibre Fast Twitch Fibre
Long Distance Runners 70 to 80 % 20 to 30 %
Sprinters 25 to 30 % 70 to 75 %
Non-Athletes 48 to 52 % 48 to 52 %

7.1.2 ENERGY PRODUCTION FACTOR

Cellular respiration is a process in which ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) is formed

through food. Main source of energy in food is in form of carbohydrates, proteins,
and fats. Each has different complex chemical process to form ATP energy. During
exercise, the load on the metabolic system increases manifold because of increase
in the demand of energy by different systems. In this process, carbohydrates give
instant energy as compared to fats and proteins, but fats give a larger amount of
energy as compared to carbohydrates and proteins. Higher intensity aerobic activity
requires carbohydrates in the form of glucose and glycogen as fuel.

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Do you know?

Metabolism: is the process of overall energy transformations occurring in the

body.

Anabolism: is the process where the simple molecules combine to generate

complex

molecules: Catabolism: is the process of breakdown of food and stores to produce

energy for work.

Carbohydrates work as a fuel for short duration exercise, fats are utilized for long
duration exercises and proteins contribute a small but important proportion of
nourishment. Basically, three energy system works in our body ATP-CP (Creatine
phosphate) system, anaerobic system, and aerobic system. ATP- CP system provides
energy if the activity is less than 10 second. Such activities are dynamic in nature
and of very short duration and very intensive. They include jumps, throws, sprints,
weightlifting, powerlifting etc. Anaerobic system provides energy for less than two
minutes, in activities like 200m, 400m races. Aerobic system provides energy for
long duration activities like marathon, football, hockey etc. Aerobic and anaerobic
systems work simultaneously, but which system is predominant depends upon type,
duration, intensity of exercise, long and short-term nutritional status, proportions
of types of muscle fibres etc.

7.1.3 CARDIORESPIRATORY FACTOR

The Cardiorespiratory system is combination of respiratory and cardiovascular

systems which jointly work to transport oxygen to the cells and support metabolism
by delivering nutrients, which provide energy to neuromuscular system and
neuroendocrine system. During exercise, the demand for energy increases and to
meet the demand, oxygen is required in appropriate volume to achieve the same.
Demand of energy depends on intensity, duration, and type of activity. To match
the same, the respiratory system -- pulmonary ventilation, external respiration,
and internal respiration work together. The cardiovascular response to exercise is
directly proportional to the demands of the skeletal muscles for Oxygen. Maximal
oxygen consumption (VO2 Max), Blood pressure, blood volume, oxygen diffusion
and extraction, muscle and arterial blood flow etc. simultaneously increase as per
activity.

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Do you know?

In games where ATP-CP system or anaerobic system works to produce energy for
strength training. Stroke volume (the volume of blood pumped out of the left
ventricle of the heart during each systolic cardiac contraction) is a vital parameter
as far as cardiovascular system is concerned

7.1.4 P
 HYSICAL FITNESS COMPONENTS DETERMINED BY THE
PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Now we will understand how the above-mentioned physiological factors determine

fitness. We have taken four components of physical fitness namely strength,
endurance, speed and flexibility.

Strength – Strength is the ability of the body to work against resistance and has varied
sub-types such as Maximum Strength, Explosive Strength, Strength, Endurance etc.
Each has different types of exercise, intensity and duration so physiological factors
vary. Different sports require different amount of strength and according to that,
mixture of the slow twitch fibre and fast twitch fibre is needed. Generally in all the
strength related sports where sudden burst of energy is required, high percentage
of fast twitch fibre is required. In games like weightlifting, jumps, sprint or power,
agility and strength dominating sports where force production is high, fatigue is
quick, and fast twitch fibre percentage must be high in muscles.

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Do you know?

Nameirakpam Kunjarani Devi (born 1 March 1968) is the most decorated Indian
sportswoman in weightlifting. She is a recipient of Arjuna Award, Padma Shri and
Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna.

Endurance: Endurance is the ability of the body to work for a longer period without
getting fatigued. Endurance also varies from brisk walk to running to marathon.
While in each activity intensity and duration varies, but one thing is common in
all these activities: that is long duration and low fatigue activity. Activities like
cycling, swimming or long duration activities come under endurance component.
Slow twitch fibre percentage must be higher in comparison with fast twitch fibres to
give better performance in endurance. Aerobic system provides energy in endurance
training. Maximal oxygen consumption (Vo2), ventilation capacity plays dominating
role in endurance training.

Speed: Speed is the ability to cover maximum distance in shortest period. In speed
training percentage of fast twitch fibres is very high in muscles, these activities
include 100m race, roller skating, or any movements that require work to be done in
minimum possible time. A vital physiological factor to give best speed performance
is motor neuron stimulation. The brain sends a message to the muscles to act fast.
To meet the demand of energy, the ATP CP system works.

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Do you know?

In 100 m sprint event:

The current men’s world record is 9.58 seconds, set by Jamaica’s

Usain Bolt in 2009, while the women’s world record of 10.49

seconds set by American Florence Griffith-Joyner in 1988 remains unbroken.

