TEXTURE IN BRAHMS’ OP.

116 WITH AN IDENTIFICATION OF

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS AND TEACHING SUGGESTIONS

_______________

A Thesis

Presented to the

Faculty of

San Diego State University

_______________

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

in

Music

_______________

by

Hua Wang

Fall 2011
 iii

Copyright © 2011

by

Hua Wang

All Rights Reserved

 iv

ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS

Texture in Brahms’ Op. 116 with an Identification of Performance

Problems and Teaching Suggestions
by
Hua Wang
Master of Arts in Music
San Diego State University, 2011

This thesis provided an analysis of three types of textures in Op. 116 of Johannes
Brahms as well as performance and practice suggestions. Structural analyses were also
provided to serve the purpose of the textural analyses. The performance and practice
suggestions were developed for advanced students. The thesis consists of four chapters.
Chapter one is the introduction including the purpose of the thesis, limitations, methodology,
definitions, and organization. Chapter two is a review of literature about Brahms’ biography,
his piano compositional style, Op. 116 Fantasien, texture, texture of Brahms’ piano works,
and texture in piano pedagogy. In chapter three, the analyses of texture and structure are
presented. The description of chordal, embedded and polyphonic textures are provided.
Music examples which are selected to illustrate each type of texture are analyzed. The
problems and difficulties of practicing and performing are discussed. The major problems of
performance are balance and voicing of the elements and how to voice them. Practice and
teaching suggestions are provided. Chapter four includes a summary of the thesis,
conclusions, and recommendations for further study. The thesis concluded that texture is one
of several important elements when performing Brahms’ late piano works successfully. The
analysis of texture is a necessary step in practicing efficiently and for making a convincing
performance.
 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1

Purpose.....................................................................................................................6

Limitations ...............................................................................................................6

Procedures ................................................................................................................7

Definitions................................................................................................................7

Organization.............................................................................................................9

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ......................................................................................10

Brahms’ Biography ................................................................................................10

Piano Compositional Style.....................................................................................16

Brahms Op. 116, Fantasien ...................................................................................20

Texture ...................................................................................................................24

Texture in Romantic Period ...................................................................................26

Texture in Brahms’ Piano Works ..........................................................................29

Texture in Piano Pedagogy ....................................................................................32

3 ANALYSIS OF TEXTURE IN BRAHMS’ OP. 116 WITH SUGGESTIONS

FOR TEACHING ........................................................................................................35

Texture and Structure in Op. 116...........................................................................36

Chordal Texture .....................................................................................................43

 vi

Embedded Texture .................................................................................................51

Polyphonic Texture ................................................................................................56

4 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS...............................62

Summary ................................................................................................................62

Conclusions ............................................................................................................65

Recommendations for Future Study ......................................................................66

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ...............................................................................................68

 vii

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

Figure 1. Brahms, Piano Sonata No.1, measures 1—5. ............................................................2

Figure 2. Beethoven, Hammerklavier Sonata, Op. 106, measures 1—8. ..................................2

Figure 3. Schumann’s Davidsbündlertänze, no. 16, measures 1-3. ........................................28

Figure 4. Schumann, Op. 68, “Little Song,” measures 1-5. .....................................................28

Figure 5. Schumann, Op. 2, no. 8, measures 17-23. ................................................................28

Figure 6. Chopin, Nocturne, Op. 27, no. 1, measures 29-34. ..................................................29

Figure 7. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 1-4......................................................................37

Figure 8. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 21-26..................................................................37

Figure 9. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 37-43..................................................................37

Figure 10. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 2, measures 11-14. ..............................................................38

Figure 11. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 2, measures 19-23................................................................38

Figure 12. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 7-9....................................................................39

Figure 13. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 35-38................................................................39

Figure 14. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 4, measures 30-32................................................................40

Figure 15. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 4, mm. 1-4. . ........................................................................40

Figure 16. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 4, measures 38-41................................................................40

Figure 17. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 5, measures 1-4....................................................................40

Figure 18. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 5, measures 12-16................................................................41

Figure 19. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 6, measures 1-4....................................................................42

Figure 20. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 6, measures 25-28................................................................42

Figure 21. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 1-4....................................................................42

