Introduction

Welcome to the first course in the STEP series,

Siemens Technical Education Program designed to prepare
our distributors to sell Siemens Energy & Automation products
more effectively. This course covers Basics of Electricity and is
designed to prepare you for subsequent courses on Siemens
Energy & Automation products.

Upon completion of Basics of Electricity you will be able to:

• Explain the difference between conductors and insulators

• Use Ohm’s Law to calculate current, voltage, and

resistance

• Calculate equivalent resistance for series, parallel, or

series-parallel circuits

• Calculate voltage drop across a resistor

• Calculate power given other basic values

• Identify factors that determine the strength and polarity of

a current-carrying coil’s magnetic field

• Determine peak, instantaneous, and effective values of an

AC sine wave

• Identify factors that effect inductive reactance and

capacitive reactance in an AC circuit

• Calculate total impedance of an AC circuit

• Explain the difference between real power and apparent

power in an AC circuit

• Calculate primary and secondary voltages of single-phase

and three-phase transformers

• Calculate kVA of a transformer

2
The objectives listed above may sound strange to you. You may
also wonder why you would need to know these things to sell
Siemens Energy & Automation products. Developing a basic
knowledge of electrical concepts, however, will help you to
better understand customer applications. In addition, you will be
better able to describe products to customers and determine
important differences between products.

If you are an employee of a Siemens Energy & Automation

authorized distributor, fill out the final exam tear-out card and
mail in the card. We will mail you a certificate of completion if
you score a passing grade. Good luck with your efforts.

3
 Electron Theory

Elements of an Atom All matter is composed of molecules which are made up of a

combination of atoms. Atoms have a nucleus with electrons
orbiting around it. The nucleus is composed of protons and
neutrons (not shown). Most atoms have an equal number of
electrons and protons. Electrons have a negative charge (-).
Protons have a positive charge (+). Neutrons are neutral. The
negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the positive
charge of the protons. Electrons are bound in their orbit by
the attraction of the protons. These are referred to as bound
electrons.

Electron

Proton

Nucleus

Free Electrons Electrons in the outer band can become free of their orbit
by the application of some external force such as movement
through a magnetic field, friction, or chemical action. These are
referred to as free electrons. A free electron leaves a void which
can be filled by an electron forced out of orbit from another
atom. As free electrons move from one atom to the next an
electron flow is produced. This is the basis of electricity.

4
 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Conductors An electric current is produced when free electrons move from

one atom to the next. Materials that permit many electrons to
move freely are called conductors. Copper, silver, aluminum,
zinc, brass, and iron are considered good contors. Copper is the
most common maal used for contors and is relatively insive.

Insulators Materials that allow few free electrons are called insulators.
Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass, mica, and ceramic are
good insulators.

An electric cable is one example of how conductors and

insulators are used. Electrons flow along a copper conductor to
provide energy to an electric device such as a radio, lamp, or a
motor. An insulator around the outside of the copper conductor
is provided to keep electrons in the conductor.
Rubber Insulator
Copper Conductor

5
Semiconductors Semiconductor materials, such as silicon, can be used
to manufacture devices that have characteristics of both
conductors and insulators. Many semiconductor devices will
act like a conductor when an external force is applied in one
direction. When the external force is applied in the opposite
direction, the semiconductor device will act like an insulator.
This principle is the basis for transitors, diodes, and other solid-
state electronic devices.

Transistor Diode

Review 1
1. List the three basic elements of an atom and state the
charge of each (positive, negative, or neutral).

Element Charge

____________ ____________

____________ ____________

____________ ____________

2. An electron forced out of orbit by an external force is

called a ____________ ____________ .

3. Conductors allow ____________ free electrons to flow

when an external electric force is applied.

4. Which of the following materials are good conductors?

a. copper e. aluminum
b. plastic f. glass
c. silver g. iron
d. rubber h. mica

5. Semiconductor devices can be manufactured to allow

____________ electrons to flow in one direction and ___
_________ electrons to flow in the opposite direction.

6
 Electric Charges

Neutral State of an Atom Elements are often identified by the number of electrons in
orbit around the nucleus of the atoms making up the element
and by the number of protons in the nucleus. A hydrogen
atom, for example, has only one electron and one proton. An
aluminum atom (illustrated) has 13 electrons and 13 protons. An
atom with an equal number of electrons and protons is said to
be electrically neutral.

