PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

OF
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
(Including Expressways and Airport Engineering)

L.R. KADIYALI N.B. LAL

B.E. (HONS) (Mumbai) B. Tech. (HONS.) (IIT, Kadagpur.)
P.G. Dip. in Highway and Traffic M.Sc. (Engg.), Ph.D. (Purdue, USA)
(Newcastle-Upon Tyne). Formerly :
Ph. D. (Kakatiya University) Dy. Director, Central Road Research Institute
Formerly : Highway Engineering Consultant
Chief Engineer (Roads Wing). New Delhi
Ministry of Shipping and Transport
Study Director, Road User Cost Study.
Central Road Research Institute
Transportation Consultant, New Delhi

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ISBN No. : 978-81-7409-271-7

Seventh Edition : 2017

 Foreword to the Revised Edition
Developments in highway engineering are taking place at a great speed. New materials,
design concepts and construction practices are emerging as road users demand high quality
roads. India too is modernising its road system and is planning to construct high speed highway
facilities. With this in the background, the present edition of the book has been revised
extensively with many latest practices in design and construction followed around the world
has been added in each chapter. While old data has been revised and many refinements made
throughout ; new chapters on Financial Analysis of Highway Projects and Road Pricing have
been added in this edition.
Dr. L.R. Kadiyali, the author of the previous edition, has been very ably assisted by Dr.
N.B. Lal in this effort. Dr. Lal has brought in several years of experience in research and
teaching in the field, and has enhanced the coverage and content of the Textbook.
The authors hope that the revised edition will be welcomed both by students and
practicising highway engineers.
Dr. L.R. KADIYALI
&
Dr. N.B. LAL
 Contents
Chap. Pages

SECTION 1 : HIGHWAY PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION

1. TRANSPORTATION IN MODERN SOCIETY 1—21

1.1. Role of Transport in Modern Society and a Country’s Economy ... 1
• Transport and Economic Growth ... 1
• Place Utility of Goods ... 1
• Time Utility of Goods ... 2
• Transport Overcomes the Separation Between the Producer
And the Consumer ... 2
• Preservation of Quality of Goods ... 2
• Economies of Scale and Specialisation ... 2
• Exploitation of Natural Resources ... 2
• Transport and Urbanisation ... 2
• Transport and Industrial Development ... 2
• Transport and Agricultural Development ... 2
• Cost of Goods ... 2
• Administration ... 2
• Defence and Strategic Needs ... 3
• Tourism ... 3
• Transport Facilitates Social Activities ... 3
• The Example of America ... 3
1.2. Modes Of Transport And Their Characteristics ... 3
• Background ... 3
• Transport Modes and their Characteristics ... 3
• Comparative Advantages And Disadvantages of Different Modes ... 4
• Transport Modes of India ... 10
• A Review of Transport Systems and Technology ... 11
• Need for Coordinated Development ... 13
• Multi-modal Tansport Systems ... 13
• Use of Information Technology in Transportation ... 13
• Intelligent Transport System (ITS) and Its Potential on Indian Roads ... 13
1.3. Trend Towards Road Transport ... 14
1.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Road Transport ... 14
1.5. Role of Roads in India’s Economy ... 17
1.6. Motor Vehicle Population and Growth ... 18

2. HISTORY OF GROWTH OF HIGHWAYS 22—43

2.1. Definition of Some Common Terms ... 22
2.2. Early History of Roads in India ... 22
2.3. Early Developments in Highway Engineering in Europe ... 24
2.4. Development of Roads in India during the British Period ... 25
2.5. Jayakar Committee ... 26
2.6. The Indian Roads Congress ... 27
2.7. The Nagpur Plan ... 28

(v)
 ( vi )
Chap. Pages
2.8. Development of Roads in India After Independence ... 30
2.9. Twenty Year Road Development Plan (1961-81) ... 34
• Need ... 34
• Objectives ... 34
• Road Length Targets ... 35
• Cost ... 36
• Other Recommendations ... 36
2.10. Road Development Plan 1981-2001 ... 37
2.11. Road Development Plan, Vision 2021 ... 40
2.12. Rural Roads, Vision : 2025 ... 41
2.13. Roads in the World Today ... 41
• Principle ... 41
• The Inter-State System of U.S.A. ... 41
• Autobahns of Germany ... 42
• Expressways in France ... 42
• International Comparison of Expressways ... 42
• Vehicle Ownership ... 42

3. HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE 44—59

3.1. Roads as Infrastructure for Public Good ... 44
3.2. Functional Classification of Roads ... 44
3.3. Classification of Roads in India ... 44
3.4. Administration of National Highways ... 45
3.5. Administration of Roads under Other Central Ministries ... 46
3.6. Roads of Inter-state or Economic Importance ... 47
3.7. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways ... 47
3.8. National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) ... 48
3.9. Central Road Fund ... 49
3.10. Administration of State Roads ... 50
3.11. Road Research ... 50
• Central Road Research Institute ... 50
• State Highway Research Laboratories ... 51
• Highway Research Board ... 51
3.12. Highway Staff Training Institute ... 52
3.13. Road Making Machinery ... 52
3.14. Proposal for a Road Board ... 52
3.15. National Rural Road Development Agency ... 52
3.16. Highway Financing and Taxation in India ... 53
• Constitutional Position ... 55
• Multiplicity of Taxes ... 55
• Types of Taxes and Levies ... 55
• Tolls ... 57
3.17. Highway Trust Fund of USA ... 58

4. LONG-TERM HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORT PLANNING 60—75

4.1. Need for Transport Planning ... 60
4.2. Goals and Objectives ... 61
4.3. National Transport Policy ... 61
• NTPC in India ... 62
 ( vii )
Chap. Pages
4.4. Luthra Committee Report ... 68
4.5. Types Of Transport Plans ... 69
• Hierarchy of Plans ... 69
• National Transport Plan ... 70
• Regional Transport Plan ... 74
• Local Level Plans ... 74
4.6. City and Town Transport Plans ... 74

SECTION 2 : GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

5. ROAD USER AND THE VEHICLE 76—88

5.1. Introduction ... 76
5.2. Human Factors Governing Road User Behaviour ... 76
• Human body as a Complex System ... 76
• Vision ... 76
• Hearing ... 77
• Perception, Intellection, Emotion and Volition ... 77
5.3. Pedestrian Characteristics ... 78
• Speed ... 78
• Space Occupied by Pedestrians ... 79
5.4. Vehicle Characteristics ... 79
• Size ... 79
• Power Performance of Vehicles ... 79
• Fuel Consumption ... 85
• Acceleration and Deceleration Characteristics ... 86
• Braking Distance ... 86
5.5. Characteristics of Cycles ... 87
5.6. Motorised Two-wheelers and Three-wheelers ... 87
5.7. Slow Moving Vehicles ... 87

6. GEOMETRIC DESIGN 89—179

6.1. Introduction ... 89
• Standards in the Country and Abroad ... 90
6.2. Highway Classification ... 90
6.3. Design Controls and Criteria ... 92
• General ... 92
• Topography ... 92
• Traffic ... 93
• Design Vehicle Dimensions ... 95
• Design Speed ... 96
• Capacity ... 98
6.4. Horizontal Alignment ... 103
• Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicles On Curves ... 103
• Value of Coefficient of Lateral Friction ... 105
• Maximum Super-elevation Value ... 105
• Minimum Radii of Curves ... 105
• Super-elevation Rates ... 105
• Radii of Curves for Which No Super-elevation is Required ... 106
• Method of attainment of Super-elevation ... 107
 ( viii )
Chap. Pages
• Transition Curves ... 110
• Widening on Curves ... 113
• General Controls for Horizontal Alignment ... 114
6.5. Vertical Alignment ... 115
• Gradients ... 115
• Vertical Curves ... 117
• General Controls for Vertical Alignment ... 126
6.6. Combination Of Horizontal And Vertical Alignment ... 126
6.7. Sight Distance ... 127
• General ... 127
• Stopping Sight Distance ... 127
• Overtaking Sight Distance ... 129
• Sight distance for Multi-lane Roads ... 131
• Set-back Distance at Obstructions Of Horizontal Curves ... 131
6.8. Cross-sectional Elements ... 133
• General ... 133
• Right-of-way ... 133
• Space Standard for Urban Roads ... 134
• Roadway Width ... 134
• Carriageway Width ... 135
• Median (Central Reserve) ... 135
• Shoulders ... 135
• Curbs ... 135
• Camber ... 136
• Side Slope ... 137
• Lateral and Vertical Clearances ... 137
• Typical Cross-sections ... 139
6.9. Control of Access ... 141
6.10. Intersections ... 141
• General ... 141
• At-Grade and Grade Separated Junctions ... 142
• Basic Forms of At-Grade Intersections ... 142
• Alignment and Vertical Profile ... 142
• Visibility at Intersections ... 143
• Radii of Curves ... 144
• Widths Of Carriageways at Junctions ... 147
• Speed Change Lanes ... 148
• Right-Turn Lanes ... 149
• Channelization ... 149
• Median Openings ... 151
• ‘T’ Intersection ... 153
• ‘Y’ Intersection ... 154
• Staggered Intersection ... 155
• Cross-Roads ... 156
• Rotary Intersection (Roundabout) ... 159
• Mini Roundabouts ... 166
6.11. Grade Separated Intersections ... 168
• Criteria for Provision ... 168
• Types of Grade-Separated Intersections ... 168
 ( ix )
Chap. Pages
• Three-leg Interchange ... 169
• Diamond Interchange ... 170
• Half Cloverleaf Interchange ... 171
• Cloverleaf Interchange ... 171
• Rotary Interchange ... 172
• Directional Interchange ... 172
• Design Considerations ... 173
6.12. Summary of Design Standards for Rural Expressways ... 174

