Faculty of Engineering & the Built Environment

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (MOM 610S)

Column Buckling
Prepared By: Mr. F. Kaitungwa
Position: Junior Lecturer
OVERVIEW
Column buckling is primarily concerned with the buckling of slender
columns which support compressive loads in structures. The elastic and
inelastic behaviour of axially loaded members are investigated. First, the
concept of of buckling and stability of these slender compression elements
are discussed using equilibrium of simple column models made up of rigid
bars and elastic springs.

Elastic columns with pinned ends, acting on by centroidal compressive

loads will be considered and the differentia equation of the deflection
curve is solved to obtain the buckling load and buckled mode shape, linear
elastic behavior shall be assumed.

Behavior of pinned‐end columns with eccentric axial loads will be

discussed and the secant formula shall be derived which defines the
maximum stress in these columns.
CONTENTS

• Buckling and Stability

• Columns with Pinned Ends

• Columns with Other Support Conditions

• Secant Formula for Columns

1. Buckling and Stability
Load‐carrying structures may fail in a variety of ways, depending upon the type
of structure, the conditions of support, the kinds of loads, and the materials
used. For instance, an axle in a vehicle may fracture suddenly from repeated
cycles of loading, or a beam may deflect excessively, so that the structure is
unable to perform its intended functions.

This hypothetical structure consists of two rigid bars AB

and BC, each of a length L/2. They are joined at B by a
pin connection and held in a vertical position by a
rotational spring having a stiffness 𝛽 .
This hypothetical structure consists of two rigid bars AB and BC, each of a length
L/2. They are joined at B by a pin connection and held in a vertical position by a
rotational spring having a stiffness 𝛽 .

In the idealized structure, the two

bars are perfectly aligned and the
axial load P has its line of action
along the longitudinal axis (Fig.
on the right). Consequently, the
spring is initially unstressed, and
the bars are in direct
compression.

Buckling of an idealized structure consisting

of two rigid bars and a rotational spring
• Now suppose that the structure If a distributing force is removed,
is disturbed by some external which is relatively small, the action of
force that causes point B to the restoring moment will
move a small distance laterally. predominate over the action of the
The rigid bars rotate through axial force, the structure will return to
small angles θ, and a moment its initial position. The structure is
develops in the spring. The said to be stable.
direction of this Moment is such
that it tends to return the
structure to its original straight
position; therefore, it is called a
restoring moment. The structure is unstable when it fails
by lateral buckling
The critical load 𝑃 is known as the transition
between the stable and unstable condition.

Firstly, consider the entire structure as a free body and

sum moments about support A. This step leads to the
conclusion that there is no horizontal reaction at
support C.

Second, consider bar BC as a free body and note that it

is subjected to the action of the axial forces P and the
moment M in the spring. The moment 𝑀 is equal to
the rotational stiffness 𝛽 times the angle of rotation
2𝜃 of the spring; thus,

𝑀 2·𝛽 ·𝜃 … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 1

F.B.D
 Since the angle 𝜃 is a small quantity, the lateral displacement of point B is 𝜃 L/2.
Therefore, the equation of equilibrium is obtained by summing moments about
point B for bar BC.

Second, consider bar BC as a free body and note that it is subjected to the action
of the axial forces P and the moment M in the spring. The moment 𝑀 is equal
to the rotational stiffness 𝛽 times the angle of rotation 2𝜃 of the spring; thus,

𝜃𝐿
𝑀 𝑃 0 … Equ. 2
2

Substituting equation 1 & 2

𝑃𝐿 4·𝛽
2·𝛽 𝜃 0 … Equ. 3 𝑃 … Equ. 4
2 𝐿

If 𝑃 𝑃 ‐ the structure is stable

If 𝑃 𝑃 ‐ the structure is unstable
 2. Columns with Pinned Ends
The investigation of the stability behavior of columns begins by analyzing a
slender column with pinned ends. The column is loaded by a vertical force P
that is applied through the centroid of the end cross section. The column itself
is perfectly straight and is made of a linearly elastic material that follows
Hooke’s law. Since the column is assumed to have no imperfections, it is
referred to as an ideal column.