Outer Band

Positive and Electrons in the outer band of an atom are easily displaced by
Negative Charges the application of some external force. Electrons which are
forced out of their orbits can result in a lack of electrons where
they leave and an excess of electrons where they come to rest.
The lack of electrons is called a positive charge because there
are more protons than electrons. The excess of electrons has a
negative charge. A positive or negative charge is caused by an
absence or excess of electrons. The number of protons remains
constant.

Neutral Charge Negative Charge Positive Charge

7
Attraction and Repulsion of The old saying, “opposites attract,” is true when dealing with
Electric Charges electric charges. Charged bodies have an invisible electric
field around them. When two like-charged bodies are brought
together, their electric field will work to repel them. When two
unlike-charged bodies are brought together, their electric field
will work to attract them. The electric field around a charged
body is represented by invisible lines of force. The invisible
lines of force represent an invisible electrical field that causes
the attraction and repulsion. Lines of force are shown leaving a
body with a positive charge and entering a body with a negative
charge.
Unlike Charges Attract Like Charges Repel

Coulomb’s Law During the 18th century a French scientist, Charles A. Coulomb,
studied fields of force that surround charged bodies. Coulomb
discovered that charged bodies attract or repel each other
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the
charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. Today we call this Coulomb’s Law of Charges.
Simply put, the force of attraction or repulsion depends on
the strength of the charged bodies, and the distance between
them.

8
 Current

Electricity is the flow of free electrons in a conductor from

one atom to the next atom in the same general direction. This
flow of electrons is referred to as current and is designated
by the symbol “I”. Electrons move through a conductor at
different rates and electric current has different values. Current
is determined by the number of electrons that pass through
a cross-section of a conductor in one second. We must
remember that atoms are very small. It takes about
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms to fill one cubic
centimeter of a copper conductor. This number can be simplified
using mathematical exponents. Instead of writing 24 zeros after
the number 1, write 1024. Trying to measure even small values
of current would result in unimaginably large numbers. For this
reason current is measured in amperes which is abbreviated
“amps”. The letter “A” is the symbol for amps. A current of one
amp means that in one second about 6.24 x 1018 electrons
move through a cross-section of conductor. These numbers are
given for information only and you do not need to be concerned
with them. It is important, however, that the concept of current
flow be unstood.

Units of Measurement The following chart reflects special prefixes that are used when
dealing with very small or large values of current:

Prefix Symbol Decimal

1 kiloampere 1 kA 1000 A
1 milliampere 1 mA 1/1000 A
1 microampere 1 mA 1/1,000,000 A

9
Direction of Current Flow Some authorities distinguish between electron flow and
current flow. Conventional current flow theory ignores the
flow of electrons and states that current flows from positive
to negative. To avoid confusion, this book will use the electron
flow concept which states that electrons flow from negative to
positive.

_ + _ +
Electron Flow Conventional
Current Flow

10
Voltage

Electricity can be compared with water flowing through a pipe.

A force is required to get water to flow through a pipe. This
force comes from either a water pump or gravity. Voltage is the
force that is applied to a conductor that causes electric current
to flow.
Water Flow Through a Pipe

Current Flow Through a Conductor

Electrons are negative and are attracted by positive charges.

They will always be attracted from a source having an excess
of electrons, thus having a negative charge, to a source having
a deficiency of electrons which has a positive charge. The force
required to make electicity flow through a conductor is called
a difference in potential, electromotive force (emf), or more
simply referred to as voltage. voltage is designated by the letter
“E”, or the letter “V”. The unit of measurement for voltage is
volts which is also designated by the letter “V”.

11
Voltage Sources An electrical voltage can be generated in various ways. A
battery uses an electrochemical process. A car’s alternator and
a power plant generator utilizes a magnetic induction process.
All voltage sources share the characteristic of an excess of
electrons at one terminal and a shortage at the other terminal.
This results in a difference of potential between the two
terminals.
Shortage of Electrons

Excess of Electrons

+ _

Batter y

Voltage Circuit Symbol The terminals of a battery are indicated symbolically on an

electrical drawing by two lines. The longer line indicates the
positive terminal. The shorter line indicates the negative
terminal.

+
_

Units of Measurement The following chart reflects special prefixes that are used when
dealing with very small or large values of voltage:

Prefix Symbol Decimal

1 kilovolt 1 kV 1000 V
1 millivolt 1 mV 1/1000 V
1 microvolt 1 mV 1/1,000,000 V

12
 Resistance

A third factor that plays a role in an electrical circuit is

resistance. All material impedes the flow of electrical current
to some extent. The amount of resistance depends upon
composition, length, cross-section and temperature of the
resistive material. As a rule of thumb, resistance of a conductor
increases with an increase of length or a decrease of cross-
section. Resistance is designated by the symbol “R”. The unit of
measurement for resistance is ohms (Ω).

