Chemistry Structure of Matter

Chemistry

Structure of Matter 03
The things in our environment can be classified into two main categories as matter
and energy. Those that occupy space and have a mass are called matter. The
classification of matter according to their physical nature and chemical composition
is shown in the following chart.

According to Solid
physical nature
Matter Liquid
Gas

According to chemical
composition

Pure substances Mixtures

Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous

mixtures mixtures
Iron (Fe), Water (H2O),
Oxygen (O2) Carbon dioxide Salt solution Lime + Water
Copper (Cu), (CO2) Sugar solution Rise + Sand
Nitrogen (N2)

Atoms are the building units of matter. The atom is composed of subatomic particles.
Among them, protons, electrons and neutrons are the main subatomic particles.
The electron is a negatively charged particle. Proton has a positive charge while
neutrons have no charge. With the identification that particles called electrons,
protons and neutrons constitute matter, and as a result of the effort taken to describe
how those particles are organized in matter, the atomic model was introduced.
According to the nuclear model put forward by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, there is
a very small area called nucleus at the centre of the atom.
If the atom is a football ground, nucleus is a small volume, even smaller than a
chickpea at its centre. From this example, it is clear that the nucleus of an atom is
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very small relative to an atom. Protons and neutrons are accumulated in the nucleus.
The nucleus is positively charged.
Electrons revole around the nucleus. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to
the number of protons. However the protons and electrons are oppositely charged
and therefore, the atom is electrically neutral.

3.1 The Planetary Model of the Atom

The planetary model of the atom was
introduced by Ernest Rutherford.
Electrons move around the nucleus in
which the positive charge of the atom is
concentrated. This is similar to the solar
system where the planets revolve around
the sun (Fig. 3.1).

Though electrons are attracted by the

positive charge of the nucleus, they do
not fall on the nucleus. This is because
electrons revolve very fast around
Fig - 3.1 -Fig.
The planetary model of the atom
the nucleus. Niels Bohr who further 3.1 - The planetary model of the atom

elaborated the Rutherford's model stated that the electrons move in definite paths
or shells around the positively charged nucleus.The shells in which the electrons
revole around the nucleus are assigned either numbers 1, 2, 3, 4...... or letters K, L,
M, N...... respectively starting from the nearest to the nucleus.
The shells are also known as energy levels. Each energy level has a specific energy.
When moving away from the nucleus this energy increases. Nevertheless, the
difference between the energy levels decreases (Fig 3.2). In an atom, there is a
maximum number of electrons in any energy level.Table 3.1 gives the total number
of electrons in the first four energy levels nearest to the nucleus. There is a specified
energy for each energy level.
Table 3-1
Maximum number of
Level
electrons
1 (K) 2
2 (L) 8
3 (M) 18
4 (N) 32

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N
M
L
K
Assignment 3.1
Make models of the atom to show its three
dimentional nature by selecting suitable
materials according to the instructions of
the teacher. Display your creations in your
classroom.
Fig - 3.2

y Atomic number
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of the element.
Atomic number of the element = number of protons in an atom of the element
For example, there are 11 protons in the nucleus of a sodium atom. Thus, the atomic
number of sodium is 11.The number of protons in every atom of the same element
is equal. The number of protons in different elements is different. Therefore, the
atomic numbers of two atoms of different elements will never be the same. Hence,
the atomic number of an element is a unique characteristic of that element.
For instance, if the atomic number of an element is 6, it means that the element is
carbon. In no other element, the atomic number is equal to 6. The atomic number of
an element is symbolised by Z. In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to
the number of electrons in it. So, it implies that the atomic number of an element is
equal to the number of electrons in an atom of that element.
However, when chemical reactions take place, electrons may be either lost from or
gained by atoms. Such charged atoms are called ions. The number of electrons in
an ion may be less or more than the number of protons. But, since the number of
protons in an ion formed by a particular atom does not change, its atomic number
remains unchanged.

y Mass number
Of the fundermental subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons
contained in an atom, electrons are very light. The mass of protons and neutrons
is nearly equal.Approximately, the mass of an electron is 1/1840 the mass of a
proton. So in comparison to the mass of protons and neutrons in an atom, the mass

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of electrons is negligibly small. Therefore, the mass of an atom depends only on the
mass of protons and neutrons. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass number.

\ mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Symbol A signifies the mass number of an element.
y Atomic number of sodium is 11.
y Hence, a sodium atom contains 11 protons.
y If it contains 12 neutrons,the mass number of the sodium atom = 11+12=23.
There is a standard way of writing the atomic number and mass number of an
element. On the left hand side of the symbol of the relevant element, the atomic
number is written at the bottom and the mass number at the top.