Flexibility: It is the ability of muscle and tendons to lengthen without getting

damaged. Activities of stretching or yoga require a good deal of flexibility.
Physiological factors like elasticity and extendibility of muscles, type of joint,
homothermic temperature are key determinants of flexibility. Muscles, tendons, and
ligaments are key components that affect flexibility. Muscles groups like agonists,
antagonists, neutralizers, and stabilizers should be understood for training purpose.
Agonists are the muscles which contract to perform a certain action. Antagonists
are muscles which oppose the prime movers as they relax and lengthen progressively
to allow agonists to move. Synergists are muscles that work together in a close
cooperation as they either contract or relax to modify the action of the agonist.
Synergists include Conjoint, Neutralizer and Stabilizer muscles.

Do you know?
Aerobic Exercise is any type of cardiovascular conditioning. It can include
activities like brisk walking, swimming, running, or cycling. You probably know it
as “cardio.” By definition, aerobic exercise means “with oxygen.” Your breathing
and heart rate will increase during aerobic activities.
Anaerobic Exercise is any activity that breaks down glucose for energy without
using oxygen. Generally, these activities are of short length with high intensity.
The idea is that a lot of energy is released within a small period of time, and your
oxygen demand surpasses the oxygen supply.
ATP The Full form of ATP is Adenosine Triphosphate. ATP is a complex organic
chemical that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells, eg., nerve
impulse propagation, muscle contraction, and chemical synthesis
ATP-PCr Known also as immediate energy system, phosphagen system, and alactic
anaerobic system, the ATP – PCr system is the main energy provider for a high
intensity exercise of short duration up to 10 seconds, for example lifting a weight,
swinging a golf club, doing a push – up, and throwing a hammer

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Myoglobin a red iron-containing protein pigment in muscles that is similar to

haemoglobin Mitochondrion any of various round or long cellular organelles of
most eukaryotes that are found outside the nucleus, produce energy for the cell
through cellular respiration, and are rich in fats, proteins, and enzymes

Extension Activity

Think of an activity/exercise you would suggest for improving

Muscular strength _________________________________

Power _________________________________

Speed _________________________________

Muscular endurance _________________________________

Agility _________________________________

Flexibility _________________________________

I. Tick the correct answers.

1. ____________________ system provide energy during 5000m race.

a. ATP CP system
b. Anaerobic System
c. Aerobic System
d. Endurance System

2. Slow twist fibres are of____________________ colour.

a. Red
b. White
c. Black
d. Blue

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3. Vo2 max is related to __________________

a. Muscular system
b. Respiratory system
c. Cardiovascular system
d. Energy production system

4. Which is NOT a property of muscles?

a. Contractility
b. Excitability
c. Extensibility
d. Durability

II. Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Point out physiological factor for strength.

2. Briefly describe the energy production system in our body.

3. Explain different properties of muscles.

4. Write a few points on cardiorespiratory factors determining fitness.

III. Answer the following questions in 150-200 words.

1. Explain Physiological factors determining fitness.

7.2 Effect of Exercise on Muscular System

Exercise involves a series of sustained muscle contractions, of either long or short

duration, depending on the nature of the physical activity. Effects of exercise on
muscles can be considered short-term or immediate, both during and shortly after
exercise; as well as long-term, lasting effects.

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Effect of
Exercises on
Muscular
System

Short Term Long term

Hypertrophy
Increased
of Muscle
blood supply
Increases in

Increased strength of
Muscle ligaments and
temperature tendons

Increase in
Increased size and
Muscle number of
flexibility mitochondria

Increase in
Accumulation
myoglobin
of Lactate
storage

Increase in
Micro tears in glycogen
muscle fibers storage

Increase in
oxidation/
metabolism

Increase in
lactate acid
tolerance

Short Term Effect of Exercises on Muscular system

Increased blood supply: During exercise, in order to match demand of fuel to

muscle, the supply or concentration of blood increases in the whole body or, in the
particular muscle group where activity is largely impacted.

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Increased muscle temperature: During exercises muscles demand energy, which

comes from contracting muscles. During the process, a lot of heat energy is generated
which increases the temperature of muscles, and/ or the body.

Increased muscle flexibility: Due to increase in blood flow and rise in temperature,
elasticity of muscles increases. Stretching and mobility exercises also play a dominant
role in increasing muscular flexibility.

Accumulation of Lactate: Muscles requires oxygen. If blood supply does not provide
appropriate volume of oxygen to muscles, it leads to accumulation of lactate acid in
muscles which result in pain, and soreness in muscles.

Micro-tears in Muscle Fibres: During exercises muscle tissue is placed under stress
which results in micro-tears in muscle fibres. The body responds by repairing the
muscle fibres and making them larger. When a muscle gets bigger, this process is
called hypertrophy.

