Physics 12; Summaries; Module 6

Isaac Learson
Charged Particles, Conductors and Electric and Magnetic Fields
Investigate and quantitatively derive and analyse the interaction between
charged particles and uniform electric fields, including:
> electric field between parallel charged plates
> acceleration of charged particles by the electric field
> work done on the charge

- Electric Field:
○ A region around a charged object in which another charged object will experience a
force
○ Has both strength and direction = Vector
○ The lines point in the direction of which a positive charge would move
○ Positive = Direction of the field, Negative = Opposite Direction
○ Space between lines: Strength of field: Closer together = Stronger
- Electric Field Strength: E = F/q
○ E = Electric Field Strength (N/C)
○ F = Force on the charged particle (C)
○ q = Charge of the particle (N)
- Charges will accelerate in the direction of the force acting upon them
- Through relating F= qE and F = ma (m: mass, a: acceleration), acceleration of particle can be
found
- If the particle increases or decreases, or changes direction while in the field, it is undergoing
acceleration
- Electrical Potential:
○ (V)
○ The work required per unit charge to move a positive Point charge from infinity to a
point within the electrical field (Infinity is 0 Electrical Potential)
○ Potential at distance d, and the field strength E, are related by E = V/d
- Between two oppositely charged parallel plates, the field lines are parallel (Uniform strength)
○ This is the charge between 2 points
- Electrical Potential Energy: The energy a charge has due to its position relative to surrounding
charges. A form of energy stored in the electrical field
- Work:
○ Is done on the field when a charged particle is forced to move in the electric field.
 ○ Conversely, if energy is stored in the field, then work can be done by the field on the
particle
○ Work is done whenever a force moves something over a distance
○ Work is the amount of energy needed to move said object
- Work done can be calculated by: W = qV or W = qEd
○ W: work done by the field on the point charge (J)
○ V: potential difference between points (V)
○ E: electrical field strength (V/m or N/C)
○ q: charge of the point charge (C)
○ d: distance between points parallel to the field (m)

Model qualitatively and quantitatively the trajectories of charged particles in

electric fields and compare them with the trajectories of projectiles in a
gravitational field:

- If the electrical force created by the field is equal to the gravitational force on the object, then,
the object will either be suspended, or fall/rise at a constant velocity
- Charged particles moving within electrical fields have a parabolic trajectory, as, like projectile
and gravitational acceleration, a particle only experiences an acceleration by the field
- They are all similar, however display significant difference associated with the different
fundamental nature of the fields
- Direction of the field is always determined by the resultant vector (found by adding the
individual field factors (Mass, Charge or Magnetic Pole)
In a static field, the strength of the field doesn’t change with time

Analyse the interaction between charged particles and uniform magnetic fields,
including:
> acceleration, perpendicular to the field, of charged particles
> the force on the charge

Compare the interaction of charged particles moving in magnetic fields to:

> the interaction of charged particles with electric fields
> other examples of uniform circular motion

- Magnetic field:
○ Generated by the magnetic effect of the electric current and magnetic materials
 ○ A vector quantity
- When a charged particle travels into a magnetic field, the force on it is perpendicular to both
the direction of motion and the magnetic field lines.
- Magnitude of the force on a charged object within a magnetic field is given by B.
- The magnitude of the force is proportional to field strength, particle velocity, particle charge,
and the angle in terms of the magnetic field. This is given the equation F = qvBsin(θ)
○ F: force (N)
○ q: charge of the particle
○ v: velocity of particle
○ B: magnetic field strength
○ θ: angle of object moving in the field relative to the mag field lines
- Referred to as Lorentz force
- Force is max when moving at right angles (perpendicular) to field
- Force is 0 when moving parallel to field
- If a moving charge experiences a force of constant magnitude that remains at right angles to
the motion, its direction will change, but not it's velocity. Circular Orbit
The Motor Effect
Investigate qualitatively and quantitatively the interaction between a current-
carrying conductor and a uniform magnetic field to establish:
> conditions under which the maximum force is produced
> the relationship between the directions of the force, magnetic field strength
and current
> conditions under which no force is produced on the conductor

- A magnetic field is created around a flow of charge

- The magnitude of the force on a charged object is proportional to the field strength, the
velocity of the object, and it's charge (F = qvB)
- A conducting wire allows a stream of charged particles to flow in one direction. This is known
as the current. Conventional current (I) is defined as moving in the direction a positive charge
would move, and is different to electron flow
- If the current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force is experienced. This is
the theory behind motors
- The force acting on any conductor is given by: F = BIlsin(θ)
○ F: force on the conductor (N)
○ B: mag field strength (T)
○ I: current in the conductor (A)
○ l: length of the conductor (m)
○ θ: angle to the mag field (°)
- Also add n, which is the number of coils, hence: F = nBIlsin(θ)
- Force is max when moving at right angles to the mag field
- Force is 0 when travelling parallel to mag field
- Right Hand Rule (RHR) determines the direction of the force on the charge