Example ( The mass number of sodium (Na) is 23.

Its atomic number is 11.

A 23
X Na
Z 11
A - mass number atomic number - 11
Z - atomic number mass number - 23

The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the number
of neutrons in the atom.
3.2 Electronic Configuration
The maximum number of electrons that can be accomodated in the respective
energy levels according to the atomic model accepted at present was discussed
earlier. Representing how electrons are filled in the respective energy levels
from the one nearest to the nucleus of an atom and outwards is called
electronic configuration. Let's look at an example. The atomic number of sodium
is 11. Therefore, a sodium atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons. Those eleven
electrons in the sodium atom are distributed as 2 electrons in the first energy level, 8
electrons in the second energy level and 1 electron in the third energy level. Hence
the electronic configuration of sodium can be written as follows.
Na - 2, 8, 1
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Table 3.2 - Electronic configurations of the elements with atomic numbers from 1 to 20

Atomic Electronic configuration

Element Symbol
number K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2 1
Beryllium Be 4 2 2
Boron B 5 2 3
Carbon C 6 2 4
Nitrogen N 7 2 5
Oxygen O 8 2 6
Fluorine F 9 2 7
Neon Ne 10 2 8
Sodium Na 11 2 8 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2
Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4
Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5
Sulphur S 16 2 8 6
Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7
Argon Ar 18 2 8 8
Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1
Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2

When an energy level of an atom of an element is the last energy level bearing
electrons, the maximum number of electrons it can accommodate is 8. Thus, the
number of electrons in the energy levels of potassium and calcium are not 9 and 10.

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3.3 Modern Periodic Table

As at present, more than 115 elements have been discovered. Studying their
properties individually is a very tedious task. Scientists in various parts of the world
collect information about elements and their compounds continuously. This host of
information is so large and diverse that no one is able to memorise all the facts about
them. Therefore different scientists have attempted to classify elements in various
ways.The periodic classification is the greatest result of this attempt. A Periodic
Table for classifying elements was first introduced by Dmitri Mendeleeff ,a Russian
scientist.

The modern Periodic Table (Fig. 3.3) is based on the atomic number and the
electronic configuration. The periodic law states that the properties of elements
are periodic functions of their atomic number. This means that when the elements
are arranged in the ascending order of their atomic numbers, elements with similar
properties recur at regular intervals of elements.
1
H VIII / O
2
He
I II III IV V VI VII
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Metal
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Non - metal
24
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Metalloid
37
Rb
38
Sr
39
Y
40
Zr
41
Nb
42
Mo
43
Tc
44
Ru
45
Rh
46
Pd Ag
47 48
Cd
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe Nobel gas
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th 83 Pa 84 U 85 Np 86 Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Fig. 3.3 - The modern Perodic Table

In this grade only the elements with Periods

atomic numbers from 1 - 20 are I VIII / O
1 2
studied. Fig 3.4 shows that part. 1 H
II III IV V VI VII
He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
In the PeriodicTable, horizontal rows 2 Be B O F Ne
Groups

Li C N

are called Periods while vertical 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
columns are known as Groups. 4 K
19
Ca
20
Fig. 3.4 - A part of modern Perodic Table

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• Dividing Elements into Periods

The Period to which an element belongs is decided by the number of energy levels
(shells) carrying electrons in an atom of that element.
Period 1 - Only the first energy level carries electrons
Period 2 - Only the first and second energy levels carry electrons
Period 3 - Only the first, second, and third energy levels carry electrons
Period 4 - Only the first, second, third and fourth energy levels carry electrons
H 1 Period 1
He 2
Li 2, 1 Period 2
Be 2, 2
B 2, 3
C 2, 4
N 2, 5
O 2, 6
F 2, 7
Ne 2, 8
Na 2, 8, 1 Period 3
Mg 2, 8, 2
Al 2, 8, 3
Si 2, 8, 4
P 2, 8, 5
S 2, 8, 6
Cl 2, 8, 7
Ar 2, 8, 8
K 2, 8, 8, 1 Period 4
Ca 2, 8, 8, 2
y Dividing Elements into Groups
The properties of an element depends on the number of electrons present in its
outermost energy level. These are known as valence electrons. As per the above
table, it is seen that the properties of lithium which has only one valence electron is
similar to that of sodium.
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Sodium too which has only one valence electron. It is seen that the properties of
any element in the upper horizontal row is similar to those of the element below it.
The group to which an element belongs is decided by the number of electrons in its
outermost energy level.
Group to which the
Number of electrons in the outer energy level
element belongs
Elements with 1 electron in the outer energy level Group I
Elements with 2 electrons in the outer energy level Group II
Elements with 3 electrons in the outer energy level Group III
Elements with 4 electrons in the outer energy level Group IV
Elements with 5 electrons in the outer energy level Group V
Elements with 6 electrons in the outer energy level Group VI
Elements with 7 electrons in the outer energy level Group VII
Elements with 8 electrons in the outer energy level Group VIII / 0
or with a stable electronic configuration