Resistance Circuit Symbols Resistance is usually indicated symbolically on an electrical

drawing by one of two ways. An unfilled rectangle is commonly
used. A zigzag line may also be used.

Resistance can be in the form of various components. A

resistor may be placed in the circuit, or the circuit might contain
other devices that have resistance.

Units of Measurement The following chart reflects special prefixes that are commonly
used when dealing with values of resistance:

Prefix Symbol Decimal

1 kilohm 1 kΩ 1000 Ω
1 megohm 1 MΩ 1,000,000 Ω

13
Review 2
1. Elements are identified by the number of ____________
in orbit around the nucleus.

2. A material that has an excess of electrons is said to

have a ____________ charge.

3. A material that has a deficiency of electrons is said to

have a ____________ charge.

4. Like charges ____________ and unlike charges

____________ .

5. The force that is applied to a conductor to cause current

flow is ____________ .

6. Electrons move from ____________ .

a. positive to negative
b. negative to positive

7. With an increase of length or a decrease of cross-

section of a conductor, resistance will ____________ .

a. increase
b. decrease

14
 Simple Electric Circuit

An Electric Circuit A fundamental relationship exists between current, voltage, and

resistance. A simple electric circuit consists of a voltage source,
some type of load, and a conductor to allow electrons to flow
between the voltage source and the load. In the following
circuit a battery provides the voltage source, electrical wire is
used for the conductor, and a light provides the resistance. An
additional component has been added to this circuit, a switch.
There must be a complete path for current to flow. If the switch
is open, the path is incomplete and the light will not illuminate.
Closing the switch completes the path, allowing electrons to
leave the negative terminal and flow through the light to the
positive terminal.

Switch _ _
+ +

An Electrical Circuit The following schematic is a representation of an electrical

Schematic circuit, consisting of a battery, a resistor, a voltmeter and an
ammeter. The ammeter, connected in series with the circuit,
will show how much current flows in the circuit. The voltmeter,
connected across the voltage source, will show the value of
voltage supplied from the battery. Before an analysis can be
made of a circuit, we need to understand Ohm’s Law.

+ _
A
+
+
_ V R
_

15
 Ohm’s Law

George Simon Ohm The relationship between current, voltage and resistance was
and Ohm’s Law studied by the 19th century German mathematician, George
Simon Ohm. Ohm formulated a law which states that current
varies directly with voltage and inversely with resistance. From
this law the following formula is derived:

E Voltage
I= or Current =
R Resistance

Ohm’s Law is the basic formula used in all electrical circuits.

Electrical designers must decide how much voltage is needed
for a given load, such as computers, clocks, lamps and motors.
Decisions must be made concerning the relationship of current,
voltage and resistance. All electrical design and analysis begins
with Ohm’s Law. There are three mathematical ways to express
Ohm’s Law. Which of the formulas is used depends on what
facts are known before starting and what facts need to be
known.

E E
I= E=IxR R=
R I

Ohm’s Law Triangle There is an easy way to remember which formula to use. By
arranging current, voltage and resistance in a triangle, one can
quickly determine the correct formula.

16
Using the Triangle To use the triangle, cover the value you want to calculate. The
remaining letters make up the formula.

E E
I= E=IxR R=
R I

Ohm’s Law can only give the correct answer when the correct
values are used. Remember the following three rules:

• Current is always expressed in amperes or amps

• Voltage is always expressed in volts
• Resistance is always expressed in ohms

Examples of Solving Using the simple circuit below, assume that the voltage
Ohm’s Law supplied by the battery is 10 volts, and the resistance is 5 Ω.

+ _
A
+
+
_ V R
_

To find how much current is flowing through the circuit, cover

the “I” in the triangle and use the resulting equation.

E 10 Volts
I= I= I = 2 Amps
R 5Ω

Using the same circuit, assume the ammeter reads 200 mA

and the resistance is known to be 10 Ω. To solve for voltage,
cover the “E” in the triangle and use the resulting equation.

E=IxR E = 0.2 x 10 E = 2 Volts

Remember to use the correct decimal equivalent when dealing

with numbers that are preceded with milli (m), micro (µ) or kilo
(k). In this example had 200 been used instead of converting
the value to 0.2, the wrong answer of 2000 volts would have
been calculated.

17