THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SENCE OF

COHERENCE, OPTIMISM AND LIFE SATISFACTION OF STUDENTS

Karina Jansen, Honours B.A

Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

Magister Artium in Industrial Psychology at the North-West University, Potchefstroom
Campus

Supervisor: Dr. C.S. Jonker

Potchefstroom
2006
 FOR THE READER'S ATTENTION

The reader is reminded of the following:

The references as well as the editorial style as prescribed by the Publication

Manual (51h edition) of the American Psychological Association (APA) wcre
followed in this dissertation. This practice is in line with the policy of the
Programme in industrial Psychology of the North-West University to use the
APA-style in all scientific documents as from January 1999.

The mini-dissertation is submitted in the form of a research article. The editorial

style specified by the South Akican Journal of Industrial P s y c h o l u ~(which
agrees largely with the APA-style) is used, but the APA guidelines were
followed in the construction oftables.

Each chapter ofthe mini-dissertation has its own reference list.

 PREFACE

1 would like to express my gratitude and sincere thanks to the following people for their
contribution to this research project:

I am grateful to my creator, Lord and Saviour, who gave me the talent,

opportunity and strength to complete this research.

Dr. Cara Jonker for her interest, inspiration, encouragement, advice, patience,
efforts and contribution to this research.

Dr. Wilma Coetzer for the statistical analysis.

All the students at the North -West University who participated in the completion
of the questionnaires.

Elizabeth Forbes for her help with the technical and linguistic editing.

My husband for his love and support.

Then most importantly my parents for there prayers, love and support in
everything I've done.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

..
I1
 Page
is
List of Tables
List of Figures
iv
v
Summary
sii
Opsomming

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Problem Statement
2. Research Objectives
2.1 General Objectives
2.2 Specific Objectives
3. Research Method
3.1 Phase I : Literature Review
3.2 Phase 2: Empirical Study
3.2.1 Research Design
3.2.2 Participants
3.2.3 Measuring Battery
3.2.4 Statistical Analysis
4. Research Procedure
5. Chapter Division
6. Chapter Summary
References

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH ARTICLE

CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
Limitations
Recommendations
3.3.1 Recommendations for the Organisation
3.3.2 Recommendations for Future Kesearch
References

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Tables Description
1 Characteristics of the Participants (N=324)

2 Descriptive Statistics and Alpha Coefficients of the

EIS, LOT-R, SWLS and SOC

3 Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients between the

EIS, LOTR, SWLS and SOC

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure Description

Research Article
Figure 1 Psychological well-being model
 SUMMARY

Title: The relationship between emotional intelligence, sense of coherence,

optimism and life satisfaction of students
Key words: Emotional intelligence, wellness, sense ofcoherence, optimism, life
satisfaction, positive psycltology and psychological well-being.

Emotional intelligence is a growing area of behavioural research; it recently grabbed the

attention of some of the major organisations world wide.

The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between wellness and
emotional intelligence in order to develop a structural model of psychological well-being.
The following constructs were looked at, Optimism, Sense of Coherence, Life
Satisfaction, Emotional Intelligence are all seen as good indicators of Psychological -ell-
being.

A cross-sectional design was used for this study. The participants (N=324) were students
within the field of economic science . The Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Life
Orientation Test Revised, the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Orientation to Life
scale were administered.

Using a principal component analysis, a six-dimension factor structure for emotional

intelligence among students emerged, explaining 45,24% of the variance. These factors
were labelled positive affect, emotions-others, happy emotions, emotions-own, non-
verbal emotions and emotional control.

The most significant correlations found in this study was that Sense of Coherence is
significantly positively related to Emotions Management and Life Satisfaction and
significantly positively related to Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions, Positive Affect and
Optimism. Sense of Coherence was negatively related to Pessimism. Emotions
Management is significantly positively related to Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions,
Positive Affect, Optimism and Life Satisfaction. Positive affect is significantly positively
related to Optimism. Pessimism is significantly negatively related to Life Satisfaction.
Optimism is significantly positively related to Life Satisfaction.

After conducting a second factor analysis on the factors of the SEIS, LOT-R, SOC and
SWLS, two factors were extracted, namely interpersonal and intrapersonal mastery.
Using these factors, along with the results of the product-moment correlations, a
psychological well-being model was designed and compiled.

The results showed that Interpersonal mastery consisted of Positive Affect, Emotional
Management, Sense of Coherence, Life Satisfaction and Optimism. Intrapersonal mastery
consisted of Emotions-Others, Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions and Non-Verbal
Emotions. It is evident from the above that the psychological well-being model consisted
of intrapersonal mastery and environmental mastery.

Recommendations for future research were made.

 OPSOMMING

Titel: Die verhouding tussen Emotionele intelegensie, koherensie-sin.

optimisme en lewenstevredenheid van studente.
Sleutelwoorde : Emotionele inrelegensie, welstand, koherensie-sin, optimisme,
lewenstevredenheid, positiewe psigologie, psigologiese welstand.

Emotionele intelligensie is 'n groeiende area in die gedragswetenskappe, wat onlangs die
verbeelding van menigde organisassies w&reldwyd gestimuleer het.

Die doelwit van die studie was om die verwantskap tussen welstand en emosionele
intelegensie te bepaal om sodoende 'n strukturele model van psigologiese welstand saam
te stel. Die volgende konstrukte was na gekyk, Optimisme, Lewenstevredenheid,
Koherensie-sin en Emotionele Intelligensie, almal word gesien as goeie indicators van
psigologiese welstand.

'n Dwarsdeursnee-opname ontwerp was gebriuk vir hierdie studie. Die deelnemers (N =
324) was studente vanuit die ekonomiese wetenskap velde. Die Schutte Emotionele
Intelegnesie Skaal, Hersiende Lewensorientasie Toets, die Lewenstevredenheid Skaal en
die Orientasie tot lewens skaal was afgeneem.

'n Hoofkomponent analise het 'n ses dimensionele faktor struktuur van emosionele
intelligensie verkry wat 45,24 % van die variansie verklaar. Die faktore was geetikiteer
as positiewe affek, emosies-ander, gelukkige emosies, emosies -self, nie- verbale
emosies en emosionele beheer.

Die mees betekenisvolle korrelasies wat gevind is in die studie was dat Koherensie-sin 'n
betekenisvolle postiewe verband het met Emosionele Bestuur en Lewenstevredenheid, en
'n betekenisvolle postiewe verband het met Nie-Verbale Emosies, Emosies-Self.
Gelukkige Emosies, Positiewe Affek en Optimisme. Emosionele beheer het 'n
betekenisvolle postiewe verband met Emosies-Self, Gelukkige Emosies, Positiewe Affek,

vii
Optimisme en Lewenstevredenheid. Positiewe Affek het 'n betekenisvolle verband met
Optimisme en 'n betekenisvolle negatiewe verband met Pessimisme. Optimisme het 'n
betekenisvolle positiewe verband met Lewenstevredenheid.

'n Tweede-orde faktor analise is gedoen op die faktore van die Emosionele Intelligensie
Skaal, Hersiende Lewensorietasie Toets, die Lewenstevredenheid Skaal en Orientasie tot
Lewens Skaal. Twee faktore is onttrek naamlik Interpersoonlike- en Otngewings
bemeestering. Die resultate tesame met die produk-moment korelasie was gebruik om 'n
psigologiese welstand model te ontwikkel en saam te stel.

Die resultate toon dat die Interpersoonlike-bemeestering uit die volgende bestaan:
Positiewe Affek, Emosionele Bestuur, Optimisme, Lewenstevredenheid en Koherensie-
sin. Omgewings-bemeestering bestaan uit Emosies-Ander, Gelukkige Emosies, Emosies-
Self en Nie-Verbale Emosies. Dit is duidelik uit bogenoemde dat psigologiese welstand
uit twee dimensies bestaan naamlik Interpersoonlike en Intrapersooniike aspekte.

Voorstelle vir toekomstige navorsing is gemaak.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This research study considers the relationship bctween measures of wellness (sense of coherence,
optimism and life satisfaction) and emotional intelligence. The study is conducted in an
Economic Sciences faculty in a Higher Education Institute as students in this faculty can be seen
as future employees and the business leaders of tomorrow.

1. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Considerable attention has been paid to the personal health and wellness of individuals in
communities but less attention was given to thc health of the organisation as a whole (Bull.
2003). The major purpose of wellness promotion in the workplace is not only to produce health
and wellness benefits, but also. just as importantly, to ensure positive lifestyle health behaviour
and prevent the major causes of mortality and morbidity (Green & Kreuter, 1999). Studies
revealed that mental illnesses, such as depression, cost organisations billions of dollars each year
in lost productivity (Mrazek & Haggerty, 1994).

In this regard health promotion in the workplace can play a vital role (O'Donnell & Harris,
1984). Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) developed a model of well-being at work which could be
used when focusing on work wellness. The model of well-being at work (Schaufeli, 2003;
Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004) distinguishes between two dimensions, namely contentment at work
(i.e. pleasurable versus unplcasul-able) and mobilisation of energy. Health promotion in the
workplace not only ensures a healthy worker, but also a healthier worker who coutrihutes to
work productivity (O'Donnell & Hams, 1984). For individuals to be healthy and well-balanced,
they need to learn concrete ways to promote wellness. Wellness programs often help prevent
employees from getting sick, missing work and burning out from job related stress, and also
assist individuals with their physical. material, mental and spiritual evolution. Psychological
well-being, and therefore wellness, can be fostered by the development of positive psychological
constructs in the workplace (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
Wissing and van Eeden (1998) see psychological well-being as tnulti dimensional with regard to
facets of the self that are involved, for example affect, cognition and behaviour. Seligman and
Csikszentmihalyi (2000) describe positive psychology as thc study of positive subjective
experience, positive individual traits and programs that assist in improving an individual's
quality of life, while simultaneously preventing, or at least reducing, the incidence of
psychopathology. Positive psychology focuses on positive aspects of the self and our systems.
The focus can be on subjective experiences such as: feelings of contentment, satisfaction, and
well-being with past experiences; optimism and hope for the future; and a general sense of
happiness in the present (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Furthem~ore.sense of coherence
(Antonovsky, 1987), satisfaction with life (Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffen. 1985) and
optimism (Scheier & Carver, 1987) are seen as good indicators of general psychological well-
being (Wissing & Van Eeden, 1998). Psychological well-being and the processes involved can
be developed by the application of emotional intelligence (Jonker & Jansen, 2005).