Figure 22. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 21-25................................................................43

 viii

Figure 23. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 47-50................................................................43

Figure 24. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 80-85................................................................43

Figure 25. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 5, measures 1-4....................................................................46

Figure 26. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 6, measures 1-11..................................................................48

Figure 27. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 21-24................................................................50

Figure 28. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 2, measures 19-23................................................................52

Figure 29. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 2, measures 1-9....................................................................52

Figure 30. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 6, measures 25-43................................................................54

Figure 31. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 1-4....................................................................54

Figure 32: Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 47-50. ..............................................................55

Figure 33. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 21-28................................................................57

Figure 34. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 35-36................................................................59

Figure 35. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 41-42................................................................59

Figure 36. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 35-37................................................................59

Figure 37. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 37-40................................................................60

Figure 38. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 4, measures 30-32................................................................61

 ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my advisor, Dr. J.

Mitzi Kolar, for her support, patience, and encouragement throughout my graduate studies. I

would not have gone so far without her expert guidance and generous support. I am

extremely proud and honored to have the opportunity to associate my name with her.

It is a great privilege to work with Dr. J. Mitzi Kolar. Her dedication to research has

inspired me to pursue ideas and research of my own liking. She has taught me the tools and

the right methodology of doing research. And with her wisdom and her devotion, she has

guided me throughout every stage of the graduate study. For all of these, I am greatly

indebted, and I am enormously grateful.

I thank my thesis committee members, Prof. Marian Liebowitz, and Prof. Zhengsheng

Zhang. They were very kind to agree to be on my committee, and I am grateful to them for

their time and effort at various stages of my thesis.

If I had achieved anything, it is all because of my parents. They have always loved

me, supported me, and trusted me. I am indebted to their understanding and encouragement. I

am also thankful to my grandparents, my uncles and aunts and other family members for

supporting me all the time. To my loving husband, Minkui Liu, thanks for your endless

support, encouragement, and love. To my wonderful boy, Maximilian Liu, thank you for

being the best kid any mom can dream of.

I dedicate this thesis to all of them.

 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) was a German composer and pianist who inherited the

German compositional traditions from J. S. Bach and Ludwig V. Beethoven. James Huneker

wrote of Brahms: “He was the greatest contrapuntist after Bach, the greatest architectonist

after Beethoven—his contribution to the technics of rhythm is enormous.” 1 Thus, he was

grouped with Bach and Beethoven as one of the three B’s in music history. Brahms first

performed one of his own compositions at age fourteen. In his twenties, Brahms was

introduced to Robert and Clara Schumann. Schumann was impressed by Brahms’

performance and compositions. With Schumann’s recommendation, Brahms’ Scherzo, Op. 4

and three piano sonatas in F-sharp minor, C major, and F minor were published. Brahms

maintained a lifelong friendship with the Schumanns, especially with Clara who was the first

reader of many of Brahms’ compositions. Their friendship lasted until the death of Clara in

1896. One year later, Brahms died in Vienna.

As a composer, Brahms wrote works for orchestral, chamber ensembles, solo

instruments, and voice. Various authors have divided Brahms’ compositional life into three

or four periods. One of these authors was Geiringer. In the first compositional period, which

included the earliest existing works up to 1855, Brahms composed most of his large–scale

piano pieces including the three sonatas Op. 1 (1852-53), 2 (1852), and 5 (1853); four

Ballades Op. 10 (1854); variations Op. 9 (1854); and three pairs of Baroque dances WoO 3-5

1
David Dubal, The Art of the Piano, (New York: Summit Books, 1989), 299.
 2

(1854-55). In this period, Brahms closely followed his predecessors, and his music

demonstrated influences from the past. For example, the similarity of rhythmic motive and

chord texture between the beginnings of Brahms’ Piano Sonata No.1 in C major and

Beethoven’s Hammerklavier Sonata were noted (see Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 1. Brahms, Piano Sonata No.1, measures 1—5. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Johannes Brahms: Piano Works in Two Volumes. Edited by Emil von Sauer. New
York: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1943.