Groups to which the 20 elements from hydrogen to calcium belong

E lectronic Group to which

Element Atomic number
configuration the element belongs

H 1 1 I
He 2 2 VIII / 0
Li 3 2, 1 I
Be 4 2, 2 II
B 5 2, 3 III
C 6 2, 4 IV
N 7 2, 5 V
O 8 2, 6 VI
F 9 2, 7 VII
Ne 10 2, 8 VIII / 0
Na 11 2, 8, 1 I
Mg 12 2,8,2 II
Al 13 2, 8, 3 III

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Si 14 2, 8, 4 IV
P 15 2, 8, 5 V
S 16 2, 8, 6 VI
Cl 17 2, 8, 7 VII
Ar 18 2, 8, 8 VIII / 0
K 19 2, 8, 8, 1 I
Ca 20 2, 8, 8, 2 II

How to Find the Position of an Element in the Periodic Table

Example :- Atomic number of magnesium (Mg) is 12. 2

8
Electronic configuration - 2, 8, 2 2
The number of energy levels carrying electrons in a
magnesium atom is 3.
So, it is an element in Period 3. Number of electrons in
the outer energy level of a magnesium atom is 2.
Therefore it belongs to Group II Mg
Magnesium is in Group II and Period 3 of the Periodic Fig. 3.5
Table.

Example - Atomic number of potassium (K) is 19. 1

Electronic configuration - 2, 8, 8,1

8
8
The number of energy levels carrying electrons in 2

a potassium atom is 4.Therefore it is an element in

Period 4.
A potassium atom has one electron in its outer energy
level. K
Therefore it belongs to Group I. Fig 3.5

Thus potassium is found in Group I and Period 4 of the Periodic Table.

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The location of the elements with atomic number 1 - 20 in the periodic table

Table 3.3 Groups and periodic of first 20 elements

Atomic Element Electronic Period of the Group of
number Configuration element the element
1 H 1 1 I
2 He 2 1 VII / 0
3 Li 2, 1 2 I
4 Be 2, 2 2 II
5 B 2, 3 2 III
6 C 2, 4 2 IV
7 N 2, 5 2 V
8 O 2, 6 2 VI
9 F 2, 7 2 VII
10 Ne 2, 8 2 VIII / 0
11 Na 2, 8, 1 3 I
12 Mg 2, 8, 2 3 II
13 Al 2, 8, 3 3 III
14 Si 2, 8, 4 3 IV
15 P 2, 8, 5 3 V
16 S 2, 8, 6 3 VI
17 Cl 2, 8, 7 3 VII
18 Ar 2, 8, 8 3 VIII / 0
19 K 2, 8, 8, 1 4 I
20 Ca 2, 8, 8, 2 4 II

3.4 Isotopes
Among the atoms of the same element too, there may be atoms with different number
of neutrons. But their atomic number, that is the number of protons, is equal. That
means, there may be atoms with different mass numbers in the same element. The
atoms with different mass numbers in the same element are known as isotopes
of that element.

Examples for isotopes

Hydrogen has three isotopes. They are called protium, deuterium and tritium.

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Table 3.4 - Isotopes of hydrogen

Isotope Protium Deuterium Tritium

Atomic model
electrons 1 electrons 1 electrons 1
protons 1 protons 1 protons 1
neutrons 0 neutrons 1 neutrons 2

Atomic number 1 1 1
Mass number 1 2 3
Standard 11
H
H 22
H
H 33
H
H
representation 11 11 11

Chlorine has two isotopes. They are 17173535 C

Cl1 , 17
37
37
C1 .
17 Cl

Chlorine gas does not contain 17173535 C

Cl1 and 1717
37
37
Cl1 in equal amounts. In hundred parts of
C
gas, 75 parts are 1717 CCl1 and 25 parts are 1717C
35
35 37
37
Cl1. This is called the percentage abundance
of the respective isotopes.
3.5 Patterns Seen in the Periodic Table
In the Periodic Table it can be seen that the physical and chemical properties of
the elements change according to a systematic pattern across a Period from left to
right and from top to bottom of a Group. To study those patterns, let's consider the
following properties of the elements.

y First ionisation energy

y Electronegativity

y First ionisation energy

In accordance with the nuclear model of the atom, its electrons orbit the nucleus.
The negatively charged electrons are attracted by the positively charged nucleus,
so to remove an electron from an atom energy must be supplied to overcome that
attraction. When an electron is removed from an atom, it becomes a positive ion.