En~otionalintelligence is one of the constructs that is proposed to aid in the conceptualisation of

psychological well-being and the processes involved in psychological wellbeing (Goleman,
1995). Emotional intelligence, sense of coherence, satisfaction with life and optin~isn~,
also form
part of the positive psychology domain that can contribute to overall positiveness and wellness
(Seligman & Csikszc~ltniilialyi, 2000). Emotional competence is the ahility to adapt affect,
emotion, and mood in order to have the potential to be effective in a variety of situations.

E~notionsare not only intuitive wisdom; they provide us with potentially profitable infonnation
every minute of the day. IIowcvcr, the experience of emotions is not enough. One must know
how to acknowledge and value feelings in oneself and others and what the appropriate response
will be. People who use these qualities are using their emotional intelligence (Schutte, Malouff,
Simunek, Mofikenly, & Hollander, 2002). Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one's
own and other's feelings and cmotions, to discriminate amongst them and to use this infonnation
to help in the guidance ofone's thinking and actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990)

Various authors have theorised that high emotional intelligence would lead to greater reelings of
emotional well-being (Golernan, 1995; Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman,
Turvey, & Palfai, 1995). Research indicates that high levels of emotional intelligence lead to
less depression (Martinez-Pons, 1997; Schutte, et al., 1998), a greater sense of oplimism
(Schutte, et al., 1998) and life satisfaction (Ciarrochi, Chan & Caputi, 2000; Martinez-Pons,
1997).

Emorional Inrelligencc

Emotional intelligence is one of the most interesting concepts in the field of business
psychology. Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990, p189) initially defined emotional intelligence
as "the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and other's
feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's
thinking and actions". More recently Salovey and Mayer have identified the major components
of El as the ability to perceive and express emotion, assirnilate emotion in thought, understand
and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in self and others (Mayers, Salovey, & Caruso,
2000). According to Goleman (1998) emotional intelligence is twice as important in
contributing to excellence as pure intellect and expertise.

Recent research suggests that graduate students significantly improved their measured Emotional
intelligence from the time they entered an MBA program des~gnedto enhance their Emotional
intelligence (Cameron, 1999) Studies tracking the students' level of emotional intelligence
through the years show that people improve these capabilities as they grow more proficient at
handling their empathy and social dexterity (Goleman, 1998). Daniel Golernan (1995)
pupularised emotional intelligence and extended his observation to establish an overview of
emotional intelligence in the workplace and organisation. Research showed that emotions, when
properly managed, drive trust, loyalty and team and organisational acco~nplishments(Cooper,
1998). One of thr appealing fcaturcs of emotional intelligence is that it integrates many skills
and quantities known to impact performance (Offermann, Bailey, Vasilopoulos, Graig, & Sass,
2004). A deficiency can lead to the following symptoms in organisations: uncertainty; low
morale; lack of initiative, creativity and innuvation; poor work tcam performance; stress and
burnout; and poor relationships between employees (Cooper, 1998).
Emotional intelligence also portrays the subset of social intelligence. Emotional intelligence
comprises a layout of non- cognitive capabilities, skills that can influence thc pcrson's ability to
manage environmental demands and pressures and competencies (Bar-On, 1996). Bar-On
(1997) listed fifteen factorial components of emotional intclligence, namely: emotional self-
awareness; assertiveness; self-regard; self-actualisation; independence; empathy; intelpersonal
relationships; social responsibility; problem solving; reality testing; flexibility; stress tolerance;
impulse control; happiness and optimism. Emotional intelligence can be seen as the ability to
sense, understand and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human
energy, information, trust. creativity and influence (Cooper. 1997).

According to Diener, Suh, Lucas and Oishi (1999) emotions and moods can be labelled together
to form affect, which represents peoples evaluation of the events that occur in tbcir lives.
Psychological well-being has been guided by two primary concepts: the first emphasizes the
affective aspect including positive and negative affect; the second conception emphasizes a
cognitive component, namely life satisfaction, the key indicator of well-being (Ryff & Keyes,
1995).

Ljfl Suti~fuction
Life satisfaction has emerged as a key variable by which to measure perceived well-being
(Curnrui~ls,2001). Well-being is comprised of the scientific analysis of how people evaluate their
lives for the moment and for longer periods. These evaluations include the emotional reactions
people experience, and the nloods and judgements they form about their life satisfaction (Diener,
Oishi & Lucas, 2003). Satisfaction with life in adults has been associated with health (Willits &
Crider, 1988). social interaction (Gibson, 1986), personality (Costa, McCrae & Nonis, 198 1 ;
Heady & Wearing, 1989; McCrae & Costa, 1991), religion (Koeing, Kvale &: Ferrell, 1988).
income and social class (George, 1990), and ethnicity (Markides & Mindel. 1987). Satisfaction
with life has also been found to inversely relate to negative life events (Murrdl 61 Nol-ris, 1991).
Life satisfaction is positively related to competence, general well-being (Feldt, 1997) and sense
of coherence (Kalimo & Vuori, 1990)

Serrse c~fcoherence
Sense of cohe~mcc consists of three important components, namely comprehensibility,
manageability and meaningfulness. These three components may also have an underlining
cognitive component. This cognitive component is reflected in various models of wellness,
especially models of wellness developed by Crose, Nicholas, Gobble and Frank (1992) and
Myzrs, Sweeney and Witmer (2002).

Strong sense of coherence can be developed through various psychological, social structural and
cultural-historical resources, and these resources work against stressors (.4ntonovsky, 1979).
The conczpt of sensc of coherence resonated with the concept of "environmental mastery" that
was conceptualised by Ryff and Singer (1996: 1998). Environmental mastery refers to the
individual's ability to cope with stimuli from both the external and internal environment, the
ability to see demands as challenges and to use the available resources (Ryff & Singcr, 1998).

Research indicates that people w ~ t ha low sense of coherence find it hard to cope with life
conflicts and thus feel distressed. In contrast, people with a high sense of coherence tackle life
stressors head-on (McSherry & Holm, 1994). A strong sense of coherence is negatively related
to anxiety and ncuroticism (Frenz, Carey & Jorgenuen, 1993) and job stress (Feldt, 1997). Sense
of coherence will lead to confidence and an optin~isticoutlook on life (McSherry & Holm,
1994).

Research indicatcs that sense of coherence is negatively related to life stress and symptoms of
psychological distress such as anxiety, depression and an array of physical elements. Research
(Flannery & Flannery. 1990) indicates that sense of coherence is not a depressor hut rather a
global predisposition in regard to responding to stress. Individuals with a strong sense of
coherence usc mom instrumental and fewer avoidant responses to cope with stressors in their
lives (Amirkhan & Greaves, 2003). The conclusion can be drawn that sense of coherence
correlates with general health rating, psychological health and self esteem (Antonovsky, 1987).
Optimism also contributes to psychological health.

Optimism
Research by Scheier and Carver (1987) suggested that optimism has a beneficial effect on
psychological well-being. This view is supported by results of studies by Carver and Gaines
(1987) and Fibe and Hale (1978). indicating that optimism is negatively correlated with
depressive symptoms and with anxiety (Harju & Bolen, 1998; Robinson-Whelen, Kim,
MacCallum & Kiecolt-Glaser, 1997).

Cassidy (2000) regards optimism as a personality trait that can help people to cope with aspects
of life that could lead to negative effects of stress. A number of researchers described this
personality trait as a psychological resistance factor, which could be used to conceptualise
individual differences and is related to more positivc outcorncs (Ebert, Tucker & Roth, 2002).
I'ositivc outcomes, being predicted hy optimism, include 1) coping with major life stresses, 2)
adjusting to major life transitions and 3) responses to more minor stresses (Hasan & Power,
2002).

Optimists are "masters oftheir own fate"; they believe that good things will happen to them and
that they can make good things happen (Carver 8: Scheier, 2002). These authors made a
suggestion that the optimist is involved in and commences various activities to provide
themselves with the opportunity to acquire knowledge about both the positive and negative
consequences of their actions. The optimist seems to be able to control or modify aspects of
stressors and does this by seeking information and by being more involved in the planning and
positive re-framing (.lackson, Weiss & Lundquist, 2000). The pess~mist is known to use
strategies such as negative coping. cognitivc avoidance disengagement andlor suhstance abuse
( H a j u R: Bolen. 1998: Jackson et a]., 2000). According to Carver and Scheier (2002) optimism
is a basic quality of personality. Optimism influences peoples' orientation to certain live events,
their subjective experiences regarding the confrontation of problems and the action taken when
dealing with these problems. Optimism is therefore an important dispositional quality that could
moderate well-being and high emotional intelligence, due to the fact that it could influence a
person's motivation and coping behaviour (Can~er& Scheier, 2002).

it is clear from the problem statement above that wellness in organisations cnn have benefits both
for the employee and employer. This can be achieved by paying attention to the psychological
wellbeing of current- and future employees. Indicators of general psychological wellbeing are
emotional intelligence, life satisfaction, optimism and sense of coherence. The last-mentioned
indicator forms part of the positivc psychology domain. The relationship between these
constructs in a psychological wellness model has not been established in the Economic Sciences
Field in Higher Education. Future employees in this field of study are likely to become the
business leaders of tomorrow.

Based on the problem statement. the following research questions arise:

How are ernotional intelligence, optimism, liCc satisfaction, sense of coherence and
psychological well-being conceptualised in literature?
How valid and reliable are the measures of emotional intelligence, optimism, life
satisfaction and sense of coherence for a sample of potential future employees in
economic sciences professions'!
Writ is the relationship between emotional intelligence, optimism, life satisfaction and
sense of coherence'?
0 What is the content of a structural model of psychological wellbeing, based on the
relationship between wellbeing constructs (emotional intelligence, optimism, life
satisfaction and sense of coherence)?