The column remains perfectly straight and undergoes

direct axial compression when the axial load P has a
small value. The only stresses are in the uniform
compressive stresses obtained from the equation 𝜎 .
The column is said to be in stable equilibrium.
As the axial load P is gradually increased, a
condition of neutral equilibrium is reached in which If 𝑃 𝑃 ‐ stable equilibrium
the column may have a bent shape. The
If 𝑃 𝑃 ‐ neutral equilibrium
corresponding value of the load is the critical load P
. At this load, the column may undergo small lateral If 𝑃 𝑃 ‐ unstable equilibrium
deflections with no change in the axial force.

At higher values of the load, the column is unstable and may collapse by buckling,
that is, by excessive bending. For the ideal case, the column will be in equilibrium in
the straight position even when the axial force P is greater than the critical load.

However, since the equilibrium is unstable, the smallest imaginable disturbance will
cause the column to deflect sideways. Once that happens, the deflections will
immediately increase, and the column will fail by buckling.
Differential Equation for Column Buckling

To determine the critical loads and corresponding deflected shapes for

an ideal pin‐ended column (Figure on the right), the second‐order
equation (bending moment equation) is used.

𝐸𝐼𝑣 𝑀 …(Equ. 1)
Where:

M is the bending moment at any cross section

𝑣 is the lateral deflection in the y direction
𝐸𝐼 is the flexural rigidity for bending in the x‐y plane
• Bending moment M at a distance x from end A of a
buckled column is shown acting in its +ve direction. The
bending moment sign convection for column buckling is
the same as for bending of beams.

• The axial force P acting at the cross section is also

shown in Fig. on the right. Since there are no horizontal
forces acting at the supports, there are no shear forces
in the column. Therefore, equilibrium of moments
about point A gives

𝑀 𝑃𝑣 0 or 𝑀 𝑃𝑣 …(Equ. 2)

• Where 𝑣 is the deflection at the cross section

Substituting equation 2 into, the differential equation for the deflection
curve now becomes

𝐸𝐼𝑣 𝑃𝑣 0 …(Equ. 3)
Solution of the Differential Equation

Equation 3 can be rewritten as follows:

𝑘 or 𝑘 …(Equ. 4)

Where 𝑘 is always taken as a positive quantity. 𝑘 has units of the reciprocal

of length.

Equation 3 can be rewritten as

𝑣 𝑘 𝑣 0 …(Equ. 5)

The general solution of equation 5 is

𝑣 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 · 𝑘𝑥 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 · 𝑘𝑥 0 …(Equ. 6)

𝐶 and 𝐶 are constants of integration

To evaluate the constants of integration 𝐶 and 𝐶 , the boundary
conditions at the ends of the column are used. Namely the
deflection is zero when 𝑥 0 and 𝑥 𝐿 (See figure on the right)

The first condition gives

𝐶 0, so 𝑣 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 · 𝑘𝑥 … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 7

The second condition gives

𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 · 𝑘𝐿 0 … Equ. 8

From this equation, either 𝐶 0 or 𝑠𝑖𝑛 · 𝑘𝐿 0

Case 1:
If the constant 𝐶 0, the deflection 𝑣 0. Therefore, the column remains
straight

Case 2:
The second possibility for satisfying Equation 8 is given by the equation
known as the buckling equation:

𝑠𝑖𝑛 · 𝑘𝐿 0 … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 9

This equation is satisfied when 𝑘𝐿 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, …. However, since 𝑘𝐿 0

means that 𝑃 0, this solution is not of interest. Therefore, the solution of
interest is
𝑘𝐿 𝑛𝜋 (𝑛 1, 2, 3, … … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 10
or
𝑛 𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝑛 1, 2, 3, … … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 11
𝐿
(P is the critical loads for the column)
This formula gives the values of P that satisfy the buckling equation and provide
solutions to the differential equation.