Figure 2. Beethoven, Hammerklavier Sonata, Op. 106, measures 1—8. Source:

Beethoven, Ludwig Van. Klaviersonaten Vol. I. Edited by Frederic Lamond .
Kiev: Musytschna Ukraina, 1969.

Reflecting his growing friendship with Joachim and his affectionate relations with the

Schumanns, Brahms was highly influenced by a romantic nature in this early period. In this

period, Brahms showed “the blunt expression and sudden contrasts, and avoided concessions
 3

to mere comprehensibility; nevertheless, his works were imbued with simplicity and a

profound tenderness.” 2

In Brahms’ second compositional period, which started in 1855, he began studies of

counterpoint with Joachim. Several people consider this period was a transitional time in

Brahms’ compositional style. According to Geiringer, Brahms gradually discarded the

violent eruptions of his early music. Geiringer wrote: “Brahms’ ‘twilight’ style, with its

peculiar blending of mood, was already in evidence.” 3 The large piano works in this period

are Variations Op. 21 (1854), nos. 1 and 2 and Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Handel,

Op. 24 (1861).

The German Requiem (1868-69) marked the beginning of Brahms’ third

compositional period and also brought fame to Brahms as a composer. Brahms showed his

productivity and mature style in this period. All his big orchestral works, such as Symphony

No. 1 in C minor (1876), Symphony No. 2 in D major (1877), Symphony No. 3 in F major

(1883), and Symphony No. 4 in E minor (1885), and choral works were composed in this

period. The large piano works of this period are Variations for Two Pianos on a Theme of

Haydn, Op. 56b, Klavierstücke, Op. 76 (1878), and Two Rhapsodies, Op. 79 (1879). The

emotion of his music became serious, as Geiringer indicated, “It is characteristic of this

period that the joyous and effervescent Scherzo of his youthful works gave away to quieter

and serener forms.” 4

2
Karl Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 3rd ed. (New York: Da Capo Press, 1982), 201.
3
Ibid., 201.
4
Ibid., 203.
 4

In his last period, the main piano works are the four sets of Op. 116-119. These sets

essentially reflect the important compositional skills developed by Brahms over many years.

Arthur Rubinstein wrote:

It is with the late piano works, Op. 116 through Op. 119, that we reach
Brahms’most personal music for his chosen instrument. . . . Brahms in his final
years produced serene and nostalgic music that was ever more inward in mood. . .
As his own notations in the score indicate, they are so intensely intimate that one
cannot really convey their full substance to a large audience. They should be
heard quietly, in a small room, for they are actually works of chamber music for
piano. 5

In these sets, many passages forecasted musical developments of the next century. Walter

Frisch wrote: “Though in some senses ‘autumnal,’ the late piano pieces are hardly

retrospective. Many passages prefigure significant musical developments in the century that

Brahms did not live to see.” 6

In Brahms’ late collections, he only gave the Fantasien Op. 116 and the Drei

Intermezzi Op. 117 collective titles. However, in Op. 117, the collection title of Drei

Intermezzi was given because each of the three pieces is an intermezzo. Unlike Op. 117, the

seven pieces of Op. 116 are individually named capriccio or intermezzo. Nos. 1, 3, and 7 are

named capriccio. Among them, no. 1 and no. 7 are in the same key, D minor; and no. 3 is in

G minor. The others (nos. 2, 4, 5, and 6) are intermezzi of which nos. 4 and 6 are in E major,

while no. 5 starts with E minor but ends in E major. No. 2 is in A minor. In Frisch’s essay

“Brahms: From Classical to Modern,” he wrote:

Despite the two-part format (of the first edition), Op. 116 has the strongest case
among the late collections for being considered as a coherent whole, for which

5
Dubal, The Art of the Piano, 302.
6
Walter Frisch, “Brahms: From Classical to Modern,” in Nineteenth Century Piano Music, ed. Larry Todd
(New York: Schirmer Books, 1990), 338.
 5

reason one critic [Dunsby] has suggested it be taken as a ‘multi-piece.’ . . . The

pieces show not only some overall tonal planning but also thematic
interrelationships. The most obvious instance is the figure of arpeggiated,
descending thirds that opens no. 3 and 7. 7