Conduct a quantitative investigation to demonstrate the interaction between

two parallel current-carrying wires

Analyse the interaction between two parallel current-carrying wires and

determine the relationship between the International System of Units (SI)
definition of an ampere and Newton’s Third Law of Motion:
- When conductors are placed parallel to each other, and a current is flowing, it will create an
‘associated magnetic field’ which, depending on the direction of the current, will attract or
repel
- The force between two parallel current-carrying conductors is given by: F = I1I2 (u0/2πr) l
○ F: force between two parallel conductors (N)
○ I1 and I2: the currents in the 2 conductors (A)
○ u0: the magnetic permeability of free space (4π x 10-7 NA-2)
○ r: radius from the conductor to the location where the mag field is measured (m)
○ l: length of the conductors (m)
- Equation can be rearranged to find force per unit length: F/l = I1I2 (u0/2πr)
- If the conductors carry current in the same direction, it will attract
- If the conductors carry current in opposite directions, they will repel
- The direction of the current around each conductor can be found by the Right Hand Grip
Rule (RHGR)
- The forces between two parallel current-carrying conductors are used to derive the
fundamental definition of the ampere
- If the conductors are 1 m apart, and each conductor carries 1 ampere of current, the equation
can be simplified to 2 x 10-7 N/m
- This means that one ampere of current through infinitely long conductors, parallely separated
by 1 metre, there force will always be 2 x 10-7 N/m
Electromagnetic Induction
Describe how magnetic flux can change, with reference to the relationship
Φ=BA:
- When a magnet is moved closer to a conductor, it creates an induced EMF, which in turn
generates a current
- The production of an induced EMF by changing the magnetic flux is called Electromagnetic
Induction
- Essentially the total number of magnetic field lines passing through any given area
- Magnetic flux is defined as the product of the strength of the magnetic field and the area of the
field perpendicular to the field lines
- It is given by the formula: Φ = BA cos(θ)
○ Φ: Magnetic flux in Weber (Wb)
○ B: magnetic field strength (T)
○ A: the area of the conductor inside the field (m2)
○ θ: the angle between the mag field and the normal to the area (°)
- Flux is max when the normal to the area is parallel to the field
- Flux is 0 when the normal to the area is perpendicular to the field
- The total flux of multiple coils within a magnetic field is sometimes referred to as the flux
linkage
- Eddy currents are an example of induced electric currents

Analyse qualitatively and quantitatively, with reference to energy transfers and

transformations, examples of Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law, including but not
limited to:
> the generation of an electromotive force (emf) and evidence for Lenz’s law
produced by the relative movement between a magnet, straight conductors,
metal plates and solenoids
> the generation of an emf produced by the relative movement or changes in
current in one solenoid in the vicinity of another solenoid
- When a magnet is moved closer to a conductor, it creates an induced EMF, which in turn
generates a current
- A way to induce an EMF is to move a magnet in and out of a coil, or moving a straight
conductor in a magnetic field
- Represented by the formula: ε = lvB
○ ε: The induced EMF
 ○ v: the speed of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field (ms-1)
○ B: mag field strength (T)
○ l: length of the conductor (M)
- Faraday’s law of induction: ε = -N(△Φ / △t)
○ N: number of turns
○ △Φ / △t: change in flux over change in time
○ The negative indicates direction
- Lenz’s law shows how EMI obeys the LCE, explaining the direction of the induced EMF
- Lenz’s law states that when an EMF is generated by changing magnetic flux, the induced EMF
produces a current, which in turn produces a magnetic field that opposes the original change
in flux
- The three steps for determining direction of induced current is:
○ What is the change that is happening?
○ What will oppose the change and/or restore the original conditions?
○ What must be the current direction to match this opposition?
- It is important to know it is the flux, not the field, and the rate of change of flux, not the
absolute size of the flux, that matters
- An induced EMF can be created in 3 ways:
○ By changing the strength of the magnetic field
○ By changing the area of the coil within the magnetic field
○ By changing the direction of the current with respect to the direction of the magnetic
field

Analyse quantitatively the operation of ideal transformers through the

application of:
> Vp/Vs=Np/Ns
> VpIp = VsIs

Evaluate qualitatively the limitations of the ideal transformer model and the
strategies used to improve transformer efficiency, including but not limited to:
> incomplete flux linkage
> resistive heat production and eddy currents