The equation of the deflection curve is

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑣 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 · 𝑘𝑥 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 1, 2, 3, … … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 12
𝐿
2.1 Critical Loads

The lowest critical load for a column with pinned ends is obtained when 𝑛 1

𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 13
𝐿

The corresponding buckled shape (mode shape) is

𝜋𝑥
𝑣 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 14
𝐿
• The constant 𝐶 represents the deflection at the midpoint of the column and may have
any small value , either +ve or –ve.
• Therefore, the part of the load‐deflection diagram corresponding to P is a horizontal
straight line.
• Thus, the deflection at the critical load is undefined, although it must remain small for our
equations to be valid. Above the bifurcation point B, the equilibrium is unstable, and
below point B it is stable.
• Buckling of a pinned‐end column in the first mode is called the fundamental case of
column buckling.
• The type of buckling described in this section is called Euler buckling, and the
critical load for an ideal elastic column is often called the Euler load.
• The famous mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), generally recognized as
the greatest mathematician of all time, was the first person to investigate the
buckling of a slender column and determine its critical load.
• Taking higher values of the index 𝑛 in Equations 11 and 12 leads to an infinite
number of critical loads and corresponding mode shapes. The mode shape for 𝑛
2 has two half‐waves. The corresponding critical load is four times Larger than the
critical load for the fundamental case.
• The magnitudes of the critical loads are proportional to the square of 𝑛, and the
number of half‐waves in the buckled shape is equal to 𝑛.
• Buckled shapes for the higher modes are often of no practical interest because the
column buckles when the axial load P reaches its lowest critical value.
• The only way to obtain modes of buckling higher than the first is to provide lateral
support of the column at intermediate points, such as at the midpoint of the
column
• The flexural rigidity can be increased by using a “stiffer” material (that is, a
material with larger modulus of elasticity E)
• Reducing the wall thickness of a tubular member and increasing its lateral
dimensions (while keeping the cross‐sectional area constant) also increases the
critical load because the moment of inertia is increased.
2.2 Critical Stress
After finding the critical load for a column, calculate the corresponding critical
stress by dividing the load by the cross‐sectional area. For the fundamental case
of buckling, the critical stress
𝑃 𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝜎 … 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 15
𝐴 𝐴𝐿

In which 𝐼 is the moment of inertia for the principal axis about which buckling occurs. This
equation can be rewritten in a more useful form by introducing the notion

𝐼
𝑟 . . . 𝐸𝑞𝑢. 16
𝐴

in which 𝑟 is the radius of gyration of the cross section in the plane of bending. The
equation for critical stress becomes
𝜋 𝐸
𝜎
𝐿
𝑟

Where ⁄ is a nondimensional ratio called slenderness ratio

𝐿
𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑟
The slenderness ration only depends on the dimensions of the column.

A column that is long and slender will have a high slenderness ratio and therefore a low critical
stress.
A column that is short and stubby will have a low slenderness ratio and will buckle at a high stress

Typical values for slenderness ratio for actual columns are between 30 and 150.

The critical stress is the average compressive stress on the cross section at the instant the load
reaches its critical value
A graph of this stress as a function of slenderness ratio is obtained and a curve known as Euler’s
curve.
The curve is valid only when the critical stress is less than the proportional limit, because the
equations were derived using Hooke’s law.
2.3 Effects of large Deflections,
Imperfections, and Inelastic Behavior
• The equations for critical loads were derived from ideal
columns.
• As a consequence, the magnitudes of the small
deflections at buckling were undefined.
• When 𝑃 𝑃 , the column may have any small
deflection, which is a condition represented by the
horizontal line “A” in the load – deflection diagram
• The theory for ideal columns is limited to small
deflections as second derivative 𝑣 for the curvature
was used.
• A more exact analysis, based upon the exact expression
for curvature shows that there is no indefiniteness in
the magnitudes of the deflections at buckling.
• Instead, for an ideal, linearly elastic column, the load‐
deflection diagram goes upwards in accord with curve
“B”.
• Thus, after a linearly elastic column begins to buckle, an
increasing load is required to cause an increase in the
deflections.
Suppose a column is not constructed perfectly, the column might have an
imperfection in the form of a small initial curvature, so that the unloaded
column is not constructed perfectly straight.