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Long term effects of Exercise on Muscular system

Hypertrophy of Muscle: Scientific and systematic exercise leads to increase in

thickness of muscle fibres that results in increase in muscle size also known as
muscle hypertrophy.

Increase in Strength of Ligaments and Tendons: regular exercise helps to strengthen

bones, ligaments, and tendons. This helps prevent injury and promotes performance.

Increase in Size and Number of Mitochondria: Aerobic exercises leads to increase

in size and numbers of mitochondria, and which take in more oxygen and produce
more ATP and energy.

Increase in Myoglobin Storage: Long term effect of aerobic exercise is to increase

the storage of myoglobin which transports oxygen to mitochondria. Large amount of
myoglobin means large amount of oxygen and large amount of energy.

Increase in Glycogen Storage: Glycogen is generally stored in muscles and liver.

Regular exercise helps the body to increase the storage of glycogen which may give
continuous energy for 90 to 120 minutes.

Increase in Oxidation/ Metabolism: Endurance exercise training increases the

capacity of skeletal muscle fat oxidation by increasing mitochondrial density. Long
term exercises demand a lot of energy, and to meet this demand, metabolism
increases due to oxidation of fat. This leads to increase in provision of energy.

Increase in Lactate Acid Tolerance: Regular exercises help to tolerate pain and
sourness in muscles due to accumulation of lactate acid.

I. Tick the correct answers:

1. Which is not a long term effects of exercise on muscular system?

a. Hypertrophy of muscle
b. Increased metabolism
c. Increased Myoglobin
d. Increased blood supply

2. Which is not a short term effects of exercise on muscular system?

a. Accumulation of Lactate
b. Micro-tears in muscle fibers

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c. Increase muscle temperature

d. Increase in lactate acid tolerance

3. Physical activity helps to increase ________________________.

a. size of muscle
b. size of bone
c. size of brain
d. size of liver

4. Increase in glycogen stored in muscle is an effect of __________

a. Aerobic Training
b. Anaerobic Training
c. Cross Training
d. Multi traning

II. Answer the following questions briefly:

1. Explain long term effects of exercise on muscular system

2. Explain short term effects of exercise on muscular system

III. Answer the following questions in 150-200 words:

1. Describe the various effects of exercises on muscular system

7.3 Effect of Exercise on Cardiorespiratory System

Cardiorespiratory system consists of two parts. They are

Cardiorespiratory

Cardiovascular System Respiratory System

Cardiovascular system - It consists of three parts: the heart, blood vessels and
blood. Its major function is to deliver oxygen and nutrients, remove CO2 and other
metabolic waste products, to transport hormones and other molecules, to support
thermoregulation and control of body fluid balance and lastly to regulate immune
function.

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Respiratory system - The important parts of the respiratory system are the nose,
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Air can also enter the
respiratory system through the oral cavity. Its major functions include, transporting
air to the lungs, exchanging gases (O2 and CO2) between the air and blood, and
regulating blood pH.

7.3.1 EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON CARDIOVASCULAR

Effects of Exercise
on Cardiovascular
System

Short Term Long Term

Increase in Size and strength

Heart rate of Heart
increases

Increased blood
Blood volume
circulation
increases

Blood flow Low level of

increases accumulation of
Lactic acid

Blood pressure Resting Heart

increases rate
decreases

Stroke volume Normal blood

increases pressure

Cardiac output
Increase in stroke
increases
volume and cardiac
output

Increase in
capillaries
network

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Short Term Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular System

Increased Heart Rate: Exercise makes the body work harder and therefore muscles
require more oxygen to continue to work effectively. This sudden increase in demand
of oxygen is met by an increase in blood circulation which is achieved by the heart.
In this process, the heart rate increases.

Increased Blood Circulation: As the heart rate increases, blood circulation increases
in the body to deliver the oxygen to muscles. As a result, the movement or flow of
blood increases to tissues or organs.

Increased: Endurance exercise leads to increase in systolic blood pressure which is in

direct proportion to the increase in exercise intensity. The increased systolic blood
pressure is because of the increased cardiac output that accompanies increasing
rates of work. With most types of training there is minimal change in diastolic blood
pressure.

Increased Stroke Volume: The volume of blood pumped during one beat (contraction)
is called stroke volume. During exercise, stroke volume increases as more oxygen is
required. This is accomplished by delivering blood to muscles. After an endurance
training programme capacity of heart to pump blood in one contraction increased
by 20 to 50 percent.

Increased Cardiac Output: Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out by
each ventricle of the heart in 1 minute. It is the product of the heart rate (HR)
and the stroke volume (SV). Resting cardiac output is approximately 5.0 L/min but
differs according to the size of the person. Maximal cardiac output varies between
less than 20 L/min in sedentary individuals to 40 or more L/min in elite endurance
athletes. Increase in heart rate and stroke volume results in increase in cardiac
output.

Long Term Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular System

Increased Size and Strength of Heart: Continuous aerobic exercises help to increase
the strength and the size of heart which helps in better performance. It is also
referred as cardiac hypertrophy.