Analyse applications of step-up and step-down transformers, including but not

limited to:
> the distribution of energy using high-voltage transmission lines

- A device used to increase or decrease an AC voltage, which is essential for energy distribution
- Works on the principle of a changing magnetic Flux inducing an EMF
- No matter the size or application, the Transformer will consist of two coils, known as the
primary and secondary coils. These two coils are wound onto a common soft-iron core
- The iron core ensures the flux generated in the primary coil is passed into the secondary coil
- Ideal transformers are 100% efficient; real transformers are often more then 9(% efficient, and
for this reason, power losses in the Transformers can be ignored in calculations
- The equation for Transformers is: Vp / Vs = Np / Ns
○ Vp: voltage in primary coil
○ Np: number of turns in primary coil
○ Vs: voltage in secondary coil
○ Ns: number of turns in secondary coil
- A step-up transformer increases the voltage
- A step-down transformer decreases the voltage
- The equation of transformation can also be written (in terms of current) as: Vp / Ip = Vs / Is
○ Vp: voltage in primary coil
○ Ip: current in primary coil
○ Vs: voltage in secondary coil
○ Is: current in secondary coil
- Large-scale transmission systems involved current travelling large distances, and hence, even
relatively good electrical conductors had significant resistance
- The efficient transmission of the electrical energy with the least power loss over the distance is
therefore important to consider
- Electrical power loss is proportional to the square of the current: P = I2R
○ P: power (W)
○ I: current (A)
○ R: resistances (Ω)
- Therefore, it is obvious why very high voltage is used to keep current and therefore resistance,
to a minimum
- Transformers will not work with DC voltage, as it has a constant, unchanging current that
creates not change in Magnetic Flux
- AC supply is easily stepped-up or down by Transformers and therefore is the preferred form
of electrical current in large-scale energy transmission
Applications of the Motor Effect
Investigate the operation of a simple DC motor to analyse:
> the functions of its components
> production of a torque (τ=nBIAcosθ)
- Torque is the turning effect of any Force
- Defined by the formula: τ = nBIAsinθ
○ τ: torque (Nm)
○ n: number of turns
○ I: current (A)
○ B: magnetic field strength (T)
○ A: area of the coil inside the field (m2)
○ θ: the angle between the area vector normal to the plane of the coil and the magnetic
field
- The torque is at its max when the area Vector is perpendicular to the magnetic field
- The torque is 0 when the area Vector is parallel to the magnetic field
- A DC motor is a device that makes use of the motic principle but contains a switch on
assembly on the rotating quail shaft that allows direction of the current through the coil to be
reversed every 180°

Analyse the operation of simple DC and AC generators and AC induction

motors:
- An AC induction motor rotates due to the interaction between the magnetic fields of the
rotor and the stator
- The stator in an AC Induction motor is made of an electromagnetic coil that can be reduced,
unlike a permanent magnet
- The stator creates a rotating magnetic field that induces the current in the conductors of the
rotor
- Through applications of Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws the rotating magnetic field of the stator
effectively pulls the rotor
- A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is known as a generator, or
an alternator
- The electric generator is the most important practical application of Faraday’s discovery of
induction
- The generator relies on the induction principle between a coil in a magnetic field
Similar in construction to AC and DC Motors
Relate Lenz’s law to the law of conservation of energy and apply the law of
conservation of energy to:
> DC motors and
> magnetic braking

DC motors use a simple mechanism to convert electrical energy into power output, and are used in
devices that require a start-up torque, such as electric cars and bikes. The motor is encased in a tough,
cast iron or steel frame, called a yoke or stator, which protects the intricate insides of the motor.
Then, on the interior of the yoke, there are four poles, and pole ‘shoes’. The poles are four magnets
which are equally distanced throughout the interior, as shown in figure D3. The pole shoes are
attached to the end of the poles, and are used to spread the flux across the motor’s interior. Then,
positioned in slots in the pole shoes, a field winding
is used to create an electromagnet for magnetic flux
generation. The rotor (rotational part of the motor)
consists of a cylindrical, laminated (alternating
layers) armature core that minimises heat loss to
eddy currents (currents formed in solid
conductors). The core is then wrapped in armature
winding, which acts as the current-carrying wire
that cuts the magnetic field to create the Motor
Figure D3 - DC Motor Diagram - Sourced
from: Effect, and generate force. The core is attached to a
commutator, which serves as the connection point
between the motor and the electrical circuit. Then, solid pieces of copper, called brushes, touch the
commutator, so that, as the motor spins, there is contact. The law of conservation of energy (LCE)
(figure D1), and Lenz’s law (figure D2) are vital in a DC motor. LCE means that in the motor, a back
emf is produced, that, abiding by Lenz’s Law, will oppose the direction of the motor's rotation. The
back emf will increase as the system's torque (rotational force) increases, meaning the faster the
rotation, the more back emf. The back emf works to slow down the system, and hence, the faster the
motor goes, the more it will be slowed down. These laws are important, as, if they were negated, the
system would continue to get faster and faster, with nothing to oppose it, and hence, energy would
be created, not conserved.

Electromagnetic Braking systems (EM braking) function by utilising Lenz’s law and eddy currents,
and can be found in advanced technologies such as trams and high speed train systems. EM brakes
consist of two electromagnets that are seperated. On the object that requires braking, a solid
conductor is positioned so as to pass between the two magnets. As it passes through the magnets, and
cuts the magnetic flux, eddy currents are induced in the solid conductor (Faraday's law). These eddy
currents generate a magnetic field that, according to Lenz’s law and the LCE, oppose the field of the
two magnets (figure D4). This opposing force means that as the object passes through the two
magnets, it slows down due to a drag force between the conductor and the magnets. The amount of
opposing force is directly relational to the speed of the moving object, meaning the faster the object
goes, the larger the opposing force.

Figure D4 - EM Braking Diagram - Sourced

from:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_current_brak