These imperfections produce deflections from the onset of loading, as

shown by curve “C”.

For small deflections, curve “C” approaches line “A” as an asymptote.

As the deflections become large, it approaches curve “B”.

The larger the imperfections, the further curve “C” moves to the right,
away for the vertical line.

By comparing lines “A, B and C”, note that for practical purposes the critical
load represents the maximum load‐carrying capacity of an elastic column,
because large deflections are not acceptable in most applications.
When the stresses exceed the proportional limit and the material
no longer follows Hooke’s law, the load‐deflection diagram is
unchanged up to the level of load at which the proportional limit
is reached
Then the curve for inelastic behavior “D” departs from the elastic
curve, continues upward, reaches a maximum, and turns
downward.

The precise shapes of the curves depend on the material

properties and the column dimensions.
2.4 Optimum Shapes for Columns

Compression members have the same cross sections throughout their

lengths, so only prismatic columns are analysed I this chapter.

Prismatic columns are not the optimum shape if minimum weight is

desired.

The critical load of a column consisting of a given amount of material

may be increased by varying the shape do that the column has a larger
cross section in the regions where bending moments are larger.

A column shaped as shown in the figure on the right will have a larger
critical load than a prismatic column made from the same volume of
material.
• Consider a prismatic column with pinned ends that is
free to buckle in any lateral direction.
• Assume the column has a solid cross section, which
cross section gives the largest critical load.

• The assumption is that the critical load is calculated

from the Euler formula 𝑃 , using the smallest
moment of inertia for the cross section.
• The equilateral triangle gives 21% higher critical load
than does a circular cross section of the same area.
• The critical load of an equilateral triangle is also higher
than the loads obtained for the other shapes.
• Hence, an equilateral triangle is the optimum cross
section.
3. COLUMNS WITH OTHER SUPPORT CONDITIONS

Buckling of a column with pinned ends is usually considered as the most basic case of buckling.

However, in practice, engineers encounter many other end conditions such as fixed ends, free ends, and
elastic supports.

The critical loads for columns with various kinds of support conditions can be determined from the
differential equation of the deflection curve by following the same procedure used to analyse the pinned‐
end column.

 Procedure:
1. Obtain an expression for the bending moment in the column by
assuming the column to be in the buckled state.
2. Set up the differential equation of the deflection curve, sing the bending‐
moment equation
3. Solve the equation and obtain its general solution, which contains two
constants of integration plus any other unknown quantities.
4. Apply boundary conditions pertaining to the deflection 𝑣 and the slope
𝑣 and obtain a set of simultaneous equations.
5. Solve the equations to obtain the critical load and the deflected shape of
the buckled column
3.1. Column Fixed at the base and free at the Top
Consider an ideal column that is fixed at the base, free at the top, and subjected
to an axial load “P”. The bending moment at distance 𝑥 from the base is:

𝑀 𝑃 𝛿 𝑣 … 𝑎

Where 𝛿 is the deflection at the free end of the column. The differential equation
of the deflection curve the becomes

𝐸𝐼𝑣 𝑀 𝑃 𝛿 𝑣 … 𝑏

Where 𝐼 is the moment of inertia for buckling in the x‐y plane. Using the notation
𝑘 , equation (b) rearranges into the form

𝑣 𝑘 𝑣 𝑘 𝛿 … 𝑐

The general solution of equation (c) consists of two parts:

1 ‐ Homogeneous solution, which is the homogeneous equation obtained by

replacing the right‐hand side with zero
2 – Particular solution, which is the solution of equ. (c) that produces the term on
the right‐hand side.
The homogeneous solution (complementary solution) is:

𝑣 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 … 𝑑

Where 𝐶 and 𝐶 are constants of integration. Note that when 𝑣 is substituted

into the left‐hand side of the differential equation (c), it produces zero.

The particular solution of the differential equation is

𝑣 𝛿 … 𝑒

When 𝑣 is substituted into the left –hand side of the differential equation, it
produces the right‐hand side, the term 𝑘 𝛿.