SECTION 3 : HIGHWAY PROJECT PREPARATION

7. SURVEYS AND INVESTIGATIONS 180—198

7.1. Importance of Surveys and Investigations ... 180
7.2. Types of Surveys and Investigations ... 180
7.3. Traffic Surveys ... 181
• Classified Volume Counts ... 181
• Traffic Growth Rate ... 181
• Axle Load Surveys ... 182
• Speed and Delay Surveys ... 182
• Origin•Destination Surveys ... 182
7.4. Guidelines for Alignment and Route Location ... 182
7.5. Desk Study ... 184
7.6. Use of Aerial Photographs and Remote Sensing Imagery in Highway
Surveys and Location ... 185
• General ... 185
• Stages in Photogrammetric Surveys ... 185
• Corridor Identification ... 185
• Preliminary Planning and Design ... 185
• Final Design ... 186
• Terrain Evaluation And Air-photo Interpretation ... 186
• Advantages of Photogrammetric Techniques in Highway Location
and Design ... 187
7.7. Conventional Ground Survey ... 187
• Reconnaissance (Recce) Survey ... 187
• Preliminary Survey ... 189
• Final Location Survey ... 190
• Lidar Based Survey ... 190
7.8. Drainage Studies ... 191
• Determination of High Flood Level (HFL) ... 191
• Depth of Water-Table ... 191
• Ponded Water Level ... 191
• Drainage Arrangements For Surface Run-off ... 191
• Sub-surface Drainage Requirements ... 192
• Investigations for Cross-Drainage Structures ... 192
7.9. Soil Investigations ... 192
• Sequence of Operations ... 193
• Preliminary Work ... 193
• Site Reconnaissance ... 193
• Determination of Soil Profile ... 193
 (x)
Chap. Pages
• Methods of Soil Exploration ... 195
• Sampling ... 196
• The Standard Penetration Test and ‘N’ Values ... 196
7.10. Pavement Design Investigations ... 196

8. DESIGN, DRAWINGS, ESTIMATES AND PROJECT REPORT 199—208

8.1. Design ... 199
• Need for Assessment of Various Alternatives ... 199
• Computer-aided Highway Design and Its Advantages ... 199
• Steps involved in Design ... 200
• Stage Construction ... 200
8.2. Drawings ... 201
• Types of Drawings ... 201
• Locality Map-cum-Site Plan ... 201
• Land Acquisition Plans ... 201
• Plan and Longitudinal Section ... 201
• Typical Cross-section Sheet ... 202
• Detailed Cross-sections ... 202
• Drawings For Cross-drainage Structures ... 202
• Road Junction Drawings ... 202
• Drawings for Retaining Salls and Other Structures ... 202
8.3. Estimates ... 202
8.4. Earthwork Quantities ... 204
• Mass Diagram ... 204
8.5. Project Report ... 206
8.6. Stages In Project Preparation ... 207

9. TENDERS, CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 209—211

9.1. Methods of Execution ... 209
9.2. Types of Tender ... 209
9.3. Pre-qualification of Contractors ... 209
9.4. Tender Documents ... 210
• Notice Inviting Tenderers (NIT) ... 210
• Instructions to Tenderers ... 210
• Conditions of Contract ... 210
• Form of Tender ... 210
• Specifications ... 210
• Bill of Quantities ... 211
• Drawings ... 211
9.5. Agreement ... 211