Low Level of Accumulation of Lactic Acid: Anaerobic respiration is the process of

converting glucose into energy without oxygen. During the conversion from glucose
to energy, lactic acid, a waste product, is created. Lactic acid makes muscles tired
and painful. Regular exercises prepare muscles to adjust to working with lower
levels of oxygen and the circulatory system develops itself to transport oxygen to

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different parts of the body, thereby resulting in low levels of lactic acid.

Extension Activity

Discuss in your group

The heart is an important part of the cardiovascular system. What can you do to
keep your heart healthy?

What should you avoid doing?

What can happen if the cardiovascular system becomes unhealthy?

Your heart is a muscle about the size of your fist. Compare it to other muscles. Can
you control it like you do the muscles in your arms or legs?

Can you exercise it like you do other muscles?

Decrease in Resting Heart Rate: Due to improved efficiency of the heart, it is

required to pump less blood to meet the needs of the body. As a result, the heart
rate at rest decreases. It is also called as Bradycardia.

Normal Blood Pressure: In response to endurance training, there can be substantial

reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Regular exercise helps keep
the blood pressure normal.

Increase in Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output: Since the size and strength of the
heart increases, heart pumps blood more efficiently with increase in stoke volume
and cardiac output.

Increase in Capillaries Network: To achieve the demand for oxygen, capillaries

network increases. Due to the demands placed on different parts of the body during
exercise, the capillary density at muscle sites improves. Increased capillary density
allows for greater oxygen being transported to the muscles, improving their ability
to perform intense exercise. Moreover, exercise helps in preventing the decline in
capillary function that happens with age.

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Do you know?

Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions
are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood to
the heart.

7.3.2 Effect of Exercise on Respiratory System

Effects of exercise
on Respiratory
system

Short Term Long Term

Respiratory rate Efficiency of

increases respiratory
muscles increases

Tidal volume
increases Lung volume
Increases
Rate of
exchange of gas Pulmonary
increases diffusion
increases

Residual volume
increases

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Extension Activity
WW Working in groups, create a working model of lungs.
WW Research respiratory diseases and how they affect the function of the
respiratory system.
WW Can you alter your model to show what happens to the lungs with these
diseases?
WW Can you demonstrate on their models what has been done to help peo-
ple with respiratory problems?

Short Term Effects of Exercise in Respiratory System

Respiratory Rate Increases: Our body requires more oxygen during exercise, and
to meet this increased demand, the respiratory rate (breathing rate) increases. The
normal respiration rate for an adult at rest is 12 to 20 breaths per minute, but during
exercise it increases to 40 breaths per minutes.

Tidal Volume Increases: The amount of air inhaled and exhaled in one breath is
known as tidal volume. Tidal volume increases as a result of exercise to take in more
oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from our body.

Rate of Exchange of Gas Increases: Regular exercise increases the rate of exchange
of gas in lungs.

Long Term Effects of Exercise in Respiratory System

Increased Efficiency of Respiratory Muscles: Due to regular exercise efficiency of

respiratory muscles increases, inhalation and exhalation become fluent. This helps
to meet the demand of oxygen.

Increased Lung volume: Continuous exercises done for long duration help to increase
the capacity and volume of lungs. Vital capacity increases almost 100 % as compared
to that of a normal individual.

Increased Pulmonary Diffusion: Pulmonary Diffusion refers to the capacity of the

lungs to allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass in and out of the blood. Regular
sub-maximal exercise training develops the scope of increasing the exchange of
gases, and in this process the size of the alveoli also increases.

Increased Residual Volume: Residual volume is the volume of air that remains in
the lungs after forceful expiration. Regular exercise increases residual volume that
helps to exchange the gases in normal limits.

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Do you know?

Universal donors are those with an O negative blood type. Why? O negative blood
can be used in transfusions for any blood type. Types O negative and O positive are
in high demand. Only 7% of the populations are O negative. However, the need for
O negative blood is the highest because it is used most often during emergencies.
The need for O+ is high because it is the most frequently occurring blood type (37%
of the population).

I. Tick the correct options

1. The resting Cardiac output is approximately.

a. 10.0 lt.
b. 1.0 lt.
c. 5.0 lt.
d. 15.0 lt

2. The volume of blood pumped during one beat (contraction) is called,

a. Blood flow
b. Stroke volume
c. Veins and arteries
d. Capillaries

3. Cardiac hypertrophy is
a. plateauing of heart rate due to maximal exercise intensity
b. enlargement of heart due to chronic endurance training
c. lowering of heart rate due to physical training
d. increase in ventricular volume because of exercise

4. The amount of breath per minute increases during exercise to:

a. 20 breath per minute
b. 40 breath per minute
c. 30 breath per minute
d. 10 breath per minute

II. Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What is Stroke Volume?

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2. What is Residual Volume?