2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This rcsearch embraces general and specific objectives.

2.1 General objectives
The general aim of this research is to determine the relationship between wellness and emotional
intelligence in order to develop a structural model of psychological wellbeing.

2.2 Specific objectives

To conceptualise emotional intelligence, optimism, life satisfaction, sense of coherence
and psychological well-bemg from the literature.
To dctcnnine the validity and reliability of measurements of emotional intelligence ,
optimism, life satisfaction and sense of coherence for a sample of potential future
employees in economic scienccs professions.
 To detem~inethe relationship between emotional intelligence, optimism, life satisfaction
and sense of coherence.
To determine a structural model of psychological wellbeing based on the relationship
between wellbeing constructs (emotional intelligence, optimism, life satisfaction and
sense of coherence).
To make recommendations for future research.

3. RESEARCH METIIOD

The research consists of a literature review and an empirical study. The results are presented in
the form of a research article.

3.1. Phase I: Literature Review

In phase 1, a complete literature review regarding the following is obtained: the relationship
between emotional intelligence , psychological well-being, optimism, lift. satisfaction and sense
of cohrrcncc of university students in the field of economics.

3.2 Phase 2: Empirical study.

Phase 2 consists of empirical study and comprises the research design, [he participants and thcn
measuring battery and statistical analysis.

3.2.1 Research design

A cross-sectional design with a survey as the technique of data collection is used to research the
objectives of this research. Cross-sectional designs are used to examine groups of subjects in
various stages of development simultaneously, while the survey describes a technique of data
collection in which questionnaires are used to gather data about an identified population (Bums
& Gruve. 1993). This design is well suited to the descriptive and predictive functions associated
with correlation research, whereby relationships between variables are examined (Shaughnrssey
8: Zachmeister, 1997)
3.2.2 Participants

The participants consist of an availability sample of Economic Science students in a higher

education institute in the North West Province and in Gauteng (N=341)

3.2.3 Measuring battery

Emotional Intelligence Scrrle (Schutte et al., 1998) assesses perception, understanding

expression. regulation and harnessing of emotions in the self and others. The brevity of
the scale and its accumulating reliability and validity evidence make this scale a
reasonable choice for those who are seeking a brief self-report measure of global
emotional intelligence. The model of emotional intelligence of Salovey and Mayer (1990)
provided the conceptual foundation of the items used in this scale. A factor analysis of a
large pool of items suggested a one-factor solution of 33 items. The 33-items scale,
developed through factor analysis, showed good internal reliability with two difSzrent
samples. Two-week-test-rztzst reliability indicated that the scores were fairly related to
eight or nine measures, predicted to be related to emotional intelligence scores predicted
their end-of-year grade point average of emotional intelligence, including the
detem~inantsof emotional intelligence, the effects of emotional intelligence and whether
emotional intelligence can be enhanced (Schutte et al., 1998).

The Lifiz Orientofion Test-Rei~isrd(LOT-R) (Scheier, Carver & Bridges, 1994), a ten-itern
lileasure will be used to measure dispositional optimism. Six items contribute to the
optimism score and four items are fillers. The original Life Orientation Test, as the LOT-
R after two-factor structure (optimism and pessimism), was questioned (Harju & Bolen,
1998). Follow-up analysis has demonstrated a one-factor indicating that the LOT-R is
measuring a continuum of high average and low optimis~dpessimism(Scheier et al.,
1994). The LOT-R was found to have adequate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha =

0,78) and excellent convergent and discriminated validity (Scheier et al., 1994). Based on
a sample of 204 college students, Harju and Bolen (1998) obtain a Cronbach alpha
coefficient of 0.75.
7'he Satisfuction with Life Scale (SWSJ will be used to measure satisfaction with life.
The SWLS is a five-item instrument which was developed by Diener et al. (1985) to
measure global cognitive judgements of one's life. According to Diener et al (1985, p
71 -72) the SWLS is designed around the idea that one should ask respondents about the
overall judgement of their life in order to measure the concept of life satisfaction.
Participants are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement on a scvcn-
point Likcrt scale (I= strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Scores on the SWLS range
from 5 to 35 with higher scores indicating greater life satisfaction. Diener et al. (1985.
p.72) reported a two month test-retest correlation coefficient of 0. 82 and a Cronbach's
alpha coefficient of 0, 87. The inter-item currrlation matrix was factor analysed using
principal axis factor analysis. According to the eigenvalues a single factor emerged,
accounting for 66% of the variance (Diener et al., 1985).

Orientation to life scale was uscd to measure the extent to which a person has a
pervasive, enduring and dynamic feeling of certainty that: the stimuli that bombard
people, and which come out of the internal and external environment in the course of
living, are structured, predictable and explicable.(Comprehensibility). There arc rcsources
available that will help or enahle one to manage these stimuli (Manageability). These
demands are perceived as challenges in which energy is worthy of being invested
(Meaningfulness).The SOC scale that has been used in this research consists of 29 items,
which are divided into thrrt: components, namely comprehensibility, manageability and
meaningfulness. Antonovsky ( 1 993) reports a Cronbach alpha reliability of between 0,78
and 0.93 in 26 studies where the SOC scale has been used. As far as test-retest reliability
is concerned, Antonovsky found in 8 research studies a col~elationof 0,56 to 0,97.
According to Antonovsky (1993) content validity, operational validity and criterion
validity of the SOC scale appeals to be favourable. The present study reports a Cronbach
alpha coefticient oF0,92 for the total group.
3.2.4 Statistical analysis

The statistical analysis is carried out with the SPSS-program (SPSS, 2003). The SPSS-program
is used to carry out statistical analysis regarding reliability, validity, descriptive statistics, t-tests.
analysis of variance, correlation coefficients and Multiple Regression Analysis.

Descriptive statistics (e.g., means, standard deviations, range, skewness and kurtosis) and
inferential statistics were used to analyse the data.

Cronbach alpha coefficients were used to determine the internal consistency homogeneity and
unidimensionality of the measuring instrument (Clark & Watson, 1995). Alpha coefficient
contains important information regarding the proportion of variance of the items of a scale in
terms of the total variance explained by the particular scale.

In tenns of stat~sticalsignificance it was decided to set the value at a 95% confidence interval
level (p50,Oj). Effect size (Steyn, 1999) is used to dec~deon the practical significance of
findings. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to specify the relationship
between the variables. A cut-off of 0,30 (medium effect)(Cohen, 1988), is set for the practical
significance or correlation coefficients

The Goodness of Fit lndex (GFI) indicates the relative amount of variance and cov'ariance in the
sample predicted by estimates of the population. Its value usually varies between 0 and I with
higher than 0,90 indicating good model fit with the data. The Adjusted Goodness of Fit lndex
(AGFI) indicates the relative amount of variance accounted for by the model, corrected for the
number of parameters that needed to be estimated (degrees of freedom) in the model. Both these
values are classified as ahsolute values, because they compare the hypothesised model with no
model at all (Hu & Bentler, 1995).
Even though both indexes vary between 0 and I, the distribution of AGFI is not known and
consequently no critical value can be obtained (Joreskog Bi Sorbom, 1986). The Parsimony
Goodness of Fit Index (PGFI) adds to a more realistic interpretation of the model. combining the
issue of parsimony and goodness of fit by taking the number of variables needed to be
determined into account (Mulaik, James, Van Altine, Bennet, Lindi & Stillwell, 1989).
Although this index generally demonstrates lower levels in comparison to the other fit indexes, at
the 0,05 level in comparison to values higher than 0,90, values >0,80 are considered to be more
appropriate (Byme, 2001).

The Normed Fit Index (NFI) is used to measure global model fit, giving an indication of the
extent to which the hypothesised model compares with the most restricted model, where
relationships between variables are zero - in other words a perfectly independent model. This
index also varies between 0 and 1 and tends to overestimate fit in smaller samples. The
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) also compares the hypothesised and independent models, but takes
sample size into account. The Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) is a relative measure of covariation
explained by the hypothesised model which has been specifically designed for the assessment of
factor models (Tucker & Lewis, 1973). Critical values for good model fit have been
recommended for the NFI, CFI and TLI to be acceptable above the 0,90 level (Bentler, 1992).
although recently Hu and Bentler (1999) recommended a cut-off value of O,95.

Browne and Cudeck (1993) suggested the use of the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA), as well as the 90% confidence interval of the RMSEA, to address the problems
associated with sample size. The RMSEA provides an indication of the overall amount of error
in the hypothesised model-data-fit. relative to the number of estimated parameters (complexity)
in the model. The recommended acceptable levels of the RMSEA should be 0,05 or less and
should not exceed 0,08. Hu and Bentler (1999) suggested a value of 0.06 to indicate acceptable
fit; whereas MacCallutn, Browne and Sugawara (1996) recently suggested values between 0,08
and 1,0 to indicate mediocre fit and values above 1,O to indicate poor fit.
4. RESEARCH PROCEDURE

The measuring battery is compiled. In co-operation with personnel at the Economics Sciences
Faculty of a Higher Education Institute, the measuring battery, together with a letter, explains the
background of and motivation for the empirical research and requests their participation.

5. CHAPTER DIVISION

Chapter 1 : Introduction. problem statement and objectives

Chapter 2: Article: The relationship between emotional intelligence, sense of
coherence, optimism, and life satisfaction of students.
Chapter 3: Conclusions. limitations and recommendations

6. CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this chapter, the problem statement and motivation for this study were discussed. The general
and specific objectives were formulated. In chapter two (research article) the relationship
between emotional intelligence, sense of coherence, optimism, and life satisfaction of students.
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CHAPTER 2
RESEARCH ARTICLE
 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SENSE OF
COHERENCE, OPTIMISM AND LIFE SATISFACTION OF STUDENTS.

K JANSEN
CS JONKER
WorkWell: Research Unit for People, Policy and Performance, faculty of Economic &
Management Science, North-West University.

ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between emotional intelligence, optimism, life
satisfaction and sense of coherence. and to compile a psychological well-being model for university students in
economic management sciences. A cross- sectional survey design was used. The participants (N=324) were students
from economic sciences fields. The Emotional Intelligence Scale, Life Orientation Test Revised. Satisfaction with
Life Scale and Orientation to life scale were admin~strred. A factor analysis showed a six-factor structure for the
elnotional intelligence measurement. A Second Order factor analysis wlth all the factors of emotional intrlligence.
optimism. life satisfaction and sense of coherence indicated a two factor model. The model was tested with
Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and indicated that psychological well-being consists of two factors:
Intrapersonal- and Environment Mastery

OPSOMMING

Die doelwit van lhierdie studie was om die verband tussen emosionele intelegcnsie. optimtsme. lewenstevredenheid
en koherensie-sin te bepaal asook om "n model v a n psigologiesc welstand vir universiteit studente in ekonomiesr
bestuur.; wetenskappe saam te s t e l 'n Dwarsdeursnee-opnameontwrrp is gebruik. Die deelncmers (N=324) u a s
studente in die ekonamiese wetenskap grbied. Die Emosionele- Intelligensieskaal. Hersietldr
Lewensorientasietoets. Lewenste~redenheiden Orientasie tot die lewe toets was geadministreer. . ' n Faktoranalise
het 'n ses-faktor sturktuur beuys vir emosionelr intelligensie. 'n Tweede orde faktor analise met al die fdktore van
emos~oneleintelligense. optimisme. lewenstevredcnheid en koherensiesin het 'n twee faktor model aangedui. Die
model is getoets met strukturele-berekings-modellerlng en he[ gewys dat psigologlese welstand uit twee taktore
bestaan: lntrapersoonlike bemeestering en Omgewingsbcmeestering.
A specific need exists for researching well-being in South African organisations. The
organisational environment in South Africa has undergone a lot of complex changes.
Organisations are forced to downsize, restructure and outsource their services and this can lead
to negative effects on employees. Workers are feeling more stressed, misunderstood,
undervalued and insecure (Wise, 2001). The diverse employee and young working population, as
well as the political climate, contributes to the stress that employees and organisations face in
South Africa (Carrel1 et a1.,1998). The future workforce of South Africa consists of university
students, thus their psychological well-being should be intact before they enter the workforce. As
international competition becomes more intense, organisations in South Africa are under
pressure to implement some changes that might lead to stress and burnout (Dwyer, 2001).

In the past, less attention was given to the wellness and personal health of the organisation and
more was given to individuals in cotnlnunities (Bull, 2003). During the last 20 years a growing
trend occurred among companies to realise the importance of the human factor (Snyder & Lopez.
2002). Research studies indicated that positive organisations stand apart from businesses that
merely turn a profit and increase shareholders' value, because they promote and sustain high
levels of employee well-being (Spector, 1997; Wnrr, 1999). The focus thus lies on total well-
being and the wellness of employees (Sheldon & King. 2001). Studies reveal that mental
illnesses such as depression cost organisations millions of dollars each year in lost productivity
(Mrazek & Haggerty, 1994).

A decrease in organisational well-being occurs when employees experience burnout. Based on

the holistic nod el of work wellness, burnout and work engagement could be regarded as an
outcome ofjob stress (Nelson & Simmons, 2003). Burnout is recognised as a phenon~enonfound
in a variety of occupational groups (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). According to Cordes and
Dougherty (1993) burnout is a persistent, negative work-related slate of mind in "normaf'
individuals, primarily characterised by emotional exhaustion and accompanied by distress, a
sense of reduced effectiveness, decreased motivation and the development of dysfunctional
attitudes and behaviours at work.
There are a lot of factors that contribute to employee burnout and stress. Burnout can result from
too much involvement in one task (Chemiss, 1980; Freudenberger, 1974), little or no support by
friends, family or colleagues (Etzion, 2001), work and social environment (Burke, Shearer &
Deszca, 1984), work overload (Landsbergis, 1998), feedback, control and clarity, social support,
personal expectations about work (Maslach & Jackson, 1986) and career concerns such as lack
of career progress (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1990). Burnout and stress does not only have
negative outcomes for the individual, but also for the organisation, including absenteeism, lower
turnover and poor productivity (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Wellness at work can be viewed in
both a positive and negative manner, namely engagement and burnout (Rothmann. 2003).
Wellness at work, originally viewed from a negative perspective, can be viewed from a positive
perspective (Kalloway & Barling, 1992).

Positive psychology in burnout research literature has long since heen called for. Empirical
studies revealed that some employees, regardless of high job demands and long working hours,
do not develop burnout in comparison with others but seem to find pleasure in hard work and
dealing with high job demands (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2001). Schaufeli and Bakker (2001) state
that these individuals could be described as engaged with their work. Work engagement can be
defined as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind characterised by vigour, dedication
and absorption (Schaufeli. Salanova, Gonzales-Romi & Bakker, 2002).

Employees who have a sense of engagement, have a sense of energy and effective connection
with their jobs (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Engagement promises to yield new perspectives on
interventions to promote healthy perceptions, beliefs and physical well-being (Salovey,
Rothman, Detweiler Sr Steward, 2000), and to lighten burnout (Maslach, Schaufeli & Leiter,
2001). The positive psychology paradigm helps to explain the relationship between the
individual and work more clearly, and more specifically, goal-orientated, structured activity, and
psychological well-being (Kalloway & Barling, 1992).

Psychological well-being is seen as tnultidimensional with regards to certain aspects of the self,
for example affect, cognition and behaviour (Wissing & Van Eeden, 1998). Sutisfuction with lif2
(Diener, Emmons, Larsen LO Griffen, 1985), sense of cohcrvr~ce (Antonovsky, 1987). and
optimism are seen as good indicators of general psvchological well-helng (Wissing & Van
Eeden, 1998). One of the constructs that is proposed to aid in the conceptualisation of
psychological well-being, and the processes involved, is emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995).

Emotional intelligence
Many attempts by psychologists have been made over the years to categorise as well as define
intelligence. Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a great contributing factor in the understanding of
human intelligence, as it expands the capacity to measure one's general and overall intelligence
(Bar-On, 1997a). When looking at human intelligence it was found that emotional intelligence as
a dimension, forms part of the human intelligences domain (Kaplan & Sadock, 1991). Emotional
intelligence addresses the emotional, personal, social and survival dimensions of intelligence,
and these are sometimes more important for the daily functioning than the more traditional
cognitive aspects of intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).

Goleman (1998) provides a useful scope of the construct of emotional intelligence:

knowing what you are feeling and having the ability to handle and control those feelings
without them overwhelming you;
having the ability to motivate yourself in getting the jobs done, being creative and
performing at your best; and
sensing what others are feeling and handling relationships effectively.

Martinez (1997, p.72) structured a more concise definition that refers to emotional intelligence as
being: "...an trrray of' non-cognitiia skills, capabilities and competencies thul ir~flr~erzce
cr
poson '.Y ability to cope with em~ironmentuldemands untlpressnres. ''

Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (2000) developed the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale.
Mayer et al. followed the conceptualisation developed by Salovey and Mayer (1 990) and defined
Emotional Intelligence as "a set of interrelated skills that can be classified within the following
four dimensions:
the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion;
the ahility to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought;
 the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and
0 the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual g r o w t h (Mayer and
Salovey, 1997, p. 10).

Two streams of emotional intelligence are found in the literature: the mixed and ability models
(Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2000). Emotional intelligence involves the abilities to 'berceive,
appraise c~ndexpress emotion to access and/or gcnerate,fielings when they,facilitate thought to
rrnderstand emotions and emotional knowledge uird to regdate emoliorrs to promote emotional
and intellectual growth" (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p.10). Mayer and Salovey (1997) developed
an ability model consisting of different branches. The first branch of the model is identifying
Emotions. Included in this branch are a number of skills such as the ability to identify feelings, to
express emotions accurately and to differentiate between real and phoney emotional expressions.

The second branch, Emotional Facilitation of Thought (or using Emotions), includes the ability
to use emotions to redirect attenlion to important events. to generate emotions that facilitate
decision making, to use mood signs as a means to consider multiple points of view and to
hamess different emotions to encourage different approaches to problem solving. The third
branch. Understanding Emotions, is the ability to understand complex emotions and emotional
"chains" (how emotions transition from one stage to another), the ability to recognise the cause
of emotions, and the ability to understand relationships among emotions. The fourth branch of
the ability model is Managing Emotions. This includes the ability to stay aware of one's
emotions, even those that are unpleasant, the ability to determine whethet- a motion is clear or
typical, and the ability to solve emotion-laden problems without necessarily suppressing negative
emotions (Mayer, et al, 1999: Roberts, Zeidner, & Matthews, 2001).

The ability model places EI within the sphere of intelligence in which emotion and thought
interact in meaningful and adaptive ways. Mixed models blend various aspects of personality in
what is often a theoretical manner. This research makes use of the detinition of Mayer and
Salovey (1997) for the application and measurement of emotional intelligence.
An individual's El is an indication of how he or she perceives, understands and regulates
emotions. Thus El is a form of intelligence that involves "the trbility to monitor one's own and
others ',fielings and emotions to discriminate among them and to use this ir7fvrmation to guide
one's thinking and actions"(Sa1ovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 189). Emotional intelligence ranges from
an ability for processing information that is applied to emotions, subject to principles governing
the intellect (Mayer, et al., 20001, to a complex interaction of qualities of emotions, mood,
personality and social orientation applied in both interpersonal and intrapersonal situations (Bar-
On. 2000). Thus Mayer and Salovey (1997) construed Emotional Intelligence as the capacity to
reason about emotions.

The emphasis of emotional intelligence falls on understanding one's self and others, relating to
people and adapting to and coping with environmental demands (Bar-On, 1997b). According to
Salovey and Mayer (1990) emotions are primarily motivating forces that arouse, direct and
sustain activity. A unique set of competencies is needed to handle emotional life either with
greater or lesser skills. A person with high El would be less affected by his or her emotions, be
able to direct emotions in a positive direction and would have lower chances of feeling
depressed. El also includes a dimension of understanding others' emotions (Mirowsky & Ross,
1990).