SECTION 4 : SOIL ENGINEERING FOR HIGHWAYS

10. ELEMENTS OF SOIL ENGINEERING 212—251

10.1. Importance of Soil Engineering in Road Construction ... 212
10.2. Formation Of Soils ... 212
• Definition ... 212
• Residual and Transported Soils ... 212
• Organic Soils ... 213
 ( xi )
Chap. Pages
10.4. Soil Profile ... 213
10.5. Particle Size and Shape ... 214
10.6. Soil Grading ... 215
10.7. Clay Minerals ... 216
10.8. Consistency and Plasticity of Fine-grained Soils ... 217
10.9. The Need for Soil Classification ... 218
10.10. Indian Soil Classification System ... 218
• Major Groups ... 218
• Coarse-Grained Soils ... 218
• Fine Grained Soils ... 219
10.11. Unified Soil Classification System ... 220
10.12. Textural Classification System ... 220
10.13. Public Road Administration (PRA) System ... 222
10.14. Phases In Soils : Weight-Volume Relationships ... 225
10.15. Compaction of Soil ... 228
• Importance of Soil Compaction ... 228
• Factors Influencing Compaction ... 228
• Tests for Compaction ... 234
10.16. Soil Strength ... 235
• Importance of Soil strength ... 235
• Factors Affecting Soil strength ... 235
• Shear Strength Parameters : Cohesion and Internal Friction ... 235
• Determination of Shear Strength of Soils ... 236
• Plate Bearing Test ... 240
• Penetration Tests ... 242
10.17. Other Engineering Properties Of Soils ... 245
• Permeability and Capillarity ... 245
• Compressibility ... 247
• Shrinkage and Swelling (Expansion) ... 247
• Deleterious Constituents ... 247
• Average Engineering Properties of Soil Groups ... 248

11. EMBANKMENT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 252—273

11.1. Need for Adequate Design and Construction of Embankments ... 252
11.2. Elements of Embankment Design ... 252
11.3. Selection of Embankment Dimensions ... 252
• Top Width (Roadway) ... 252
• Height ... 252
• Side Slopes ... 253
11.4. Analysis of Stability ... 253
11.5. Stresses Under an Earth Embankment ... 255
11.6. Total Settlement of an Embankment Resting on Clay Strata ... 257
11.7. Rate of Settlement of Embankment Resting on Clay Strata ... 258
• Correction for Construction Period ... 260
11.8. Special Design Features in Problematic Areas ... 261
• Design Approaches ... 261
• Use of Light Weight Material ... 261
• Partial or total Removal of Undesirable Material ... 261
• Use of stage Construction and Surcharge Fill ... 262
 ( xii )
Chap. Pages
• Use of Vertical sand Drains ... 262
• Use of Stove Columns ... 263
• Geosynthethic Drains ... 263
11.9. Selection of Materials for Embankment Construction ... 263
• Desirable Properties of Good Fill Material ... 263
• General Guide to Selection of Soils on the Basis of Anticipated
Pavement Performance ... 264
11.10. Construction Practice ... 265
• Clearing and Grubbing ... 265
• Stripping and Storing of Top-soil ... 265
• Compaction of Original Ground ... 265
• Benching of Steep Slopes ... 265
• Borrow-Pit Practice ... 265
• Deposition of Soils in Layers ... 266
• Moisture Content ... 266
• Compaction Equipment ... 266
• Density to be Achieved ... 266
• Compaction Procedure and Control ... 267
• Blasting Operations ... 268
11.11. Use of Geotextiles ... 268
11.12. Use of Geo-grids ... 269
11.13. Reinforced Earth ... 269
• General ... 269
• Design Principles ... 270
11.14. Gabion Structures ... 271
• Gabions ... 271
• Design of Gabion Retaining Wall ... 271
• Use of Gabions as Revetment ... 272