There are many studies on Brahms’ Op. 116. Some of them focus on one type of

compositions, such as “The Seven Capriccios of Johannes Brahms: op. 76, nos. 1, 2, 5, 8, and

op. 116, nos. 1, 3, 7” written by Bernice Feinstein, 8 which reviews the use of term

“capriccio” from the Renaissance to the nineteenth-century and provides analyses and

performance suggestions for the seven capriccios. Other studies feature historic and theoretic

interests, such as Jonathan Dunsby’s essay “The Multi-Piece in Brahms: Fantasien op.116,” 9

which presents the relationship of form and tonal and motivic structures between pieces of

Op. 116. The most thorough discussion of Op.116 occurs in Camilla Cai’s dissertation

entitled “Brahms’ Short, Late Piano Pieces – Opus Numbers 116-119: a Source Study, an

Analysis and Performance Practice.” 10 The dissertation provides a description of almost “all

surviving sources of Brahms’ late piano works.” 11 Additionally, the author offers analyses of

several pieces which showed particular compositional principles of Brahms, such as his use

of thirds, forms, rhythm, and historical techniques. In the last chapter, the author presents

factors which determine the quality of a performance of Brahms.

There are a few studies which have identified performance difficulties of each piece

in Op. 116. Although some studies describe the performance difficulties of selected pieces

7
Ibid., 337-38.
8
Bernice Feinstein, “The Seven Capriccios of Johannes Brahms: Op. 76, nos. 1, 2, 5, 8, and op. 116, nos.
1, 3, 7” (EdD diss., Columbia University, 1972).
9
Jonathan Dunsby, “The Multi-Piece in Brahms: Fantasien op.116,” in Brahms: Biographical,
Documentary and Analytical Studies, ed. R. Pascall (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 167–89.
10
Camilla Cai, “Brahm’s Short, Late Piano Pieces – Opus Numbers 116-119: A Source Study, an Analysis
and Performance Practice” (PhD diss., Boston University, 1986).
11
Heather Platt, Johannes Brahms: A Guide to Research, (New York: Routledge, 2003), 222.
 6

within Op. 116, they do not provide practice solutions. There are no studies in the current

literature which compare performances of Op. 116. Such comparisons may assist in the

identification of major performance problems and guide pedagogical solutions and practice

suggestions.

PURPOSE
The purposes of the thesis were: (1) to provide an overview of the piano

compositional style of Brahms, especially in his late period; (2) to provide the compositional

background of his Op. 116; (3) to present structural and textual analyses of the seven pieces

of Op. 116; and (4) to provide performance and teaching suggestions that relate to the

structure, melody, and texture.

LIMITATIONS
The topic was limited to the seven pieces from Brahms’s Op. 116. Since the pieces

were written in Brahms’ late compositional period (1891—1897), the thesis focused on

Brahms’ late piano compositional style. The analysis of each piece was limited to the

structure and texture that were characteristic of Brahms’ later compositional period. The

analyses of these two elements supported the interpretation of the music. For study and

reference purposes, the G. Henle edition and the R. Sauer edition of musical scores were

used. All printing music examples of Brahms in thesis are from Edition Peters which is

available at the website of IMSLP/Petrucci Music Library. Other music examples are also

from IMSLP website. All scores provided by IMSLP either from public domain or,

permission has been granted by the holder of copyright. The teaching suggestions were

limited to ideas for the advanced piano student.

 7

PROCEDURES
The biography and compositional style of Brahms were established through

bibliographical study. The review of Brahms’ piano literature was also studied through

bibliographical research. The seven pieces of Op. 116 were analyzed by examining the

forms, harmony progressions, texture, rhythm, and melody as well as bibliographical study.

Additionally, personal performance, teaching experience, bibliographical study, and

comparison of recorded performances helped to identify performance problems as well as to

provide the performance and teaching suggestions.