Emotional intelligence has been found to be positively col~elated with variables such as
empathy. verbal intelligence, and extroversion, openness to feelings, self-esteem and life
satisfaction (Ciarrochi, Chan. & Caputi, 2000; Mayer. Camso, & Salovey, 1999).

Life Satisfactiori
Theoretically, life satisfaction should be positively related to Emotional Intelligence.
Intrapersonal emotional recognition and management helps an individual deal with his or her
emotions. A person with high El should be able to recognise his or her emotions. to regulate
those emotions, and to use them to facilitate performance. As a result, this person should be
happier, as a whole, in life. Several empirical studies have provided evidence of this positive
relationship (Wong & Law, 2002; Wong, Wong & Law, 2002).
Satisfaction is a state of mind, an evaluative appraisal of something (Sans. Veenhoven,
Scherpenzeel & Bunting, 1996). Satisfaction of life is defined by Veenhoven (1988, p.334) as
"the degree to which an indi\id~rol judges the owrall quality of hidher life, as a whole,
fut~o~rrubly".Veenhoven (1988) supported his definition by adding that the degree to which an
individual feels that hislher aspirations have been met, hisher new-found contentment with life
and the most important of all, the degree to which one feels that helshe has successfully achieved
what was wanted in life, points to life satisfaction.

Life Satisfaction is as a cognitive judgment of the degree of positivity of a person's overall life
or with specific life domains. such as family or school experiences (Raphael, Rukholm, Brown,
Hill-Bailey & Donato, 1996). According to Crainer (1995) life satisfaction is as an assessment of
the overall conditions of existence as derived from a comparison of the individual's aspirations
to hisher actual achievement. There are certain factors that contribute to life satisfaction as well
as positive and negative life events.

Looking at adults, research has demonstrated that positive and negative life events have an effect
on life satisfaction (Headey & Wearing, 1989). In addition to major life events, daily events such
as everyday hassles, or chronic daily stressors at work and home, can contribute to how an
individual rates his or her satisfaction with life. However, life satisfaction was found to be
strongly influenced by personality characteristics (Huebner, 1991). More so, life satisfiction
appears to be moderately influenced by life events (Ash & Huebner, 2001; McCullough,
Huebner & Laughlin , 2000).

According to Lazarus (1991) life satisFxtion is a positive appraisal style, thus life satisfaction
may act as a buffer against the effect of stressful life events. As Lazarus (1991) suggests, with an
overall positive belief about life, one may be better able to cope and adjust to daily stressors and
negative events that would most likely have a greater negative impact on an individual. Although
objective life circumstances are important in individual determinations of the quality of one's
life, it is one's subjective interpretations and evaluations of one's experiences that are most
crucial (Day & Jankey, 1996). Similarly, as stated by Csikszentmihalyi (1990), subjective
experience is not just one of the dimensions of life, it is life itself.
When individuals experience life satisfaction it is mostly associated with ethnicity (Markides &
Mindel, 1987), income and social class (George, 1990). social interaction (Gibson, 1986).
personality (Costa, McCrae & Nonis, 198 1; Heady & Wearing, 1989; McCrae & Costa, 1991),
religion (Koeing, Kvale, & Ferrell, 1988) and health (Willits & Crider, 1988). According to Lane
(1994) the number of friends a person has is a much better predictor of satisfaction with life than
income. Level of satisfaction with life as a whole can also be regarded as synonymous with
quality of life.

An individual's sense of life satisfaction links multiple health parameters that form an umbrella
affect named Health Related Quality of Life (HR-QOL) (Hlatky, Boothroyd & Vittinghoff,
2002). HR-QOL consists of physical capabilities, mental and emotional status, self-rated health,
social involvement. and global life satisfaction. A high HR-QOL means a person is able to
function independently and maintain high levels of physical and mental health. Emotional well-
being and vitality, along with a supportive social network, also contribute to high HR-QOL
(Amarantos, Martinez & Dwyer, 2001). The conclusion can be made that mental, physical ,and
emotional well-being plays an important role with regards to life satisfaction and quality of life

The sources of well-being can be divided into two categories: external circumstances such as
available community services or family life and internal disposition such as self-esteem or the
sense that one controls one's own fate (Lane. 1994). Research results by Murrell and Norris
(1991) indicated that satisfaction with life is related to negative life events. According to
MoSherry and Holm (1994) people that tackle life head-on have a high sense of coherence, while
people who find it hard to cope with life conflicts and feel distressed have a low sense of
coherence.

Sense of coherence

Antonovsky (1991) developed the construct sense of coherence. When looking at sense of
coherence it can be described as a glohal orientation that expresses the extent to which one has a
pervasive, enduring and dynamic feeling of confidence that:
 (1) the stimuli deriving from one's internal and external environment are predicted and that
there is a high probability that things will work out as well as can be reasonably
expected:
(2) each person has the necessary resources to meet these demands posed by these stimuli;
and that
(3) these demands are challenges that the individual will find worthwhile when investing and
engaging in them (Antonovsky, 1987).

Sense of coherence originated from the concept of "environmental mastety" defined by Ryffand
Singer (1996; 1998). It refers to the individual's ability to cope with stimuli from both the
external and internal environment, the ability to see demands and challenges and to use the
available resources. According to Antonovsky (1979) life experiences are important in the
development of sense of coherence among children, adolescents and adults. He further explains
that the life experiences should not only be predictable but also rewarding and sometimes they
should present frustration and punishment. When looking at the above it is clear that sense of
coherence is developed from childhood and it strengthens from early adolescence to late
adolescence (Antonovsky, 1979).

The definition of sense of coherence consists of three components namely: comprehensibility,

manageability and meaningfulness (Antonovsky, 1987). A deeper understanding is necessary of
these components and their implications (Antonovsky, 1987; S t ~ m p f e r 1990).
,

Cntttprelzensibility
The degree to which one perceives that both internally and externally sourced stimuli are
structured, ordered, consistent and clear. An expectation will be facilitated that these
stimuli will in the future be orderable and even predictable, thus these stimuli are
preserved as making sense (Antonovsky. 1987; Striimpfer, 1990).

Manageability
To manage the demands, posed by the stimuli one may confront, with perceived available
resources. These resources. viewed subjectively, can be seen as sufficient to deal with the
 life events a person experiences. The control of these resources could be under the
person's direct control or the control of others (spouse, friends. a physician etc.) who will
use these resources on the person's behalf (Antonovsky, 1987; Striimpfer, 1990).

0 Meaningfrtlness
The extent to which the person feels life makes sense on an emotional level and not just a
cognitive one. Thus it's a motivational factor in the sense that a person feels the time and
effort spent on challenges was worthwhile (Antonovsky, 1987: Striimpfer, 1990).
Meaning is also about the cognisance of order, coherence, and purpose in one's existence
(Antonovsky, 1979). Studies on the construct of meaning of life have consistently shown
significant correlations between meaning and psychological wellness (Zika &
Chamberlain, 1992). Lack of meaning has been found to be associated with a lack of
well-being: the less the sense of meaning the greater the severity of psychopathology
(Debats, 1999; Debats, Drost 8: Hansen, 1995).

Antonovsky (1987) found that these components are highly intercorrelated but that it was
possible that differences between the components could be found within individuals. Due to the
fact that these components are interdependent, it is clear to see that all three are necessary for the
maintenance of a consistently high sense of coherence. It was found that these components have
an underlining cognitive component. b%en looking at this component it can be said that it
features in various models of wellness. especially models of wellness that were developed by
Myers, Swreney and Witmer (2002) and Crose. Nicholas, Gobble and Frank (1992).

Antonovsky ( 1 979) postulated that since psychological, cultural. historical and social structural
resources work against stressors, these resources contribute to the development of a strong sense
of coherence. Antonovsky realised that there is something apart from the inner disposition, that is
sense of coherence, that enables people to cope with stressful life events (Antonovsky 1979).
Flannery and Flannery (1990) found that sense of coherence is not a depressor but a global
predisposition in regard to responding to stress. Sense of coherence has been found to have a
moderating effect between: adverse characteristics of emotional exhaustion (Feldt, 1997);
emotional job strain and burnout (Soderfeldt, Soderfeldt, Ohlson, Theorell & Jones, 2000); and
conflict at work and stress sqmptoms (Albertsen, Neilsen & Berg, 2001). Sense of coherence
predicts effective coping measures against stressful conditions (Antonovsky, 1996). Wissing and
Van Eeden (2002) found a general psychological well-bcing factor in which sense of coherence,
satisfaction with life and affect balance plays an important role.

Sense of coherence can thus be defined as a global orientation that expresses the extent to which
one has a pervasive, enduring and dynamic feeling of confidence, that one's internal and external
environment are predictable and that there is a high probability that things will work out as well
as can reasonably be expected (Antonovsky, 1988). A person with strong sense of coherence
would be described as resillent and optimistic.

Optimism
When an individual looks at the brighter side of life, even when faced with some kind of
adversity, that individual can be classified as an optimist (Bar-On, 1997b). When optimistic, an
individual assumes a measure of hope in life. They take on a more positive approach to daily
living (Bar-On, 1997b). Studies conducted by Carver and Gaines (1987) and Fibe and Hale
(1978) indicated that optimism is negatively correlated with depressive symptoms and with
anxiety (Haju & Bolen, 1998). This supports the view of Scheier and Carver (1987) whose
results show that optimism has a beneficial effect on psychological wcll-being.

Within the last decade, researchers have begun to investigate a host of positive psychological
factors (e.g. optimism, spirituality, social support) that have been shown to influence general
well-being. In particular, optimism is linked to desirable outcomes such as good morale,
achievement. improved health, and coping with adversity (Chang, 1996).

The positive impact of optimism on physical and psychological health and the attendant
characteristics of perseverance. achievement and motivation, resulting in academic, athletic and
occupational successes, are well documented (Luthen, 2002). Optimism is seen as a sort of
psychological resistance factor that is more related to positive outcomes (Ebert, Tucker & Roth,
2002). These positive outcomes, which are predicted by optimism, include some of the
following:
 coping with major life stressors;
adjusting to major life changes and transitions that may occur; and
adjusting the responses given to more minor stressors (Hasan & Power, 2002)

Pessimists are known to use certain strategies that are harmful to them such as negative coping,
cognitive avoidance disengagement and some times even substance abuse (Harju & Bolen, 1998;
Jackson, Weiss & Lundquist, 2000). Pessimism is known to lead to passivity, failure, social
estrangement and, in its cxtreme, depression and death (Luthen, 2002). The early abusive or
traumatic events in your life are compounded by a relentless media barrage of images of war,
terrorism, famine and natural disasters that teach one to be pessimistic.