3. What are the effects of exercise on the heart?

4. Write briefly about the effect of training on

a. Blood flow
b. Blood volume

5. How does cardiac output respond to training?

6. What is pulmonary diffusion? How does it respond to training?

III. Answer the following questions in 150-200 words.

1. Write briefly about the effect of training on

a. Lung Volume
b. Heart rate

2. What is blood pressure? Briefly explain its response to exercise.

3. Define and explain the effect of exercise on:

a. Total Volume
b. Stroke volume

7.4 Physiological Changes Due to Ageing

Ageing, an inevitable and extremely complex multifactorial process, is characterized

by the progressive degeneration of organ systems and tissues. It is largely determined
by genetics, and influenced by a wide range of environmental factors, such as diet,
exercise, exposure to micro-organisms and pollutants.

Neural Muscular
Function Strength

Cardiovascular Body
Physiological Changes
Function Composition
Due to Ageing

Bone Pulmonary
Mass Endocrine Function
Changes

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Muscular Strength - It is defined as the maximal force that a muscle or muscle group
can generate. Men and women usually attain their highest strength levels between
ages 20 and 40, the time when muscle cross-sectional area is largest. Concentric
strength of most muscle groups declines, slowly at first and then more rapidly after
middle age. Decline in eccentric strength begins at a later age and progresses more
slowly than those in concentric strength.

Strength loss begins at a later age for women than for men. A 40% to 50% reduction in
muscle mass from muscle fibre atrophy and actual loss of motor units between ages
25 and 80 is the primary cause of reduced strength, even among healthy, physically
active men and women.

Neural Function - A nearly 40% decline in the number of spinal cord axons and a
10% decline in nerve conduction velocity reflects the cumulative effects of ageing
on central nervous system functioning. These changes are likely to contribute to
the age-related reduction in neuromuscular performance assessed by simple and
complex reaction and movement times. Ageing most adversely affects the time
required to detect a stimulus and process the information to produce the response.

Endocrine Changes with Ageing - The endocrine system consists of a host organ
(gland), minute quantities of chemical messengers (hormones), and a target or
receptor organ. Approximately 40% of individuals aged between 65 and 75 years
and 50% of those older than age 80 have impaired glucose tolerance leading to
Type 2 diabetes. Thyroid dysfunction, primarily from lowered pituitary gland release
of the thyroid-stimulating hormone thyrotropin (and reduced output of thyroxine),
is common among the elderly. This directly affects metabolic function, including
decreased glucose metabolism and protein synthesis. Mean pulse amplitude,
duration, and fraction of secreted growth hormone (GH) gradually decrease with
ageing, a condition termed somatopause.

Pulmonary Function - Mechanical constraints on the pulmonary system progress

with age to cause deterioration in static and dynamic lung function measures. Also,
pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange kinetics during the transition from rest to
submaximal exercise slow substantially.

Cardiovascular Function - Cardiovascular function and aerobic capacity do not

escape age-related effects. Because of a lower maximum heart rate, maximum
cardiac output typically decreases with age in trained and untrained men and
women. Reduced peripheral blood flow capacity accompanies age-related decreases
in muscle mass. Sedentary living produces losses in functional capacity at least as
great as the effects of ageing.

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Body Composition - In physical fitness, body composition is used to describe the

percentages of fat, bone, water, and muscle in human bodies. After age 60, total
body mass decreases despite increasing body fat.

Bone Mass- Bone Mass is a measure of the amount of minerals (mostly calcium and
phosphorous) contained in a certain volume of bone. Osteoporosis poses a major
problem with ageing, particularly among postmenopausal women. In this condition
it produces loss of bone mass as the ageing skeleton demineralizes and becomes
porous. Bone mass can decrease by 30% to 50% in persons older than age 60.

Do you know?

Oldest woman who lived on earth was Jeanne Calmenta from France (born on 21
February 1875, died on 4 August 1997, lived for 122 years, 164 days).

Oldest man to have lived on earth was Jiroemon Kimura from Japan (born on 19
April 1897, died on 12 June 2013, lived for 116 years, 54 days).

I. Tick the correct answers:

1. Men and women usually attain their highest strength levels between the
ages of
a. 1 and 2
b. 5 and 7
c. 7 and 11
d. 20 and 40

2. It is a measure of the amount of minerals (mostly calcium and phosphorous)

contained in a certain volume of bone,
a. Body composition
b. Bone Mass
c. Pulmonary function
d. Neural function

3. The chemical substances synthesized by specific host glands, secreted

into the blood, and carried throughout the body are called
a. hormones
b. sugar

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c. electrolytes
d. capillaries

4. It is a disease in which bone weakening increases the risk of a broken bone

a. Measles
b. Osteoporosis
c. Atherosclerosis
d. Beriberi

5. Decrease in size of a body part, cell, organ, or other tissue is called

a. a. Myopia
b. b. Atrophy
c. c. Cardiac arrest
d. d. Cardiac cycle

II. Answer the following questions in 150-200 words:

1. Describe the changes in endocrine system due to ageing.

7.5 Sports Injuries

Sports participation and exercise engagement have always witnessed an interruption

among athletes towards active participation or lead to painful experience due to
some or the other form of injuries. The injuries may be due to incorrect movement,
hitting or colliding with equipment or aggressive sporting actions like diving and
sliding, overtraining or lack of conditioning. All these injuries caused due to different
reasons may not be of the same type, which means they may need different remedies
and specific understanding towards each injury to avoid and prevent such injuries.
The injury in sports and exercise refers to the physical damage caused to tissue,
bone, or any other organ of the body while in action and further leading to withdrawal
from participation or experience pain while performing movement actions.