The general solution of the equation = 𝑣 + 𝑣

𝑣 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 𝛿 … 𝑓

This equation contains three unknown conditions (𝐶 , 𝐶 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿). ∴ three

boundary conditions are needed to complete the solution.
At the base of the column, the deflection and slope = 0. Therefore, the boundary
conditions for this case are

𝑣 0 0 𝑣 0 0

Apply the first condition to equ. (f) to find

𝐶 𝛿 … 𝑔

To apply the second condition, first differentiate equ. (f) to obtain the slope:

𝑣 𝐶 𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 𝐶 𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥

Apply the second condition to the above equation to find 𝐶 0.

Now substitute the expressions for 𝐶 and 𝐶 into the general solution of equ. (f),
we obtain the equation of the deflection curve for the buckled column:

𝑣 𝛿 1 cos 𝑘𝑥 … ℎ
The third boundary condition applies to the upper end of the column, where the
deflection 𝑣 𝛿.

𝑣 𝐿 𝛿

Use this condition with equ. (h) to get

𝛿 cos 𝑘𝐿 0 … 𝑖

It follows fro this equation that either 𝛿 0 or cos 𝑘𝐿 0.

If 𝛿 0, there is no deflection and you have the trivial solution – the column
remains straight and buckling does not occur.

The other possible solution is

cos 𝑘𝐿 0 𝑗

Which is the buckling equation.

Equ. (j) is satisfied when

𝑛𝜋
𝑘𝐿 𝑛 1, 3, 5, … 𝑘
2
The expression 𝑘 is used to obtain the critical load formula:

𝑛 𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝑛 1, 3, 5, … … 𝑙
4𝐿

Also, the buckled mode shapes are obtained equ. (h):

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑣 𝛿 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 1, 3, 5, … 𝑚
2𝐿

The lowest critical load is obtained by substituting n = 1 in equ. (l)

𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 … 𝑛
4𝐿

The corresponding buckled shape is (from equ. (m)):

𝜋𝑥
𝑣 𝛿 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 … 𝑜
2𝐿

Taking higher values of the index “n” leads to an infinite number of critical loads
from equ. (l). The corresponding buckled mode shapes have additional waves in
them
3.2. Effective Lengths of Columns
• The critical loads for columns with various support conditions
can be related to the critical load of a pinned‐end column
through the concept of an effective length.
• Consider a deflected shape of a column fixed at the base and
free at the top.
• This column buckles in a curve that is 1/4 of a complete sine
wave.
• If the deflection curve is extended, it becomes 1/2 of a
complete sine wave, which is the deflection curve for a pinned‐
end column.
• The effective length 𝐿 for any column is the length of the
equivalent pinned‐end column.
• Thus for a fixed‐free column, the effective length is:

𝐿 2𝐿 … 1

The effective length is the length of an equivalent pinned‐end

column, a general formula for critical loads can be written as

𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 … 2
𝐿
• If the effective length of the column is known (no matter how complex the end
conditions may be), you can substitute into the preceding equation (2) and
determine the critical load.

• The effective load is often expressed in terms of effective‐length factor K

𝐿 𝐾𝐿 … 3

Where 𝐿 is the actual length of the column. Thus the critical load is:

𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 … 4
𝐾𝐿

The factor K =2 for a column fixed at the base and free at the top
K = 1 for a pinned‐end column
3.3. Columns with Both Ends Fixed Against Rotation

The deflection curve is symmetrical (with zero slope at the

midpoint) and has zero slope at the ends. Because rotation at the
ends is prevented, reactive moments 𝑀 develop at the supports.
These moments and reactive force at the base are as shown.

• The deflection curve is symmetrical about the midpoint.

