PETROLEUM TRAINING INSTITUTE

P.M.B 20 EFFURUN, DELTA STATE.

NIGERIA

ASSIGNMENT

PREPARED

BY

GROUP TWO

NAMES: MAT NUMBER:

Obieke precious Chisom M.23/ND/PMBS/14691

Emmanuel chibuikem Chukwu M.23/ND/PMBS/14724

Emmanuella Amarachukwu Nwachukwu M.23/ND/PMBS/14702

Burhie Miracle M.23/ND/PMBS/14718

Aikoriegie Jessey M23/ND/PMBS/14708

Azuka Israel M.23/Nd/PMBS/14

Ovuikugbe Emmanuel Etaigho M.23 ND PMBS 14689

DEPARTMENT: PETROLEUM MARKETING AND BUSINESS STUDIES

COURSE CODE: STC 111

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION OT CHEMISTRY

LEVEL: ND 1

SESSION: 2023/2024

LECTURER: MR. SUMBIRI WILLIAMS

APRIL, 2023

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1.1 Acids and Bases Identification

1.1.1 Introduction

The identification of acids and bases is a fundamental aspect of

chemistry, crucial for understanding their properties and behavior in
various chemical reactions.

Acids and bases are two fundamental classes of compounds in

chemistry, distinguished by their characteristic properties. Acids donate
protons (H⁺ ions) in aqueous solutions, while bases accept protons or
donate hydroxide ions (OH⁻). Identification of these substances is crucial
for various applications, from chemical analysis to industrial processes.

1.1.2 Methods of Identification:

• Litmus Paper Testing: Litmus paper is a widely used indicator that

changes color in the presence of acids or bases. Blue litmus paper
turns red in the presence of an acid, while red litmus paper turns
blue in the presence of a base. This simple and quick test provides
a qualitative indication of the nature of the substance.

The diagram above show the colour change of litmus paper when
places in an acid solution or a base
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 • pH Measurement: pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a
solution, ranging from 0 to 14. Solutions with a pH below 7 are
acidic, while those above 7 are basic. A pH of 7 indicates neutrality.
pH meters and universal indicator solutions are commonly used for
accurate pH measurements.

Diagram of a pH meter

• Specific Tests for Acids: Different acids exhibit specific reactions or

characteristics that aid in their identification. For example, mineral
acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl) produce effervescence when
reacted with carbonates. Organic acids, such as citric acid, may
react with metals to produce hydrogen gas.
• Specific Tests for Bases: Bases also have unique reactions that help
in their identification. Strong bases like sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
generate heat when dissolved in water. Some metal hydroxides
produce characteristic precipitates when mixed with certain metal
salts.

Acids and bases are two classes of compounds with distinct properties
the following are the characteristics of acid and base
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1.1.3 Acids:

• Sour Taste: Many acids have a sour taste, such as citric acid found
in citrus fruits.
• Turns Litmus Red: Acids turn blue litmus paper red, indicating their
acidic nature.
• Reactivity with Metals: Acids react with certain metals to produce
hydrogen gas.
• pH Below 7: Acids have a pH below 7 in aqueous solutions,
indicating their acidic nature.
• Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), and
acetic acid (CH₃COOH).

1.1.4 Bases:

• Bitter Taste: Bases often have a bitter taste, exemplified by

compounds like sodium hydroxide.
• Turns Litmus Blue: Bases turn red litmus paper blue, indicating
their basic nature.
• Slippery Feel: Bases feel slippery or soapy to the touch,
characteristic of substances like potassium hydroxide.
• pH Above 7: Bases have a pH above 7 in aqueous solutions,
indicating their alkaline nature.
• Examples: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide
(KOH), and ammonia (NH₃).

1.1.5 Salts:

• Ionic Nature: Salts are formed from the reaction between an acid
and a base, resulting in ionic compounds.