Definitions

An athletic injury is defined as “some physical damage or insult to the body that
occurs during athletic practice or competition causing a resultant loss of capacity or
impairing performance.” Morris (1984)5

A sports injury may be defined as damage to the tissues of the body that occurs as a
result of sport or exercise. IOC Manual of Sports Injuries (2012)6
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Sports injury may be defined as any stress or overstretch put on soft tissues or
bone on or off the field resulting in pain and hindering performance. Cut, tear,
overstretching of tissues, breakage of bone or dislocation of joints are common
injuries in sports. The injuries that occur during sport, athletic activities or during
certain exercises.

7.5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SPORTS INJURIES

Sports Injuries can be classified according to the cause of the injury:

Direct Injuries: They are sustained from an external force causing injury at a point
of contact.

Indirect Injuries: It usually involves the athlete damaging the soft tissues such as
ligaments tendons or muscles of the body through internal or external force.

Soft Tissue Injuries: Any injuries to skin muscles or ligaments are soft tissue injuries.

Hard Tissue Injuries: Injuries that occur in bones and cartilages.

Overuse Injuries: They are sustained from continuous or repetitive stress, incorrect
technique, or equipment or too much training.

Extension Activity

Working in groups discuss

Have you ever had a sports injury? How did you get it?

Are there any ways for fellow athletes to avoid similar injuries?

Why is it important to take time to heal after a sports injury?

Why is it not a good idea to ignore any pain that you feel while playing a sport?

Why should you warm up before playing a sport? What can happen if you don’t warm up?

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7.5.2 TYPES OF SPORTS INJURIES

Injuries Types
Abrasion – injury caused by falling on rough or firm surface.
Laceration – tears in the skin.
Incision – cut caused by a sharp edge of an object.
Skin injuries
Puncture wound – wound caused by piercing by a sharp and
pointed object.
Avulsion – tearing away of a part of the skin.
Contusion – bruise caused by a direct blow to some part of
the body. eg., knee of a player knocks against the thigh of
another person.
Soft tissue injuries Sprain – injury of ligament of joints, caused by the violent
(eg., muscles, overstretching of ligament in a joint or the movement of
ligaments) the joint in abnormal directions. It is characterised by pain,
tenderness, swelling at the joint.
Strain – injury of muscle or tendon, three types– mild,
moderate, severe.

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Joint injuries are very common in sports. They are known

as joint dislocation. “Dislocation is the displacement of
contiguous surfaces of two or more bones which are in a
joint.” It is caused by an external force which forces the
Joint injuries
joint to move beyond the limits of a joint. If the joint is
forced to move in an abnormal direction, this dislocation
can be a complete or a partial displacement of the
bones.
Fractures (Fracture is a break in the continuity of the bone).
The fractures can be open/compound fracture or a closed/
Bone injuries simple fracture. Severity of the fracture varies from a mild
crack in the bone to the severe shattering of the bone into
many pieces.

7.5.3 SOFT TISSUE INJURIES

A soft tissue injury is the damage of muscles, ligaments and tendons throughout the
body.

Type of soft tissue injuries

Abrasion Contusion Laceration Strain Sprain Incision

Abrasion

Abrasion injuries most commonly occur due to moving contact with a rough surface,
causing a grinding, or rubbing away of the upper superficial layers of the epidermis.

Cause - Abrasion injuries commonly occur when exposed skin encounters a rough
surface, causing a grinding or rubbing away of the upper layers of epidermis.

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Treatment - Clean the surface of the affected part. Stop bleeding at the earliest by
compression bandages. Anti-tetanus injection should be provided.

Contusion

It is the type of hematoma, which refers to any collection of blood outside of a

vessel.

Cause - When a part of the body is struck by enough force to crush underlying muscle
fibres and connective tissue without breaking the skin, a contusion may occur. It can
be due to a blow from a collision with a player or a piece of equipment or because
of a heavy fall.

Prevention - All the safety gear to be worn upon while playing (Helmet, anal guards,)
should be worn.

Treatment - Non-steroidal anti- inflammatory drugs such as Ibuprofen, or other

medications for pain relief as prescribed by the doctor.

Laceration

The irregular tear-like wounds caused by some blunt trauma.

Cause – Mostly, laceration is the result of the skin hitting an adjacent object, or an
object hitting the skin with force.

Prevention - Proper personal equipment, including eye protection can be helpful in

preventing the same.

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Treatment - Clean the surface of the effected part. Stop bleeding at the earliest by
compression bandages.