• The curve must have inflection points at distances L/4 from the
ends.
• The middle portion of the deflection curve has the same shape
as the deflection curve for a pinned‐end column
• Thus, the effective length of a column with fixed ends is:

𝐿
𝐿 … 𝑖
2

The critical load is therefore:

4𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 … 𝑖𝑖
𝐿
 3.4. Column Fixed at the Base and Pinned at the Top
When a column buckles, a reactive moment 𝑀 develops at the base, as there can be no rotation at that point.
From the equilibrium of the entire column, there must be horizontal reactions R at each end such that
𝑀 𝑅𝐿

The bending moment inn the buckled column, at distance 𝑥 from the base is,

𝑀 𝑀 𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑥 𝑃𝑣 𝑅 𝐿 𝑥 … 𝑖

Therefore, the differential equation is

𝐸𝐼𝑣 𝑀 𝑃𝑣 𝑅 𝐿 𝑥 … 𝑖𝑖

Substitute 𝑘 and rearranging,

𝑅
𝑣 𝑘 𝑣 𝐿 𝑥 … 𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐸𝐼
The general solution of this equation is
𝑅
𝑣 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 𝐶 cos 𝑘𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 … 𝑖𝑣
𝑃

The solution contains three unknown quantities (𝐶 , 𝐶 , and R). The following three boundary conditions are
required:
𝑣 0 0 𝑣 0 0 𝑣 𝐿 0

Applying these conditions to equ. (iv) yields:

𝑅𝐿 𝑅
𝐶 0 𝐶𝑘 0 𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑘𝐿 𝐶 0 … 𝑣
𝑃 𝑃

To obtain the solution for buckling, equ. (v) is solved in a more general manner, by eliminating R from thr forst two
equations, which yields

𝐶 𝑘𝐿 𝐶 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 𝐶 𝑘𝐿 … 𝑣𝑖

Substitute 𝐶 expression into equ. (v) (last expression), we obtain the buckling equation

𝑘𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝐿 . . 𝑣𝑖𝑖

The buckling equation is a transcendental equation, it cannot be solved explicitly. Nevertheless, the values of 𝑘𝐿 that
satisfy the equation can be determined numerically by using computer program for find the roots id equations. The
smallest nonzero value of 𝑘𝐿 that satisfies equ. (vii) is

𝑘𝐿 4.4934
The corresponding critical load is

20.19𝐸𝐼 2.046𝜋 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝑣𝑖𝑖
𝐿 𝐿

Which is higher than the critical load for a column with pinned ends and lower than
the critical load for a column with fixed ends.

The effective length of the column is (distance from the pinned end of the column
to the point of inflection in the buckled shape.

𝐿 0.699 𝐿 0.7 𝐿 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖

The equation of the buckled mode shape is obtained substituting equ. (v) in the
general solution equ. (iv):

𝑣 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝐿 cos 𝑘𝑥 𝑘 𝐿 𝑥 … 𝑖𝑥

Inn which
4.4934
𝑘
𝐿
Critical loads, effective lengths, and effective‐length factors for ideal columns

Limitation: The Euler buckling theory used in this section is only valid if the
column is perfectly straight before the load is applied, the column and its
supports have no imperfections, and the column is made of a linearly elastic
material that follows Hooke’s las.
4. COLUMNS WITH ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOADS
 When a column is compressed by loads 𝑃 that are applied with a small
eccentricity 𝑒 measured from the axis of the column.
 Each eccentric axial load is equivalent to a centric load 𝑃 and a couple of
moment 𝑀 𝑃𝑒
 This moment exists from the instant the load is first applied; therefore, the
column begins to deflect at the onset of loading.
 The deflection then becomes steadily larger as the load increases.

 To analyse the pin‐ended column, the same

assumptions are made as per the previous literature.
 The column is initially perfectly straight, the material
is linearly elastic, and the 𝑥 𝑦 plane is a plane of
symmetry.
 The bending moment in the column at distance 𝑥
from the lower end is:

𝑀 𝑀 𝑃 𝑣 𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑣 𝑎

 Where 𝑣 is the deflection of the column (+ve when in

the +ve direction of the 𝑦 axis).
 The differential equation of the deflection curve is

𝐸𝐼𝑣 𝑀 𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑣 … 𝑏
or
𝑣 𝑘 𝑣 𝑘 𝑒 … 𝑐

In which 𝑘 , as before. The general solution of this equation is

𝑣 𝐶 sin 𝑘𝑥 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 𝑒 … 𝑑

In which 𝐶 and 𝐶 are constants of integration in the homogeneous solution and 𝑒 is the
particular solution.