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 • Solubility: Many salts are soluble in water, although some have
limited solubility or are insoluble.
• pH Neutral: Neutral salts have a pH of 7 in aqueous solutions.
• Examples: Sodium chloride (NaCl), calcium carbonate (CaCO₃),
and potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄).

2.1 CHARACTERISTICS PROPERTIES OF ACIDS, BASES, AND

SALTS

Understanding the characteristic properties of acids, bases, and salts is

fundamental in chemistry. This note provides a comprehensive overview
of the distinguishing features of these three classes of compounds. It
covers their physical properties, chemical behaviors, and common
examples, elucidating their roles in various chemical processes.

Acids, bases, and salts are fundamental classes of compounds in

chemistry, each possessing unique properties and behaviors.
Recognizing these characteristics is essential for understanding their
roles in chemical reactions and their practical applications in diverse
fields.

3.1 preparation and reaction of acids bases and salt

3.1.1 Preparation and Reaction of Acids:

Preparation:

• Acids can be prepared through various methods depending on their

type. For instance:
• Mineral acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl) are often prepared by
dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water.

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 • Organic acids, such as acetic acid (CH₃COOH), can be obtained
through fermentation processes or chemical synthesis.

Reaction:

• Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas and a salt. For
example:
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with zinc (Zn) to produce zinc
chloride (ZnCl₂) and hydrogen gas (H₂).
• Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) reacts with calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) to
produce calcium sulfate (CaSO₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and water
(H₂O).
• Acids also react with bases to form salts and water, a process
known as neutralization. For instance:
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to
form sodium chloride (NaCl) and water (H₂O).

3.1.2 Preparation and Reaction of Bases:

Preparation:

• Bases can be prepared by various methods, including:

• Dissolving metal oxides or hydroxides in water. For example,
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can be prepared by dissolving sodium
oxide (Na₂O) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in water.
• Reacting certain compounds with water to release hydroxide ions.
Ammonia (NH₃) dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide
(NH₄OH), a weak base.

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Reaction:

• Bases react with acids in neutralization reactions to form salts and

water. For example:
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) to
form sodium chloride (NaCl) and water (H₂O).
• Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) reacts with sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to
produce calcium sulfate (CaSO₄) and water (H₂O).

3.1.3 Preparation and Reaction of Salts:

Preparation:

• Salts are typically prepared by the reaction between an acid and a

base, resulting in the formation of water and a salt. For example:
• Sodium chloride (NaCl) is prepared by the neutralization of
hydrochloric acid (HCl) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
• Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) can be prepared by reacting calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) with carbon dioxide (CO₂).

Reaction:

• Salts can undergo various reactions depending on their

composition and properties. Common reactions include:
• Dissociation in water to form ions, which makes them conductive
in solution.
• Precipitation reactions, where a solid salt is formed from the
reaction of two soluble salts.
• Acid-base reactions with other acids or bases to form different
salts.

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4.1 NATURE OF PROTON IN AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION

In an aqueous solution, the nature of protons (H⁺ ions) is closely

related to the concept of acidity. When an acid dissolves in water,
it releases protons, which then associate with water molecules to
form hydronium ions (H₃O⁺). This process is represented by the
following equation:

Acid (A) + Water (H20) Hydrogen ion (H3O+) + Conjugate base (B-)

The diagram below illustrates the behavior of protons in an aqueous

solution:

In the diagram:

• On the left side, we have a water molecule (H₂O), which consists

of two hydrogen atoms (H) bonded to an oxygen atom (O).
• As the acid (represented as "H⁺") dissolves in water, it donates a
proton to a water molecule.
• The proton associates with a water molecule to form a hydronium
ion (H₃O⁺). This is due to the proton attaching itself to one of the

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 lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom of water, forming a
coordinate covalent bond.
• The resulting hydronium ion (H₃O⁺) is surrounded by water
molecules, which stabilize the charge through hydrogen bonding.

In an aqueous solution, protons exist primarily as hydronium ions

(H₃O⁺) due to their association with water molecules. This behavior is
fundamental to the understanding of acidity and the behavior of acids
in solution.