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I VIII / O
The first ionisation energy of an
H He element is the minimum energy that
1310 II III IV V VI VII 2372 should be supplied to an atom in the
Li Be B C N O F Ne gaseous state to remove an electron to
519 897 799 1085 1406 1314 1682 2080

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
form a unipositive gaseous ion. The
495 738 577 786 1018 1000 1255 1521 formation of a unipositive gaseous ion
K
418
Ca
590
Fig. 3.7 - First ionisation energy values of the
elements with atomic numbers
by removing an electron from an atom
1-20 (kJ mol -1) in the gaseous state can be represented
by a chemical equation as follows.
Na(g) Na+(g) + e
This energy is a comparatively small value for an atom. Therefore, this value is given
for 6.022 x 1023 atoms or a mole of atoms. Fig. 3.7. indicates the values for one mole
of atoms of respective elements. Accordingly, the first ionisation energy of sodium is
495 kJ mol-1 .
In a given Period, the Group I elements have the minimum first ionisation energy. Also
in every Period, Group VIII elements have the maximum ionisation energy .From
left to right in a Period, the first ionisation energy varies in a regular manner. This is
confirmed when the variation of ionisation energies in the second and third periods are
examined using the graph (Fig 3.8).
First ionisation energy $ kJ mol-1

2800
2600
2400 He
2200 Ne
2000
1800 F
Ar
1600
N
1400
Cl
1200 H O P
1000 Be C
S
800 Mg
B Si Ca
600
400 Li Al
Na
K
200

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Atomic number

Fig. 3.8 - The graph of ionisation energy variation against atomic number for first 20 elements

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Assignment - 3.2
Draw a graph of the first ionisation energy values of elements
of atomic numbers 1 - 20 given in the Fig. 3.7, against the atomic
number. Use a graph paper for this assignment. Describe how the first
ionisation energy varies across a Period from left to right and from top
to bottom in a Group using your graph.

It is seen that in Group I elements, values of the first ionisation energy decrease
from top to bottom of the Group. You can understand this by examining the values
of the other groups also. Therefore, it can be concluded that, from top to bottom of a
Group, the ionisation energy decreases. Descending a group, the number of energy
levels in an atom increases.Therefore, the attraction exerted by the nucleus on the
electrons in the outer energy level becomes less making the removal of electrons
easier.
y Electronegativity
Electronegativity means the ability of an atom of an element to attract the
electrons of a bond towards itself when it is bonded to an atom of another
element. The attraction of an atom of higher electronegativity towards electrons
is greater than that of lower electronegativity. More about electronegativity will be
discussed under the unit on chemical bonds.
As per the Pauling scale, fluorine is considered the element of highest
electronegativity. There are several scales to quantify the electronegativity of
which the Pauling scale has been adopted here. Pauling scale does not assign
electronegativity values to noble gases (Noble gases show less tendency to form
chemical bonds).
Study the electronegativity values and the graph that illustrates the variation of
electronegativity values well. It can be seen that the electronegativity increases from
left to right across a Period. It is also seen that, down a Group, electronegativity
decreases.

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I VIII / O
F
H He 4
O
2.1 II III IV V VI VII - Cl

Electro negitivity
3
Li Be B C N O F Ne N
H C P S
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 -
2 Al
B
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Be
Si
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0 - Mg
1 Li Ca
Na
K Ca K
0.8 1.0
0 5 10 15 20
Atomic number
Fig 3.9 - Pauling electronegativity values of the Fig 3.10 - Variation of electronegitivity
elements with atomic numbers 1-20 against atomic number

3.6 Metals, Non - metals and Metalloids

1
H VIII / O
2
He
I II III IV V VI VII
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Metal
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Non - metal
24
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Metalloid
37
Rb
38
Sr
39
Y
40
Zr
41
Nb
42
Mo
43
Tc
44
Ru
45
Rh
46
Pd Ag
47 48
Cd
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe Nobel gas
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th 83 Pa 84 U 85 Np 86 Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Fig. 3.11 - The modern Perodic Table

The elements written in blue in the boxes on the left hand side of this pattern
are metals. The elements indicated in brown on the right hand side are non -
metals(including nobel gasses).The elements indicated in light green around the
steps have properties in between the metals and non - metals. Therefore they are
called metalloids.