Strain

Strain is an injury to the muscles which are attached to a bone. A strain is an injury
to either a muscle or a tendon generally caused by overuse, force, or stretching.
Depending on the severity of the injury, a strain may be a simple overstretch of the
muscle or tendon, or it can result in a partial or complete tear. A strain could be
an acute or chronic soft tissue injury that is a twist, pull or tear of a muscle or the
tendon.

Cause - Strains occur suddenly (acute strain) or develop slowly over time (chronic
strain). Causes include lifting of heavy objects, running, jumping, throwing etc.

Prevention - Regular stretching and strengthening exercise for any kind of sport can
be the preventive measure for strain.

Treatment - It can be managed by applying ice packs and maintaining the strained
muscle in a stretched position. (RICE: rest, ice, compression, and elevation).

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Sprain

Sprain is the stretching or tearing of ligaments, the fibrous tissue that connects
bones in the joints. A sprain occurs when you overextend or tear a ligament while
surely stressing a joint. The most common location for a sprain is in your ankle.

Cause - A sprain occurs when one overextends or tears a ligament while severely
straining a joint.

Prevention - Regular stretching and strengthening exercises for any kind of sport
can be the preventive measure for such kind of sports injury.

Treatment – RICE (rest, ice, compression and elevation).

Incision

An incision is a cut made into the tissues of the body to expose the underlying tissue,
bone or organ.

Cause - Can be caused by a clean, sharp-edged object – such as a knife, razor or

glass splinter.

Prevention - The area should be free from the sharp edges.

Treatment - Gently wash the affected area with soap and water to remove the dirt.
Dry the incision with a clean, fresh towel before applying the dressing.

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7.5.4 HARD TISSUE INJURIES

An injury to the skeletal system of the body is termed as the hard tissue injury. They
are the injuries where the bone fractures, ie., the bone either cracks or breaks.

Types of hard tissue injuries

Dislocation Fractures:
Stress fractures
Greenstick
Commutated
Transverse
Oblique
Impacted

Dislocation

Dislocations are joint injuries that force the ends of bones out of position. The cause
is often a fall or a blow, sometimes from playing a contact sport. A joint dislocation,
also called luxation, occurs when there is an abnormal separation in the joint,
where two or more bones meet. A partial dislocation is referred to as a subluxation.
Dislocation can be caused by a trauma (accident or fall) or the weakening of muscles
and tendons. A dislocated joint can be treated through medication, manipulation,
rest or surgery.

Causes - Trauma that forces a joint out of place causes a dislocation. Accidents, falls,
and contact sports such as football are common causes of this injury. Dislocations
also occur during regular activities when the muscles and tendons surrounding the
joint are weak. These injuries happen more often in older people who have weaker
muscles and balance issues.

Symptoms - Symptoms of a dislocation vary depending on the severity and location

of the injury. The symptoms of a dislocated joint include:

hh Pain
hh Swelling
hh Bruising
hh Instability of the joint

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hh Loss of ability to move the joint

hh Visibly deformed joint (bone looks out of place)

Treatment - Treatment can vary based on the severity of the injury, and the joint
that is dislocated. Applying ice and keeping the joint elevated can help reduce pain
while you wait to see a doctor. Treatment includes:

Medication: Your doctor may recommend medication to reduce pain from a dislocation

Manipulation: A doctor returns the bones to their proper places.

Rest: Once the joint is back in place, you may need to protect it and keep it immobile.
Using a sling or splint can help the area heal fully.

Rehabilitation: Physical therapy exercises strengthen the muscles and ligaments

around the joint to help support it.

Surgery: Your doctor may recommend surgery if:

manipulation does not work to put the bones back in place. the dislocation damaged
blood vessels or nerves.

the dislocation damaged bones, tore muscles or ligaments that need repair.

Fractures

A fracture is a break in a bone. Fractures are caused by a direct impact, such as a fall
or a severe tackle. Stress fractures develop over time and are caused by overuse.

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Stress fracture

Stress fractures may occur because of overuse injuries and the failure to have
adequate equipment to protect the body.

Causes - Stress fractures often result from increasing the amount or intensity of an
activity too quickly.

Prevention - Low impact activities added to exercise regimen to avoid repetitively

stressing a particular part of the body.

Treatment - Rest, cold therapy ice packs, cold compresses, apply ice to the injured
area, anti- inflammatory medications such as Ibuprofen, aspirin etc and a recovery
time of 6 to 8 weeks is required for healing.

Greenstick

A fracture in a young, soft bone, in which the bone bends.

Causes - These fractures most commonly occur with a fall.

Prevention - Promotion of regular exercise, ensuring the child’s safety by providing

proper safety equipment and adequate calcium in the child’s diet can also help to
prevent this kind of fracture.

Treatment - Removable splints result in better outcomes than casting in children

with – Torus fractures of the distal radius.

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Comminuted

A fracture in which a bone is broken, splinted, or crushed into number of pieces.