5.1 DESCRIPTION OF NEUTRALIZATION REACTION

Neutralization reactions are chemical reactions between an acid

and a base that result in the formation of water and a salt. These
reactions are called neutralization reactions because they
neutralize the acidic and basic properties of the reactants, leading
to the formation of a neutral solution.

For example, the neutralization reaction between hydrochloric acid (HCl)

and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can be represented as:

HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H₂O

In this reaction:

• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) donates a proton (H⁺) to the hydroxide ion

(OH⁻) from sodium hydroxide (NaOH), forming water (H₂O).
• Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) donates its hydroxide ion (OH⁻) to the
hydrogen ion (H⁺) from hydrochloric acid (HCl), also forming water
(H₂O).
• The resulting products are sodium chloride (NaCl), which is the
salt, and water (H₂O).

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Neutralization reactions play crucial roles in various applications,
including:

• pH regulation: Neutralization reactions are used to adjust the pH

of solutions by neutralizing excess acidity or alkalinity.
• Antacid medications: Antacid medications neutralize excess
stomach acid to relieve symptoms of heartburn and indigestion.
• Industrial processes: Neutralization reactions are employed in
chemical manufacturing processes to produce salts and regulate
pH.
• Environmental protection: Neutralization reactions are utilized to
neutralize acidic or basic pollutants in wastewater treatment
processes.

6.1 HOW AN ACID BASE INDICATOR WORKS

An acid-base indicator is a substance that changes color in response to

the pH of its environment. These indicators are typically weak acids or
bases themselves, and their color changes occur as a result of changes
in their molecular structure caused by the gain or loss of protons (H⁺
ions).

The functioning of an acid-base indicator relies on the principle of

equilibria between the protonated and deprotonated forms of the
indicator molecule. The indicator exists in different forms depending on
the pH of the solution:

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 1. Protonated Form (HIn):
• In acidic solutions, the indicator molecule accepts a proton (H⁺)
from the solution, forming the protonated form (HIn). This form
typically has one color.
• The equilibrium between the protonated and deprotonated forms
is shifted towards the protonated form in acidic conditions.
2. Deprotonated Form (In⁻):
• In basic solutions, the indicator molecule donates a proton (H⁺) to
the solution, forming the deprotonated form (In⁻). This form
typically has a different color from the protonated form.
• The equilibrium between the protonated and deprotonated forms
is shifted towards the deprotonated form in basic conditions.

The color change of the indicator occurs when the concentration of one
form predominates over the other, leading to a visible change in the
overall color of the solution. This color change is often sharp and easily
observable, making acid-base indicators valuable tools for determining
the endpoint of titrations and monitoring pH changes in various chemical
reactions.

Some common acid-base indicators and their color transitions include:

• Phenolphthalein: Colorless in acidic solutions and pink in basic

solutions.
• Methyl orange: Reddish in acidic solutions and yellow in basic
solutions.
• Bromothymol blue: Yellow in acidic solutions, greenish-blue in
neutral solutions, and blue in basic solutions.

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Conclusion:

Acids donate protons, while bases accept protons or donate hydroxide

ions. Identifying them involves recognizing their characteristic
properties and behavior in various chemical reactions.

Identification of acids and bases is essential for understanding their

properties and behavior in various chemical processes. By employing
techniques such as litmus paper testing, pH measurement, and specific
chemical tests, chemists can accurately determine the nature of a
substance. This knowledge serves as a foundation for further exploration
in fields ranging from analytical chemistry to environmental science and
beyond.

Acids, bases, and salts exhibit distinct characteristic properties that

allow for their identification and differentiation in chemical processes.
Understanding these properties is essential for predicting their behavior
in reactions and harnessing their utility in various applications, from
industrial processes to biological systems. This note serves as a primer
for comprehending the diverse roles and behaviors of acids, bases, and
salts in the realm of chemistry.

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