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y Metals
Of the elements identified so far, more them 80 are metals. In nature, these exist
as native metals as well as compounds of metals. Metals such as silver and gold
are found as native metals in nature whereas many metals such as iron, aluminium,
magnesium and sodium exist as their compounds.
Physical Properties of Metals
Given below are some properties of metals.
y Have a metallic lustre (have a shiny surface).
y Sonorous (give a ringing sound when struck).
y Exist in solid state at room temperature (mercury, though a metal is a liquid )
y Malleable (can be hammered into sheets) and ductile (can be drawn into wires)
y Good conductors of heat and electricity
y Generally have a high density
Chemical Properties of Metals
y Metals form positive ions or cations by losing electrons.
y They combine with oxygen to form basic oxides.
y The oxides when dissolved in water form basic solutions.

y Some Metallic Elements

Sodium

Sodium is a metallic element belonging to Group I

of the Periodic Table. It is a highly reactive element.
It never exists as the native metal. Because of its
high reactivity it exists only as compounds. Sodium
chloride, the main compound containing sodium
occurs in sea water.
FigFig
3.12
3.12 --Sodium
Sodium

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Activity 1

Do this activity under the directions of your teacher.

y Observe and report on how sodium metal is stored in the laboratory.
y Take out a piece of sodium using forceps, place it on a dry surface and
cut it with a knife.
y Leave it for about five minutes. Note the observations.

Sodium metal is stored in paraffin oil or kerosene so that it does not come into
contact with air. When sodium metal is taken out of paraffin oil, its lustre disappears.
The metal can easily be cut with a knife. The freshly cut surface offers a silvery
lustre but it gets tarnished after some time.

Physical properties of sodium metal

y It is a soft metal which can easily be cut with a knife.
y It floats on water because its density (0.97 g cm-3) is less than that of water.
y It is a conductor of heat and electricity.

Chemical properties of sodium metal

y Sodium shows a high reactivity towards oxygen. It reacts rapidly with
oxygen in air to form the oxide of the metal.
y Sodium metal vigourously reacts with cold water forming sodium hydroxide
and hydrogen gas.
y It reacts violently with dilute acids and forms salt and hydrogen gas (Since
this is extremely dangerous you shouldn't attempt this. )
Uses of sodium
y Production of sodium cyanide used in the extraction of gold and silver
y Making sodium amalgam which is used as a reducing agent in organic
chemistry
y Extraction of metals such as titanium and zirconium from their compounds
y Production of indigo dye used to dye trouser materials (Denim)
y Using the production of street lamps with a yellow glow

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Magnesium
Magnesium is a light, reactive metal. It does not
exist as the native metal in nature. In sea water it
occurs as magnesium chloride. When exposed to
air magnesium tarnishes so its lustre cannot be
seen. But when cleaned with a sand paper, the
lustre becomes visible.

Fig 3.13 - Magnesium

Physical properties of magnesium

y It is a good coductors of heat and electricity.

y Has a higher density than that of water (Density is 1740 kg m-3).

Chemical properties of magnesium

y When heated in air, magnesium burns with a bright white flame giving
white magnesium oxide.
y Magnesium does not react with cold water but reacts with hot water. As a
result, it forms magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. When the metal is
strongly heated in steam, magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas are formed.
y Magnesium rapidly reacts with dilute acids and forms the corresponding
magnesium salt and hydrogen gas.

Uses of magnesium
y By mixing magnesium with aluminium, an alloy called magnelium is
produced(This alloy is strong and resistant to corrosion. It is used in aircraft
industry and in making parts of automobiles).
y Production of medicines (e.g. milk of magnesia).
y Used as a metal that prevents corrosion of iron.

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y Non - metals
Generally, non – metals have properties opposite to those of metals. There are non
– metals which occur as native elements as well as compounds of other elements.
Some non – metals occur in solid state while some others exist in liquid and gaseous
states. At room temperature carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and iodine exist in the
solid state. Bromine is a liquid at room temperature. Chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen
and oxygen are some non - metals occurring in the gaseous state. Non - metals
do not have a metallic lustre. They cannot be hammered into sheets or drawn into
wires. Many non – metals are brittle and are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
However graphite, a non - metal is a conductor of electricity. Non-metals have a
relatively low density but the density of diamond is high.
Chemical Properties of Non – metals
y Non - metals form negative ions (anions).
y Many oxides formed by non – metals with oxygen are acidic. Mostly these
exist in the gaseous state. They easily dissolve in water and form acids.
y Some Non – metallic Elements
Nitrogen
Nitrogen exists as a free and diatomic gas in the atmosphere. About 78.1% by
volume in the atmosphere is nitrogen gas. Nitrogen is also present as a component
in animal and plant proteins. Nitrogen also exists as a constituent element in soil
air, in organic substances such as humus and in nitrates, nitrites and ammonium
compounds.
Physical properties of nitrogen
y It is colourless and odourless.
y It is lighter than air and is slightly soluble in water.
Chemical properties of nitrogen
y Nitrogen is a non - supporter of combustion.
y It is a gas of very low reactivity. Nevertheless, at high temperatures, nitrogen
gas reacts with non metals such as oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and silicon as
well as with metallic elements such as magnesium and aluminium.
y When sent through a strong electric arc, nitrogen combines with oxygen
in the atmosphere to form unstable nitric oxide gas. The nitric oxide gas
so formed reacts further with oxygen in air to form an acidic gas, nitrogen
dioxide. During lightning, this process occurs naturally.
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y Under special conditions nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to form
ammonia gas. Industrially ammonia is manufactured by this method.
Ammonia so prepared is used as a raw material to produce nitrogen
containing fertilizers and explosives.
y When heated, nitrogen gas reacts with metals like magnesium to form metal
nitrides.
Uses of nitrogen gas
y Nitrogen gas is used to produce ammonia in industrial scale, chemical
fertilizers and other nitrogen compounds.
y Since it is an inert gas, it is used to fill electric bulbs and thermometers.
y When making electronic devices, a nitrogen gas environment is used.
y When storing some substances, nitrogen is used as a blanketing gas.
y When packaging milk powder, nitrogen is used.
y Liquid nitrogen is used as a coolant.
y It is also used to fill vehicle tires.
Sulphur