Murray and Fortinberry (2004) believe that the transition from pessimism to optimism is
possible. Carver and Scheicr (2002) believe that optimism is part of the individual's basic type of
personality. When being optimistic in the way you experience certain events, your conkonlation
with regards to problems and the action you choose to take, in dealing with these problems. will
influence an individual's orientation of certain life events. Thus optimism could moderate well-
being and high EI, because of its influence on individual's motivation and coping behaviour.

From the literature review it is evident that EI, optimism, sense of coherence and life satisfaction
contribute to psychological well-being. The goal of this study was to determine the relationship
between these constructs in a psychological wellness model within a population of Economic
Sciencc Students.
 RESEARCH METHOD

Research design

A cross-sectional s w e y design was used to reach the objectives of this research. Cross-sectional
designs were used for simultaneously examining groups of subjects in various stages, while the
survey describes a technique of data collection in which questionnaires were used to gather data
about the identified population (Bums & Grove, 1993). This design is well suited for the
descriptive and predictive functions associated with creational research, whereby relationships
between variables are examined (Shaugnessey & Zachmeister, 1997).

Participants

A sample of 341 students of the econo~nical sciences was takcn from higher education
institutions in the North-West and Gauteng provinces. 324 of the responses could be utiliscd
(95Oh). Table 1 gives the particulars of the partic~pants.
Table 1

Churucferirtics of the Par!icipants ln =324)

Item Category Frequency (percentage)

- -

Age 16 - 18 years 174 (53.70%)

1 9 - 2 1 ycars 128 (30.50%)
22 - 25 years 9 (2.70%)
Gender Male 155 (47. 80%)
Female 169 (52.20'6)
Language Afrikaans 201 (62.00%)
English 17 (5, 201%)
African Languages 106 (32.70%)
Province North-West 207 (63.90%)
Gauteng 1 1 7 (36. 10%)
Degree Economical Sciences 52 (15.90%)
Accountancy 236 (72. 80'Yi)
Business Economics 14 (1,30%)
-

The sample consisted mainly of Afrikaans spcaking (62,00%) students from the North-West
Province (63,90%). Most of the participants were studying accounting (72.80 96).The mean age
of the students was between 16 and 18 years.

Measuring Battery
The following questionnaires were utilised in the empirical study:

Emotior~cd Intelligerice Scule (Schutte et al., 1998) assesses perception, understanding

expression and regulation and harnessing of emotions in the self and others. The brevity
of thc scale and its accumulating reliability and validity evidence make this scale a
reasonable choice for those who are seeking a brief self-report measure of global El. The
model of El of Salovey and Mayer (1990) provided the conceptual foundation of the
items used in this scale. A factor analysis of a large pool of items suggested a one-factor
solution of 33 items. The 33-items scale developed through factor analysis, showed good
internal reliability with two different samples. Two-week-test-retest reliability indicated
that the scores were fairly related to eight or nine measures, predicted to be related to EI
scores and predicted their end-of-year grade point average of EI (including the
detenninants of El, the effects of El and whether El can be enhanced) (Schutte st al.,
1998).

7'he Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) (Scbeier et al., 1994), a ten-item measure was
used to measure dispositional optimism. Six items contribute to the optimism score and
four items are fillers. The original Life Orientation Test, as the LOT-R after two-factor
structure (optimism and pessimism), was questioned (Harju & Bolen, 1998). Follow-up
analysis has demonstrated a one-factor, indicating that the LOT-R is measuring a
continuum of high, average and low optimism/pessimism (Scheier et al., 1994). The
LOT-R was found to have adequate internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0,78) and
excellent convergent and discriminated validity (Scheier el al., 1994). Based on a sample
of 204 college students, Harju and Bolen (1998) obtain a Cronbach alpha coefficient of
0,75.

7'he Satisfactiotz with Lift; Scale (SWLS) was used to measure satisfaction with life. The
SWLS is a five-item instrument which was developed by Diener et al. (1985) to measure
global cognitive judge~nentsof one's life. According to Diener et al. (1985) the SWLS is
dcsigncd around the idea that one should ask respondents about the overall judgement of
their life in order to measure the concept of lifc satisfaction. Participants are asked to
indicate their degree of agrezlnent or disngreemmt on a seven-point Likert scale (1=
strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Scores on the SWLS range from 5 to 35 with
higher scores indicating greater life satisfaction. Diener et al. (1985) reported a two
month tcst-rctest conelalion coefficient of 0.82 and a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of
0,87. The inter-item correlation matrix was factor analysed using principal axis factor
analysis. According to the eigenvalues a single factor emerged, accounting for 66% of the
variance (Diener et al., 1985).

Oricntution to /if2 .sccrle was used to measure the extent to which a person has a
pervasive. enduring and dynamic feeling of certainty that: The stimuli that bombard
people and which come out of the internal and external environment in the course of
living is structured, predictable and explicable.(Comprehensibility). There are resources
 available to one that will help or enable one to manage these stimuli (Manageability),
these demand are perceived as challenges in which energy is worthy of being invested
(Meaningfulness). The SOC scale that has been used in this research of 29 items, which
are divided into three components, namely comprehensibility, manageability and
meaningfulness. Antonovsky (1993) reports a Cronbach alpha reliability of between 0,78
and 0,93 in 26 studies where the SOC scale has been used.As far as test-retest reliability
is concerned, Antonovsky (1993) found in 8 research studies a correlation of O,56 to 0,97.
According to Antonovsky (1993) content validity, operational validity and criterion
validity of the SOC scale appears to be favourable. The present study reports a Cronbach
alpha coefficient of 0,92 for the total group.

Statistical Analysis

The statistical analysis was canied out with the SPSS-program (SPSS, 2003). The SPSS-program
was used to carry out statistical analysis regarding reliability, validity, descriptive statistics, t-
tests, analysis of covariance, correlation coefficients and multiple regression analysis.

Descriptive statistics (e.g., means, standard deviations, range, skewness and kurtosis) and
inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. Pearson correlation coefficients were
computed to determine the relationship between variables.

Cronbach alpha coefficients were used to determine the internal consistency, homogeneity and
unidimensionality of the measuring instrument (Clark & Watson, 1995). Alpha coefficient
contains important information regarding the proportion of variance of the items of a scale, in
terms of the total variance explained by the particular scale.

In terms of statistical significance it was decided to set the value at a 95% confidence mterval
level (p<0,05). Effect slze (Steyn, 1999) was used to decide on the practical s~gn~ficance
of
findings. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to specify the relationship
between the variables. A cut-off point of 0,30 (medium effect) (Cohen. 1988), was set for the
practical significance of correlation coefficients.
Covariance analysis or Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) methods, as implemented by
AMOS (Arbuckle, 1997), was used to construct and test the structural model of psychological
wellness. Hypothesised relationships were tested empirically for goodness-of-fit with the sample
data. ThexZand several other goodness-of-fit indices summarise the degree of correspondence
between the implied and observed covariance matrices. However, because the x2 statistic equals
(N-1)Fmin. this value tends to be substantial when the model does not hold and the sample size is
large (Byrne, 2001). Researchers addressed the x2 limited by developing goodness-of-fit indices
that take a more pragmatic approach to the evaluation process.

A value (-2 for x2 /degrees of freedom ratio (CMINldfl (Wheaton, Muthen, Alwin & Summers,
1977) indicates acceptable fit (Tabachnick & Fidell. 2001). The Goodness-of-Fit lndex (GDF)
indicates the relative amount of variance between 0 and I, and a result of 0.90 or above indicates
a good model fit. The Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit lndex (AGFI) was a measure of the relative
amount of variance accounted for by the model, corrected for the degrees of freedom in the
model, relative to the number of variables. Both these values were classified as absolute values
because they compare the hypothesised model with no model at all (Hu & Bentler, 1995).
Although both indices vary between 0 and I, the distribution of the AGFI is unknown, and
consequently no critical value can be obtained (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1986). The Parsimony
Goodness-of-Fit Index (PGFI) addresses the issue of parsimony in SEM (Mualik, et al., 1989).
Although this index generally demonstrates lower levels in comparison to other fit indices, at the
0.50 level in comparison to values higher than 0,90, values > 0,80 are considered to more
appropriate (Byrne. 2001).

The Nonned Fit Index (NFI) was used to measure global model fit. The NFI represents the point
at which the model being evaluated falls on a scale running from a null model to perfect fit. This
index was normed to fall on a 0 to 1 continuum and tends to overestimate fit in smaller samples.
The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) also compared the hypothesised and independent models, but
took sample size into account. The Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) was a relative measure of
covariation explained by the hypothesised model, which had been specifically designed for the
assessment of factor models (Tucker & Lewis, 1973). Critical values for good model fit had been
recommended for the NFI, CFI and TLI to be acceptable above the 0.90 level (Bentler, 1992).
although recently Hu and Bentler (1999) recommended a cut-off value of 0,95. The Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) estimated to overall amount of error; it was a function
of the fitting hnction value relative to the degrees of freedom (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). Hu
and Bentler (1999) suggested a value of 0,06 to indicate acceptable fit, whereas MacCallum,
Browne and Sugawara (1996) recently suggested that a value of between 0,08 and 1.0 indicated
mediocre fit and a value above 1.0 indicated poor fit.
 RESULTS

A simple factor analysis was done on the SEIS. Six factors (with eiyenvalues higher than 1) were
extracted explaining 45,24% of the variance. These factors were labelled Positive Affect,
Emotions-Others, Happy Emotions, Emotions-Own, Non-verbal Emotions, and Emotional
Management.