SECTION 5 : DRAINAGE

12. HIGHWAY DRAINAGE 274—306

12.1. Importance of Highway Drainage ... 274
• Historical ... 274
• Cheap Drainage Preferable to Costly Pavements ... 274
• Mechanism of Damage to Highways Due to Faulty Drainage ... 274
12.2. Principles of Good Drainage ... 276
12.3. Drainage, an Integral Part of Geometric Design ... 276
• Gradients ... 276
• Longitudinal Gradient ... 277
• Cross Slope/Camber ... 277
• Along Vertical Curves ... 280
• Shoulder Drainage ... 282
• Median Drainage ... 283
• Drainage of High Embankment ... 283
• Drainage of Rotaries ... 284
• Drainage at Intersections ... 285
• Drainage of Flyovers ... 285
 ( xiii )
Chap. Pages
12.4. Principles of Surface Drainage ... 286
• The Need ... 286
• Sources of Surface Water ... 286
• Precipitation ... 286
• Run-off ... 288
• Design of Cross-section of Drainage Channel ... 289
12.5. Roadside Ditches/Drains ... 292
• The Need ... 292
• Cross-section ... 292
• Surface Drain Linings ... 293
• Step-wise Procedure for Design of Open Drains ... 295
• Illustrative Design Problem ... 295
• Typical Designs of Side Drains on Hill Roads ... 296
• Slope Protection ... 297
• Catch-water Drains ... 299
12.6. Subsurface Drains ... 300
• The Need ... 300
• In cut Slopes ... 300
• Subgrade Drainage ... 300
• Base Drainage ... 301
• Filter media and Drain Pipe ... 302
• Location ... 304
• Geosynthetics in Subdrains ... 304
12.7. Capillary cut-off Treatment ... 306

13. CULVERTS, CAUSEWAYS AND BRIDGES 307—321

13.1. Importance of Cross-Drainage ... 307
13.2. Types of Cross Drainage Structures ... 307
13.3. Selection of Site ... 307
13.4. Hydrology of Cross-drainage Structures ... 309
• Estimation of Design Discharge ... 309
• Empirical Formulae for Run-off ... 309
• Rational Formula ... 310
• Bed Slope and Cross-sectional Area Method ... 311
• Calculation of Discharge From Observed Flood Marks on Nearby Structures ... 311
• Design Discharge ... 311
13.5. Fixation of Waterway ... 312
• Alluvial Streams ... 312
• Streams Not Wholly Alluvial ... 312
• Streams With Rigid Boundaries ... 312
• Streams Which Overflow The Banks ... 312
13.6. Foundation Depth And Spans ... 313
13.7. Bridge Loadings ... 313
13.8. Foundation Practice ... 314
13.9. Bank Protection and River Training Works ... 314
13.10. Types of Culverts ... 315
• Temporary Stone Scuppers ... 315
• Stone Slab Culverts with Abutments and Piers ... 316
• R.C.C. Slab Culverts ... 316
 ( xiv )
Chap. Pages
• R.C.C. Box Culverts ... 316
• R.C.C. Pipe Culverts ... 316
• Corrugated Metal Pipes (Armco pipes) ... 317
• Masonry Arch Culverts ... 317
13.11. Types of Bridges ... 318
13.12. Low Cost Cross Drainage Works (For ODRs and VRs only) ... 318

SECTION 6 : PAVEMENT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

14. TYPES OF PAVEMENTS 322—327

14.1. Functions and Desirable Characteristics of Pavement ... 322
14.2. Pavement Courses ... 322
14.3. Pavement Types ... 323
14.4. Comparison Of Rigid And Flexible Pavements ... 324
• Design Precision ... 324
• Life ... 325
• Maintenance ... 325
• Initial Cost ... 325
• Stage Construction ... 326
• Availability of Materials ... 326
• Surface Characteristics ... 326
• Penetration of Water ... 326
• Utility Location ... 326
• Glare and Night Visibility ... 327
• Traffic Dislocation During Construction ... 327
• Environmental Considerations During Construction ... 327
• Overall Economy on a Life-Cycle Basis ... 327

15. SOME FUNDAMENTALS OF PAVEMENT DESIGN 328—334

15.1. Factors Affecting Pavement Design ... 328
15.2. Wheel Load Applications ... 330
15.3. Climatic Factors ... 334

16. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 335—371

16.1. Classification of Methods ... 335
16.2. Analytical Methods ... 335
• Stresses in Homogeneous Mass : Boussinesq’s Theory ... 335
• Stresses in Layered systems : Burmister’s Theory ... 337
• Three-Layered Analysis ... 340
• Shell Pavement Design Manual ... 343
16.3. Empirical Methods ... 345
• CBR METHOD ... 345
• Design Procedure in Road Note 29, U.K. ... 346
• IRC Guidelines ... 349
• Revised IRC Guidelines (IRC : 37-2001) ... 351
• Empirical Methods Using No Soil Strength Criteria ... 354
16.4. The AASHO Road Test ... 355
• Objectives of the Test ... 355
• Site Location ... 356
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