Sulphur is an element that exists in different forms

in nature. Those forms are referred to as allotropes.
Sulphur occurs in crystalline form as a yellow
brittle solid (Fig. 3.14) and in amorphous form as a
white powder. In nature, it is found both as a native
element as well as compounds like sulphates and
sulphides. It is a constituent element in some amino
acids found in the bodies of living beings. Sulphur
Fig 3.14 - Sulphur
clearly shows the properties of non – metals.

Physical properties of sulphur

y It is a poor conductor of electricity.
y Sulphur is insoluble in water. It is slightly soluble in organic solvents and
highly soluble in carbon disulphide.

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Chemical Properties of sulphur

y Sulphur burns with a blue flame in air and forms sulphur dioxide gas.

y When heated with sulphur, many metals form the metal sulphide.

Uses of sulphur
y Sulphur is used to produce sulphuric acid, vulcanize rubber,and make
calcium and magnesium sulphites which are used to bleach wood pulp.Its
is also used to produce paints containing sulphides, solvents like carbon
disulphide, sulphur dioxide gas, matches, crackers, and gun powder.
y Sulphur is also used in the production of vine, beer and medicines and is
used as a fungicide.
Carbon
Carbon is a non – metal element occurring in
abundance. It occurs as carbon dioxide gas in the
atmosphere, animal and plant tissues, all organic
compounds, coal, petroleum products and other
hydrocarbons containing carbon. It is an element
showing allotropy. Carbon has crystalline forms
as well as amorphous forms. In crystalline forms,
Diamond graphite atoms are orderly arranged but in amorphous forms
Fig - 3.15 there is no such arrangment.

Crystalline carbon (allotrops of carbon) : diamond, graphite, Fulorine

Amorphous carbon : charcoal, lamp soot, coal

Physical properties of carbon

Physical properties of carbon differ according to the allotropic form of carbon.
Except diamond, the other forms of carbon are black in colour and exit in the
solid state. Their density is relatively low. But diamond is the form with highest
density. Diamond is much valued because of its high refractive index and hardness.
Diamond is a poor conductor of electricity. But, graphite is a good conductor of
electricity. Charcoal has the ability to absorb gases.
Chemical properties of carbon
Carbon is an element of low reactivity. It combines with oxygen at very high
temperatures but does not react with substances like acids, bases and chlorine.
Amorphous forms like charcoal react chemically.
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y When strongly heated and ignited charcoal reacts with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide.
y At high temperatures, carbon reacts with calcium oxide forming calcium carbide.
Uses of Carbon
Different allotrops of carbon has different uses. Some of the uses of carbon are
given in the table 3.5 given below

Table 3.7
Form of carbon Uses
Amorphous carbon y Production of black colour ink
y Vulacanizing rubber

Coal y A fuel

y Making pencils
Graphite y Making electrodes of electrochemical cells
y Used as a lubricant
Diamond y Making jwellery
y Cutting glass and gems
y Used as pivots at points in machines that are subject to
wear away
Charcoal y Absorbing gases
y Purification of water

Carbo nfi br es y Used to produce goods reinforced by Nano materials.

and Carbon tubes y Carbon fiber is very light and it is very strong.