The descriptive statistics and alpha coefficients of the SEIS, LOT-R, SWLS, and SOC are given
in Tahle 2:

Table 2

Descriptive Stutistics an'/ .-llphu Co&cimts o f the S E X LOT-R, SWLS und SOC

Item Means SD Skewness Kurtusis u

SEIS
Positive Affect
Emotions-Others
Happy Emotions
Emotions-Own
Nan-Verbal Emotions
Emotional Management
LOT-R
Optimism
Pessimism
SWLS
Life satilhction

OLQ
Sense of c o h e r n x c

Table 2 shows that acceptable Cronbach alpha coefficients were obtained, which compare
reasonably well with the guideline of 0,70 (0,55 in basic research), demonstrating that a large
portion of the variance is explained by the dimensions (internal consistency of the dimensions)
(Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994), except for Emotional Management, Non-Verbal Emotions,
Optimism and Pessimism. It is evident from Table 2, that nlost of the scales of the measuring
instrument have relatively n o m d distributions, with low skewness and kurtosis.

The product-moment correlation coefficients between emotional intelligence. optimism,

satisfaction with life and sense of coherence are given in Table 3.

Table 3
Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients between the SEIS, LOTR, SWLS and SOC

Item I 2 4 5 6 7 8 1) 10
I Sensc ofCohelencc
L Frnolions Manvgclncnl 0.55*++
3 Non~VsrbalEmotions 0.30' 0,3U*
4 Emotions-Own n.3ir+ 0,34*+ (1,33*+
5 Happy Elnotmns 0.-14*+ 0,38*+ 0,32*+ 0.38*+
6. Emotions-Others 0.28' 0.26' 0.29* 0.43*+ 0.43*+
7. P o s m ~ v.Attrct 0.43.+ 0.49*+ 0.31*+ 0.43*+ 0.42'+ 0.35*+
8. l'rsslmlsm 0.48' - 11.30' 4.26' -0.20' O.lx* - 0.18' 0.30*
9 Opt~mism U,45*+ 0.42*4 U.21' 0,32* I.l*+ 0.14* 0.54*++ -0.25'
10 Life Sdrlifilmnm 0.53'" 0,32*1 0.23' 0.30' 0.28' 0.30* 0.2'1- -flJ1++ 11,33*+
' p i 0.05 - swtlrlically significant

Inspection of Table 3 indicated that Sense of Coherence is significantly positively related (large
effect) to Emotions Management and Life Satisfaction and sign~ficantlypositively related
(medium effect) to Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions, Positive Affect and Optimism. Sense of
Coherence is negatively related (medium effect) to Pessimism.

Emotions Management is significantly positively related (medium effect) to Emot~ons-Own,

Happy Emotions, Positive Affect, Optitnism and Life Satisfaction. Non-Verbal Emotions are
significantly positively related (medium effect) to Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions and Positive
Affect.

Emotions-Own is sigruficantly positively related (medium effect) to Happy Emotions, Emotions-

Others, Positive Affect and Optimism. Happy Emotions is significantly positively related
(medium effect) to Emotions-Others, Positive Affect and Optimism. Emotions-Others is
significantly positively related (medium effect) to Positive Affect.

Positive Affect is significantly positively related (large effect) to Optimism. Pessimism is

significantly negatively related (large effect) to Life Satisfaction. Optimism is significantly
positively related (medium effect) to Life Satisfaction.

A second order factor analysis was done on the factor of the SEIS, LOT-R, SOC and SWLS.
Two factors were extracted explaining 51,84% of the variance. These results were used along
with the results of the product-moment correlations, to compile psychological well-being model.
This model was tested with SEM analysis. These factors were named Intrapersonal and
Inteversonal constructs.

Results indicated that the model did not fit the data adequately. Further modification of the
model was thus required. Inspection of the Modification Indices (MI) revealed that the fit
between the model and the data could be further improved if correlation was allowed between
measurement errors. It is important to note that items with identical rating scales often have
correlating measurement errors (Bytne, 1989). It should be noted that the second order factor
analysis indicated that positive affect and emotional control loaded on positive constructs and as
such can the measurement errors be allowed to correlate. This means that the fit of the proposed
model can be improved if the measurement eIrors between positive affect and optimism (MI =

22,3 1 ) are allowed to correlate. The revised model - including covnriation - shows a good fit (x2
= 45>601,GFI = 0,97, RMSEA = 0,55, CFI = 0,97, IF1 = 0,97 and TLI = 0,96). The tinal model
is given in Figure 1.
 Emotions-Others
0.59

Intrapersonal Happy Emotions

Mastery

Non-verbal Emotions

Positive Affect
0.33

Emotional Management
Environmental
Sense of Coherence

Life Satisfaction

\ I Optimism

As can be seen in F~gure I, Psychological well-being comprised of two l'rrctors namely:

Intrapersonal Mastery and Environmental Mastery. Intrapersonal Mastcry consisted of
Emotions-Others, Happy Emotions, Emotions-Own and Non-verbal Emotions. Factors loading
on Environmental Mastery were Positive Affect, Emotional Management. Sense of Coherence,
Life Satisfaction and Optimism. This is an indication that people with emotional intelligcnce
co~npetencies are able to be aware of emotions in the self (Emotions-Own) and others
(Emotions-Others) and are able to perceive emotions successfully in the self (Happy Emotions)
and others (Non-verbal emotions). This can lead to mastery of the intrapersonal challenges that
one has to face on a day to day basis. Mastery of the intrapersonal aspects is necessary to master
the environment. It seems as though the enlotionally intelligent person is able to channel and
foster happy emotions in order to interact positively with the environment. The psychologically
well person is able to be positive about coping with stressors from the environment and can
manage emotions well in the self and in others (Emotional Management). Psychological well-
being also means that one is, overall, satisfied with life and is optimistic about the environment.
It seems as though happiness and positiveness are crucial in order to cope with challenges in the
self and the environment in order to achieve a state of psychological well-being.

DISCUSSION

A simple factor analysis was done on the SEIS. Six factors (with eigenvalues higher than I) were
extracted explaining 45,24% of the variance. These factors were labelled positive affect,
emotions-others, happy emotions, emotions-own, non-verbal emotions and emotional control.

Previous research indicated a one factor (Cakan & Altun, 2005). three factor (Austin, Saklofske,
Haung & Mckenny. 2004) or four factor structure (Chan, 2004) of the Emotional Intelligence
Scale. The current study found a SIX factor structure for the Emotional Intelligence Scale.

All the instruments used in the current study were found to be reliable. It was shown that
acceptable Cronbach alpha coefficients were obtained. which compares reasonably well with the
guideline of 0,70 (0,55 in basic research), demonstrating that a large portion of the variance is
explained by the dimensions (internal consistency of the dimensions) (Nunnally & Bernstein,
1994), except for Emotional Management, Optimism and Pessimism. It is evident that most of
the scales of the measuring instruments have relatively normal distribution, with low skewness
and kurtosis.
Sense of Coherence was significantly positively related (large effect) to Emotions Management
and Life Satisfaction and significantly positively related (medium effect) to Emotions-Own,
Happy Emotions, Positive Affect and Optimism. Sense of Coherence was negatively related
(medium effect) to Pessimism.

Emotions Management was significantly positively related (medium effect) to Emotions-Own,

Happy emotions, Positive Affect, Optimism and Life Satisfaction. Non-Verbal Emotions was
significantly positively related (medium effect) to Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions and Positive
Affect.

Emotions Own was significantly positively related (medium effect) to Happy Emotions,
Emotions-Others, Positive Affect and Optimism. Happy Emotions was significantly positively
related (medium effect) to Emotions-Others, Positive affect and Optimism. Emotions-Others was
significantly positively (medium effect) related to Positive Affect.

Positive affect was significantly positively related (large effect) to Optitnism. Pessimisin was
significantly positively related (large effect) to Life satisfaction. Optimism was significantly
positively related to Life Satisfaction (medium effect).

The findings above confirmed the expected conceptual relationship between emotional
intelligence and sense of coherence. The conclusion can be drawn that individuals with
emotional intelligence competencies would be better equipped to manage, tnake sense of and
derive meaning from stimuli from internal and external environments. The management of a
state of positiveness (inclusive of Happy Emotions, Positive Affect and Optimism) will influence
sense of coherence in a positive way. Sense of coherence also correlated positively (large effect)
with Life Satisfaction. This can be an indication that if one is, overall, satisfied with life, this
state of satisfaction and positiveness contributes to a feeling that one can cope with the external
environment.

After conducting a second factor analysis on the factors of the SEIS, LOT-R, SOC and SWLS,
two factors were extracted, namely interpersonal and intrapersonal. Using these factors along
with the results of the product-moment correlations, a psychological well-being model was
designed and compiled. The psychological well-heing model consisted of intrapersonal mastery
and interpersonal mastery.

The overall results indicated that students who are psychologically well possess the feeling of
pulpose in life, feel that life has meaning and that there is a sense of direction to life, all of which
contribute to the feeling that life is meaningful (Ryff, 1989). The sense of purpose is reflected in
emotionally intelligent individuals who are more likely to identify purpose and meaning in their
own functioning, as opposed to less emotionally intelligent individuals who may have difficulty
understanding the purpose of emotions in themselves and others (Matthews, Zeidner & Roberts,
2002).

Psychological well-being requires that one continues to develop one's potential, to grow and
expand as a person (Ryff, 1989). to self-actualise (Maslow, 1968) and to be open to experience
(Rogers, 1961). Emotional intelligence literature has increasingly indicated the development and
growth potential of emotional intelligence (Camso & Wolfe, 2001), implying, together with
numerous benefits of being emotionally intelligent (Megetian & Sosik, 1996), that personal
growth from an emotional expression, management and regulation perspective is not only
possible, but highly desirable, to enhance positive psychological functioning and well-being is
general as well as in the work context.

Salovey and Mayer's (1 990) definition reflects the importance of an individual's adaptive coping
with emotions in the self and others. Salutogenesis acknowledges that humans are continually
bombarded with stressors and traumatic experiences, and that healthy psychological functioning
is incorporated in one's capacity to successfully cope with these stressors on an ongoing basis.
This acknowledgelnent of a form of adaptive coping by the salutogenic paradigm further
strengthens the conceptual link between emotional intelligence, optimism, satisfaction with life
and sense of coherence (Stone, 2004).