DEFINITIONS
Grove and Oxford online resource were used as an initial guide in defining the

following terms. Texture may apply either to the vertical aspects of a work or passage, or to

attributes such as tone color or rhythm, or to characteristics of performance. 12 Generally, it is

categorized into melody and accompaniment, homophonic, and polyphonic. 13 It produces “an

overall effect made by the combination of the different sounds in a particular passage.” 14 In

this thesis, texture was categorized to three types: chordal, embedded, and polyphonic. In the

passage of chordal texture, music can be four parts which move with similar rhythm, or the

melodic tones occur as notes of chords. Embedded texture refers to embedded melody. It

means the melodic tone is embedded into another line. In embedded texture, the melodic

notes can be embedded within arpeggiated accompaniment, or in works from Baroque

12
Grove Music Online, “Texture,” Oxford Music Online,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/27758 (accessed April 8, 2009).
13
John D. White. Comprehensive Musical Analysis (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1994), 247.
14
Judith Lochhead, “Texture and Timbre in Barbara Kolb’s Millefoglie for Chamber Orchestra and
Computer-generated Tape,” in Engaging Music, ed. Deborah Stein (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005),
254.
 8

period, it can be a polyphonic countermelody of another line. Polyphonic texture refers that

there are two or more lines are played relatively independent. Harmony refers to a

combination of simultaneously sounded musical notes to produce chords and successively to

produce chord progressions 15which creates tension in music. Harmony, as a musical element,

contributes to the style of the composer. Melody indicates a succession of notes, varying in

pitch, which have an organized and recognizable shape 16 to deliver a musical meaning. It

includes every aspect of pitch, rhythm, dynamics, and timbre that can be perceived within a

single line. 17 Rhythm in music is normally felt to embrace everything to do with both time

and motion—with the organization of musical events in time, however flexible in meter and

tempo, irregular in accent, or free in durational values. 18 Rhythm may also contribute to the

production of tension and the feeling of calm when the density and pulse are varied.

Capriccio refers to a short piano piece that has the humorous and fanciful characters. 19 The

performance instruction permits a free and rhapsodic approach to tempo and even style. 20

Intermezzo refers to a short and independent piece which has light character. 21

15
Carl Dahlhaus, et al. "Harmony." Oxford Music Online,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/50818 (accessed April 8, 2009).
16
The Oxford Dictionary of Music,"Melody" Oxford Music Online,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e6700 (accessed April 8, 2009).
17
White, Comprehensive Musical Analysis, 22.
18
Arnold Whittall. "Rhythm." Oxford Music Online,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e5635 (accessed April 8, 2009).
19
Erich Schwandt. "Capriccio (i)." Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxford
musiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/04867 (accessed April 8, 2009).
20
Grove Music Online, "Capriccio, a." Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/
subscriber/article/grove/music/04868 (accessed April 8, 2009).
21
Jane Bellingham. "Intermezzo." Oxford Music Online,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e3441 (accessed April 8, 2009).
 9

ORGANIZATION
This thesis is organized into four chapters. Chapter one includes an introduction to the

topic, its purpose, limitations, procedures, definitions, and organization plan. Chapter two

provides a brief biography of the composer and an overview of his piano works.

Additionally, contemporary research about Brahms’ Op.116 is discussed. Texture in piano

works and piano pedagogy are also discussed. The characteristic textures in Brahms’ piano

composition are presented. Chapter three gives the structural analysis and showed how

structure relates to the use of texture. In this chapter, chordal texture, polyphonic texture and

embedded texture are defined. The examples of the three types of texture are presented. Also,

the difficulties are identified and practice suggestions are given after each example. Chapter

four summarizes the thesis, presents conclusions, and suggests further studies.
 10

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter reviews books, articles and dissertations that discuss Brahms’ biography,

his piano compositional style, and Op. 116. Additionally, texture, the texture of Brahms’

piano works, and strategies for teaching texture are discussed.