Some Metalloids
Silicon
Except oxygen, silicon is the most abundant element in the
Earth's crust. As compounds, silicon occurs in both crystalline
and amorphous forms. Quartz, sand and gems such as emerald
are crystalline silicon compounds. Clay is an amorphous
silicon compound. The melting point of silicon is 1410 0C.
Fig 3.16 - Silicon

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Uses Of Silicon

y Used in making transistors and diodes.

y Used in making solar cells.
y Used in makings computer equipments.

Boron
Pure boron occurs as a black, crystalline solid. It melts at 2200 0C and has a density
of 3300 kg m-3.Its reactivity is relatively low. Therefore it does not react even if
heated to high temperatures in air. At very high temperatures amorphous boron
reacts with substances like oxygen, nitrogen , nitric acid , concentrated sulphuric
acid, carbon and sulphur to form the corresponding compounds.

Uses
Uses ofof Boron
Boron
y Used
y Used in welding
in welding metals.
metals.
y Used
y Used in making
in making skin
skin cream.
cream.
y Used
y Used in making
in making glass
glass thatthat
cancan be heated
be heated intointo a
a high
high temperature.
temperature.
Fig 3.17 - Boron

y Acidic, basic and amphoteric nature of oxides

An oxide is a chemical compound that combined element with oxygon.

Elements in Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 SO3 Cl2O7

Very Very
Strongly Weakly Weakly Strongly
Acidic/ basic nature Amphoteric weekly stongly
basic acidic acidic
basic acidic acidic

Acidity of the oxides increases

Basicity of the oxides decreases

When the oxides of elements in Period 3 are considered, there is a clear pattern
in the variation of their acidic and basic properties.The oxide of sodium which is
on the left of the Period 3 is strongly basic and magnesium oxide is weakly basic.

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From silicon to chlorine, the acidity of the oxides increases. Aluminium oxide
shows both acidic and basic properties. Such oxides are called amphoteric oxides.
Accordingly, from left to right of a Period in the Periodic Table, the basicity of the
oxides decreases and their acidity increases.

Assignment - 3.3
Find a long form of a Periodic Table. Study it well and refering to it report
information on the elements.

Assignment - 3.4
Select one element from the metals, non - metals and metalloids you studied.
Gather information about it (textbooks, internet, supplementary readers on
chemistry may be used). Make a poster contaning the information of the
element. Present your information to the class.

3.7 Chemical Formulae

y Valency
The combining ability of an atom of an element is known as the valency. This is
measured relative to hydrogen. Accordingly, the valency of an element is either the
number of hydrogen atoms which can combine with or can be replaced by an atom
of that element. The electrons present in the outermost energy level of an atom of
an element are called valence electrons. Some elements can have several valencies.
The number of valence electrons in an atom of an element is generally equal to its
highest valency.

The valency of an element is equal to the number of electrons lost from or gained
by an atom of that element or the number of pairs of electrons shared between the
atoms during chemical combination.

We know that chemical symbols are used to identify elements easily.

Carbon C Calcium Ca
Potassium K Sulphur S
Similarly, chemical symbols are also used to signify chemical compounds with
ease. For instance, H2O is used to represent water, a compound consisting of two
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hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. This is called the chemical formula of water.
If there is a number at the bottom of the symbol of an element in a chemical
formula, it indicates the number of atoms of that element present in a molecule of
the compound. If there is no such number, only one atom of that element is present
in a molecule of that compound.
For example, chemical formula of glucose is C6 H12O6. This means that a glucose
molecule comprises 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atom and 6 oxygen atoms.
There are instances where the chemical formula does not represent a molecule.
Table salt, known as sodium chloride is such a compound. Solid sodium chloride
does not contain discrete molecules.
-
It is an ionic lattice composed of alternately arranged Na+ and Cl ions. In the lattice
Na+ and Cl- ions are present in the ratio of 1:1, so its formula is written as NaCl.

y Writing Formulae Using Valency

Compounds are formed by the attachment of atoms or ions of elements by chemical
bonds. Therefore, to write the formula of a compound, their combining powers or
valencies should be known. The formula is written so that the respective combining
powers are balanced.
y The valency of hydrogen is 1.
y The valency of oxygen is 2.
y So, two hydrogen atoms can combine with one oxygen atom.
y This is written as H2O.
y The valency of nitrogen is 3.
y Hence, three hydrogen atoms can combine with one nitrogen atom.
y This is written as NH3.
y The valency of carbon is 4. So, four hydrogen atoms can combine with one
carbon atom.
y This is written as CH4.