Positive Emotions serve as markers of flourishing or optimal well-being. The overall balance of
people's positive and negative emotions (in this study measured by optimism and pessimism) has
been shown to predict their judgement of subjective well-being (in this study measured by
satisfaction of life). This is confirmed by the findings of Diener, Sandvik and Pavot, (1991).
Positive affect prompts individuals to engage with their environment and partake in activities,
many of which are adaptive for the individual (Fredrickson, 2001), and this fosters coping with
the environment.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The Study sample was very homogeneous. All the students in the sample were tirst-year
students. Future studies should focus on the valuable contribution that a study can make if
focused on undergraduate students, post graduate students, and entry level employees and on the
impact of such information on the organisation. Larger samples should also be included in hture
studies. The role of happiness and positive emotions as emotional coping mechanisms should be
investigated further.
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CHAPTER 3

CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this chapter recommendations will be drawn taking into consideration the literature review
and the empirical study, we will also look at the limitations of the study and recommendations
will be made for future studies.

3.1 CONCLUSION

In this section conclusions will be drawn in terms of specific theoretical objectives and the
results of the empirical study.
A literature study was undertaken to establish the compilation of emotional intelligence and
wellness. Through broadening the knowledge, and understanding the relationship between these
factors, a model could be developed to define this relationship.

The ,first objective of this study was to conceptualise psychological well-being, emotional
~ntelligence,life satisfaction, sense of coherence, optimism, and psychological well-being, as
pertaining to potential future employees in sciences professions

Psychological well-being

Psychological well-being is seen as multidimensional with regards to certain aspects of the self
(Wissing & Van Eeden, 1998). Psychological well-being assists in improving an individual's
quality of life and focuses on positive aspects of the self and our systems. These positive aspects
can be related to the individual's feelings of contentment and satisfaction with past experiences
and optimism for the future (Seligman & Csikszentmilialyi. 2000). Good indicators of
psychological well-being are emotional intelligence, life satisfaction and optimism (Wissing 8;
Van Eeden, 1998). The positive psychological paradigm helps understand the relationship
between the individual and work more clearly, and more specifically, goal-orientated, structured
activity, and psychological well-being (Kalloway & Barling. 1992).
Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ahility to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to
discrilninate amongst them and to use this information to help in the guidance of one's thinking
and actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). When individuals know how to acknowledge and value
feelings in themselves and others and what the appropriate response should be, they are using
their emotional intelligence (Schutte, Malouff, Simunek, Mofikenly & Hollander, 2002). Various
authors have theorised that high emotional intelligence would lead to greater feelings of
emotional well-being (Coleman, 1995: Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman,
T u n e y & Palfai, 1995).

Life Satisfactioti

Life satisfaction is a state of mind; the way a person evaluates hisher aspirations (Saris,
Veenhoven. Scherpenzeel & Bunting, 1996). Cramer (1995) defined life satisfaction as an
assessment of the overall conditions of existence as derived from a comparison of the
individual's aspiration to hislher actual achievement. More so life satisfaction appears to be
moderately inlluenced by life events (Ash & Huebner, 200 I ; McCullough, Huzbner & Laughlin,
2000). Life events can play an integral part in an individual's life satisfaction, whether positive
or negative (Heady & Wearing, 1980).

Sense of Coherence
Sense of coherence is defined as global orientation that expresses the extent to which one has a
pervasive, enduring though dynamic, feeling of confidence that one's internal and external
environments are predictable and that there is a high probability that things will work out as well
as can reasonably be expected (Antonovsky, 1988).

Life experiences, positive or negative, play an important role in the development of individuals'
sense of coherence. Sense of Coherence is the individual's ahility to cope with stimuli from both
external and internal environments, to see demands and challenges and to use the available
resources (Ryff & Singer, 1996; 1998).
Optimism
Individuals that see the brighter side of situations are seen as optimistic (Bar-On, 1997). Through
being optimistic, no matter what the situation, the individual will develop a measure of hope; this
will hclp the individual cope with certain life events (Bar-On, 1997). Optimism is seen as a sort
of psychological resistance factor that is more related to positive outcomes (Ebert, Tucker &
Roth, 2002).

Emotional intelligence, life satisfaction. sense of coherence and optimism, can all be linked to
each other and psychological wellnzss. .4n individual with high emotional intelligence, life
satisfaction, cense of coherence and optimism will generate a high level of psychological
wellncss/well-being. This can be found throughout the literature study, ail of the above is linked
to the wellness of an individual.

The second objective of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of measurements
of emotional intelligence. optimism, life satisfaction and sense of coherence. Regarding
emotional intelligence, previous research indicated a one factor (Cakan & Altun, 2005), three
factor (Austin, Saklofske, Haung & McKenny, 2004) or four factor structure (Chan, 2004) of the
Emotional lntclligencc Scale. The study done on a sample of South African students resulted in a
confitmation of a sin-factor structure; this may be due to the fact that validation of the
measurement instrument differs from population to population. The Validity analysis revealed
that all the alpha scores were relatively acceptable. A conclusion can be made that SEIS. n six-
factor model, as developed in this research. is a reliable and valid measuring instrument for
students.

Regarding Optimism, L i k orientation Test -Revised was developed by Scheier, Carver and
Bridges (1994): a ten-itern rneasure used to measure dispositional optimism. Optimism and
pessimism were seen to underlie the original two factor LOT-R. With an acceptable alpha value
as well as an adequate mean we can confirm the reliability and validity of this measuring
instrument.
 The Satisfaction with Life Scale, a five-item instrument, was developed by Diener, Emons,
Larsen and Griffen (1985) to measure global cognitive judgments of one's life. The factor
analysis of the SWLS resulted in a single factor; this is consistent with the developers of this
instrument. This instrument is also shown to be valid and reliable.

The Orientation to Life Scale was developed by Antonovsky (1993) to measure thr extent to
which a person has a pervasive, enduring and dynamic feeling of certainty that looks at the
following components: Comprehensibility, Manageability and Meaningfulness. With an
acceptable alpha coefficient, the reliability and validity of this measuring instrument can be
confirmed.

The third objective of this study was to determine the relationship between emotional
intelligence, optimism, life satisfaction and sense of cohercncc.

The results indicated that Sense of Coherence was significantly positively related (large effect) to
Emotions .Management and Life Satisfaction and significantly positive related (medium effect) to
Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions. Positive Affect and Optimism. Sense of Coherence was
negatively related (medium effect) to Pessimism.

Emotions Management was significantly positivcly I-elated (medium effect) to Emotions-Own,

Happy Emotions, Positive Affect. Optin~ismand Life Satisfaction. Yon-Verbal Emotions was
significantly positively related (medium effect) to Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions and Positive
Affect.

Emotions-Own was significantly positively related (medium effect) to Happy Emotions,

Emot~ons-Others. Positive Affect and Optimism. Happy Emotions was significantly positively
'related (medium effect) to Emotions-Otbcrs, Positive affect and Optimism. Emotions-Others was
I.sign~ficantly
I
. positively related (medium effect) to Positive Affect.
Positive Affect is significantly positively related (large effect) to Optimism. Pessimism is
significantly positively related (large effect) to Life Satisfaction. Optimism is significantly
positively related to Life Satisfaction (medium cffect).

Thefowth objective of this study was to determine a structural model of psychological well-
being after conducting a second factor analysis on the factors of the SEIS, LOT-R, SOC and
SWLS. Two factors were extracted, namely intcrpcrsonal and intnipersonal. Using these factors
along with the results of the product-moment correlations. a psychological well-being model
was designed and compiled. The psychological well-being model consisted of intrapersonal
mastery and environmental mastery. lntrapersonal mastery consisted of Emotions-Others, Happy
Emotions. Emotions Own and Non-verbal Emotions. Factors loading on Enviromnental Mastery
were Positive Affect, Emotional Management, Sense of Coherence, Life Satisfaction and
Optimism.

3.2 LIMITATIONS

This study however also has some limitations that should be considered. With the use of the
cross-sectional design couldn'l causal inferences be drawn, so the causal relationships between
the variables were interpreted rather than established. It made it difficult to cxamine thc more
complex relationships between the variables. A further limitation of the cross-sectional design is
the short period of time needed to gather information. If more time were available, could it have
been possible to study the inter-correlations between the variables more thoroughly and in-
deptly. Prospective longitudinal studies and quasi-experimental research designs are necdcd to
further validate the hypothesised causal relationship, and thus deal with the limitation set by
using a cross-sectional design.

The study was also conducted on students and the results obtained can't therefore be generated to
the whole public. This research was conducted in a homogenous sample consisting of individuals
from a specific field of study, namely economic sciences with the majority of accounting
students.
3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

3.3.1. Recommendations for the Organisation

Oncc organisations determine the level of emotional intelligence and well-being of future
and current employees, intcrvcntions should be implemented to increase work
engagement and. as a result, increase the well-being, pcrfonnancc and work product~vity
of their employees.

From the literature it is evident that psychological well-being and etnotional intelligence
are related (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Wellness programs often help prevent
employees from getting sick, missing work and burning out from job related stress. They
also assist individuals with their physical, material, mental and spiritual evolution.
Health promotion in the workplace not only ensures a healthy worker, but also a healthier
worker that contributes to work productivity (O'Donnell & Harris, 1984).

33.2 Recommendations for Future Research

Future research should focus on final year students and employees entering the
workforce; to determine what impact their emotional intelligence will have on their over-
all psychological well-being.
Furthcr studies should be done to determine the difference between the relationship of
emotional intelligence and psychological well-being of final year students and new
employees who have 6 months working experience.
This study can be repeated in the organisation, focusing on currcnt employees and their
psychological well-being.
More research should be done to determine what other factors rnay influence well-being
and what factors underlie life satisfaction, optimism and sense of coherence.
A comparative and cross-culture study should be done on optimism, life satisfaction and
sense of coherence within different occupations and sectors.
Future research should be done on the validity of measures within the diverse culture
setting of the South African context.
Research should be done to investigate the role of the happiness factor in psychological
well-being
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