Causes - Direct and indirect trauma or violence can be causes for commutated
fracture. Prevention - Maintaining strong bones by eating food that is rich in calcium
and regular exercise can help in the prevention of this type of fracture.

Treatment - An X-ray is important for diagnosing of the condition. An open reduction

when the bone fragments are jammed-together using surgical nails, wire plates etc.
is required for comminuted fracture.

Transverse

Transverse fracture is when there is a straight break right across a bone.

Causes - When a large amount of force is transmitted directly i.e., perpendicularly

to the bone.

Prevention - Physical activity and weight bearing exercises will make the bones
stronger and denser. Bones can also be strengthened by eating foods rich in calcium
and taking regular exercise.

Treatment - Can be treated at home along with rest and medicine. A back brace
(called TSL) or abdominal binder may be prescribed to reduce the pain by limiting
motion at the fracture site.

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Oblique

Oblique fracture is one in which the bone breaks diagonally.

Causes - This fracture is usually caused by an injury to the bone as the result of a
fall, accident, or other trauma.

Prevention - Bones can be strengthened by eating food rich in calcium and exercising
regularly to help prevent this type of fracture.

Treatment - It depends upon the severity of the crack or break. Anti- inflammatory
medication, reduction (Resetting the bone) can also help to some extent.

Extension activity

Write down the examples of dislocation and fracture on the various body parts and
its treatment.

Impacted

This type of fracture occurs when the broken ends of the bones are jammed together
by the force of the injury.

Causes - It is caused mainly when someone falls from height with a great impact.

Prevention – Increased physical activity, weight bearing exercises and maintaining

good intake of calcium in food can help in preventing this type of fracture.

Treatment - In an impacted fracture the bones get broken into fragments. Therefore,
a sling or a splint may be required to keep the broken bones in place, so that
movement of the sharp ends of the broken bone is prevented. This is essential to
prevent further damage to the bone.

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I. Tick the correct answers:

1. A sprain is an injury to:

a. Muscle
b. Tendon
c. Ligament
d. Bone

2. A fracture is an example of injury to

a. skin
b. soft tissue
c. hard tissue
d. eyes

3. A soft tissue injury damages

a. ligaments and tendons
b. bone
c. cartilage and muscles
d. carpals

4. A fracture in which the bone breaks diagonally is called a _________________

fracture.
a. Greenstick
b. Impacted
c. Oblique
d. Transverse

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II. Answer the following questions briefly:

1. What is comminuted fracture? Write its cause, prevention and treatment.

2. What is a sprain? Write its cause, prevention and treatment.

III. Answer the following questions in 150–200 words:

1. Name the more common types of fractures and describe them.

2. What is a soft tissue injury? Name four types of soft tissue injury and
describe it.

IV. Complete the chart given below listing common sports injuries, their causes,
prevention and treatment.

Common Sports injuries Causes Prevention Treatment

Skin injuries

Soft tissue injuries

Joint injuries

Bone injuries

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V. Sports Integration

1. Conduct a survey on types and frequencies of different injuries to

sportsperson. (take any ten sportsperson)

2. Make a 3D model of the knee showing any ONE of the injuries that may
occur on the field.

3. Get information from newspapers regarding current injury to an

International player.

4. Experience sharing session of different sportsperson studying in school.

VI. Case Study

1.

1. Which types of injury is illustrated above?

a. Soft tissue
b. Hard tissue
c. Joint injury
d. Ligament injury

2. Recognise the type of facture is illustrated above:

a. Green Stick
b. Comminuted
c. Transverse
d. Oblique

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3. In which of the factures bone “breaks diagonally”?

a. Green Stick
b. Comminuted
c. Transverse

d. Oblique

References
hh Venkat, R. (2020, 09 20). Kunjarani Devi, the first superstar of Indian
weightlifting. Retrieved 11 25,
hh 2020, from Olympic Channel:
hh https://www.olympicchannel.com/en/stories/features/detail/
kunjarani-devi-indian-weightlifter-
hh world-championship-commonwealth-games/
hh Cardiac Output. (n.d.). Retrieved 11 25, 2020, from https://ib.bioninja.
com.au/options/option-d-human-physiology/d4-the-heart/cardiac-
output.html
hh Dr Rasol Ibrahim Peshdary. (n.d.). Retrieved 11 25, 2020, from http://
www.noormedical.com/content/dr-rasol-ibrahim-peshdary
hh Morris, A. (1984). Sports Medicine, Prevention of Athletic Injuries. Lowa:
Wm. C. Brown.
hh Bahr, R., Mccrory, P., R.F. LaPrade, W. M., & Engebretsen, L. (2012). The
IOC manual of sports injuries : an illustrated guide to the management of
injuries in physical activity. US: Wiley and Sons.
hh Adolfsson, P., & et.al. (2018, 08 22). ISPAD Clinical Practice Consensus
Guidelines 2018: Exercise in children and adolescents with diabetes.
Retrieved 11 25, 2020, from Wiley Online Library: https://onlinelibrary.
wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/pedi.12755

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