 The boundary conditions for determining the constants 𝐶 and 𝐶 are obtained from
the deflections at the ends of the column:
𝑣 0 0 𝑣 𝐿 0
These conditions yield
𝑒 1 cos 𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝐿
𝐶 𝑒 𝐶 𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑛
sin 𝑘𝐿 2

Therefore, the equation of the deflection curve is

𝑘𝐿
𝑣 𝑒 tan sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝑘𝑥 1 … 𝑒
2
4.1. Maximum Deflection
 The maximum deflection 𝛿 produced by the eccentric loads occurs at the mid‐point of
the column and is obtained by setting 𝑥 in equ. (e).

𝛿 𝑣 𝑒 tan sin cos 1 which simplifies to

𝑘𝐿
𝛿 𝑒 sec 1 … 𝑓
2
The above equation can be rewritten in a different form by replacing 𝑘 with its equivalent
in terms of critical load:
𝑃 𝑃𝜋 𝜋 𝑃
𝑘 … 𝑔
𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝐿 𝐿 𝑃

The nondimensional term 𝑘𝐿 becomes

𝑃
𝑘𝐿 𝜋 … ℎ
𝑃

The maximum deflection is

𝜋 𝑃
𝛿 𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐 1 … 𝑖
2 𝑃
4.2. Maximum Bending Moment
The maximum bending moment in an eccentrically loaded column occurs at the midpoint
where the deflection is a maximum

𝑀 𝑃 𝑒 𝛿 .. 𝑗

Substitute equ. (f) and (i), for 𝛿 to obtain

𝑘𝐿 𝜋 𝑃
𝑀 𝑃 · 𝑒 · 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑃 · 𝑒 · 𝑠𝑒𝑐 .. 𝑘
2 2 𝑃

The manner in which 𝑀 varies as a function of the axial load 𝑃 is shown in the figure below

 When P is small, 𝑀 𝑃 . The effect of deflection is negligible

 As P increases, bending moment grows nonlinearly and

theoretically becomes infinitely large as P approaches the critical
load.
5. THE SECANT FORMULA FOR COLUMNS
 The maximum stresses in a column with eccentric axial loads occur at the cross section
where the deflection and bending moment have their largest value. i.e. at the midpoint.

 Acting at this cross section are the compressive force P and the bending moment 𝑀 .

 ‐The stresses due to the force P are equal to , where A is the cross‐sectional area of the
column.

 Stresses due to 𝑀 are obtained from the flexure formula.

The maximum compressive stress, which occurs on the

concave side of the column is,

𝑃 𝑀 ·𝑐
𝜎 … 𝑖
𝐴 𝐼

In which 𝐼 is the moment of inertia in the plane of bending

and 𝑐 is the distance from the centroidal axis to the
extreme point on the concave side of the column.
 The bending moment is;

𝜋 𝑃
𝑀 𝑃 · 𝑒 · 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2 𝑃

Since 𝑃 𝜋 for a pinned‐end column, and since 𝐼 𝐴𝑟 , where 𝑟 is the radius of gyration
in the plane of bending, the preceding equation becomes

𝐿 𝑃
𝑀 𝑃 · 𝑒 · 𝑠𝑒𝑐 … 𝑖𝑖
2𝑟 𝐸𝐴

Substitute equ. (i) into (ii) we obtain the maximum compressive stress formula, also known as
the secant formula;

𝑃 𝑃·𝑒·𝑐 𝐿 𝑃
𝜎 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 𝐼 2𝑟 𝐸𝐴

Or

𝑃 𝑒·𝑐 𝐿 𝑃
𝜎 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 … 𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐴 𝑟 2𝑟 𝐸𝐴
 The eccentricity ratio is a measure of the eccentricity of the load as compared to the
dimensions of the cross section.
 Its numerical value depends upon the position of the load, but typical values are in the range
from 0 – 3 with the most case value being less than 1.

𝑒𝑐
𝐸𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 … 𝑖𝑣
𝑟

Further self reading on the

Secant Formula

‐THE END ‐