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Table 3.6 - Valencies of the elements from atomic numbers 1 to 20

Atomic
Element Symbol Valency
number
1 Hydrogen H 1
2 Helium He 0
3 Lithium Li 1
4 Beryllium Be 2
5 Boron B 3
6 Carbon C 4
7 Nitrogen N 3
8 Oxygen O 2
9 Fluorine F 1
10 Neon Ne 0
11 Sodium Na 1
12 Magnesium Mg 2
13 Aluminium Al 3
14 Silicon Si 4
15 Phosphorus P 5,3
16 Sulphur S 6,2
17 Chlorine Cl 7,1
18 Argon Ar 0
19 Potassium K 1
20 Calcium Ca 2

So, what is done in writing the chemical formula of a compound is connecting the
atoms so that their combining powers become equal. This is done by exchanging
the valencies of the two elements and writing them at the bottom end on the right
hand side of the respective symbols.

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01' Sodium chloride

Symbol Na Cl
Valency 1 1
Na1Cl1
Chemical formula NaCl
02' Calcium chloride
Symbol Ca Cl
Valency 2 1
Ca1Cl2
Chemical formula CaCl2
03' Sodium oxide
Symbol Na O
Valency 1 2
Na2O1
Chemical formula Na2O

04' Calcium oxide

Symbol Ca O
Valency 2 2
Ca2O2
Chemical formula CaO
05' Magnesium nitride
Symbol Mg N
Valency 2 3
Mg3N2
Chemical formula Mg3N2

y Polyatomic Ions (Radicals)

A polyatomic ions is an orderly arranged group of atoms of elements with a
charge.

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Table 3.7 - Some common polyatomic ions
Chemical
Radical Valency
formula
Ammonium NH4+ 1
Hydronium H3O+ 1
Nitrate NO3- 1
Hydrogencarbonate
HCO3- 1
(Bicarbonate)
Hydroxide OH- 1
Permanganate MnO4- 1
Hydrogensulphate
HSO4- 1
(Bisulphate)
Chromate CrO42- 2
Dichromate Cr2O72- 2
Sulphate SO42- 2
Carbonate CO32- 2
Phosphate PO43- 3

Let's consider the formulae of the following as examples for compounds with
polyatomic ions.

Sodium nitrate Potassium carbonate

Na+ NO3- K+ CO32-
Valency 1 1 Valency 1 2
NaNO3 K2CO3
Chemical formula NaNO3 Chemical formula K2CO3

Magnesium nitrate Ammonium phosphate

Mg2+ NO3- NH4+ PO43-
Valency 2 1 Valency 1 3
Mg1(NO3)2 (NH4 )3 PO4

Chemical formula Mg(NO3)2 Chemical formula (NH

(NH44 ))33PO
PO44

When there are more than one radical in the chemical formula of a compound, they
are written within parentheses.

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Exercise
01. Complete the following sentences.

i. The mass number of an element is 14 and its atomic number is 6. This

atom contains …………… electrons.

ii. An atom of an element consists of 19 protons, 19 electrons and 18

neutrons. The mass number of this atom is ……………….

iii. The sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom is known as its……………….
02' The atomic number of aluminium is 13 and its mass number is 27.

i. Write the atomic number and mass number of aluminium in the

standard form.
ii. What is the number of neutrons in an aluminium atom?
03' Complete the following table.

Number of
Element electrons in an protons in an neutrons in an
atom atom atom

04' Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds.

i. Lithium fluoride

ii. Beryllium chloride

iii. Aluminium oxide

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05' Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds.

i. Ammonium chloride
ii. Calcium hydroxide
iii. Calcium phosphate
iv. Magnesium sulphate
v. Aluminium nitrate
vi. Potassium permanganate
vii. Calcium chromate
viii. Ammonium dichromate
ix. Sodium hydrogencarbonate (Sodium bicarbonate)
x. Potassium carbonate
06. What valencies should the following elements have?

i. Lithium iii. Calcium v. Chlorine

ii. Carbon iv. Sulphur

07' A part of the Periodic Table is shown below. The symbols given in it are
not true symbols of the respective elements. Answer the questions below
that are based on them.

A D

Z Y E
R
i. Identify the element / elements that behave (s) as a noble gas.
ii. Mass number of Y is 35. Find the number of protons and neutrons in an
atom of Y.
iii. Write the electronic configuration of R.

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iv. How many valencies are shown by A?

v. A compound is formed by the reaction between A and Y. Write the
probable formula of this compound.
vi. Name two metallic elements.
08' D, E, G, J, L, M, Q, R, and T are nine consecutive elements in the Periodic
Table. R is a noble gas belonging to Period 3.

i. Of these elements, identify the two elements belonging to the same

Group.
ii. To which Group of the Periodic Table do those element belong?
iii. Of the above, name the element of highest electronegativity?
iv. Write the formula of the compound formed by the reaction between E
and M.
v. Of the above, identity the element with four valence electrons and write
its electronic configuration.
vi. Of the above, name the element with highest first ionisation energy.

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