BRAHMS’ BIOGRAPHY
In 1833, Brahms was born into a musical family in Hamburg. His father was a

doublebass player in the Stadttheater and the Philharmonic orchestras. Even though the

family had financial difficulties, the parents tried their best to secure a sound education for

their children. At age six, Brahms entered the school of Herr Heinrich Voss and later, at age

eleven, he was enrolled in the school of Johann Friedrich Hoffmann. Both schools were

famous in Hamburg for their educational curriculum. In some biographies, the poor quality

of his general education in his youth is the generally accepted story. Karl Geiringer, however,

disagreed with this point of view in his book Brahms. 22 The curriculum of Herr Hoffman’s

school included Latin, French, and English, and the school offered mathematics and natural

history. 23 Brahms started his formal music lessons at age seven with Otto F. W. Cossel, from

whom, Brahms learned that a true musician expresses every phrase with an inward

experience. Cossel demanded technical command as well as musical understanding from

young Brahms. Under Cossel’s excellent and strict instruction, Brahms made great progress.
22
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 15.
23
Ibid., 15
 11

In Famous Pianists and Their Technique, Reginald R. Gerig indicated that Brahms was

invited to tour America at age ten because of his outstanding performance. 24 Meanwhile, he

also exhibited talent in composition. Later, Cossel recommended that Brahms study with

Eduard Marxsen who had been Cossel’s teacher. Marxsen was a leading music teacher in

Hamburg, who had studied with Seyfried, Mozart’s pupil, and with Bocklet, a friend of

Beethoven and Schubert. 25 Under Marxen’s instruction, Brahms developed his left-hand

technique and the ability to play complicated rhythm. 26 Also, Marxsen encouraged Brahms to

compose music by giving him regular lessons in music theory and composition. At age

fifteen, in 1848, Brahms’ debut included a Bach fugue, the Waldstein sonata by Beethoven,

and his own compositions. 27 A few years later, Brahms’ genius became apparent after a

performance tour with Hungarian violinist Eduard Remenyi. After the tour, Marxsen said:

Brahms’ memory is so amazing that it never occurred to him to take any music
with him on his concert tour. When he started out into the world on his first tour,
as a young man of twenty, the works of Bach and Beethoven, besides a large
number of modern concert-pieces by Thalberg, Liszt, Mendelssohn, and others,
were indelibly impressed upon his mind. 28

During the study with Marxsen, Brahms’ family considered the teacher a close friend and the

family benefitted from his generosity. After Brahms left Hamburg, they maintained an

ongoing correspondence. Brahms dedicated the Piano Concerto in B-flat Major to Marxsen.

24
Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique. 2nd ed., (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 2007), 217.
25
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 17.
26
Ibid., 17.
27
Gerig, Famous Pianists, 217.
28
Ibid., 217
 12

In June of 1853, Brahms completed another tour to Weimar with Remenyi. He had a

chance to visit Liszt, who was impressed by Brahms’s early sonatas and the Scherzo in E-flat

minor. 29 The master was willing to help young Brahms build his career if Brahms would

accept the artistic standard that Liszt advocated. Geiringer indicates that Liszt believed that

the vigorous and gifted nature of Brahms “would be of the great assistance towards the

victory of the so called ‘new German’ school of music.” 30 Brahms admired Liszt as a great

pianist, but he neither appreciated Liszt’s compositional style nor his life style. Brahms

thought the Neo-German school promoted by Liszt was not true German style. The new

school was influenced by the works of Berlioz, and the composers who wrote in this style

believed that the content of poetic ideas determine the musical forms. 31 Brahms felt the

“new German” music reflected in Liszt’s works was worthless. 32 He remained opposed to

Neo-German music for his entire life. Although Brahms needed a patron to promote his

musical career, he had no intention of becoming a disciple and follower of Liszt. 33

When Brahms met Robert and Clara Schumann later in 1853, a lifelong friendship

started. After their first meeting, Robert Schumann was impressed by Brahms’ talent,

believing that Brahms’ piano sonata seemed to capture the sound of a whole orchestra. 34

Schumann promoted Brahms in his circle of colleagues and recommended Brahms to

publishers. Schumann likened Brahms to the ‘young eagle’ in his famous essay Neue Bahnen

29
Ibid., 218.
30
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 30.
31
Ibid., 30.
32
Ibid., 30.
33
Ibid., 30.
34
Ibid., 36.
 13

which was published in the journal Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. 35 Schumann’s wrote:

“Johannes is the true apostle, and he too will write Revelations, the secret of which many

Pharisees will still be unable to unravel even centuries later.” 36

With Schumann’s recommendation, Breitkpf & Härtel published Brahms’ Scherzo in

E-flat Minor and the first sonata. The scherzo was written in 1851 and was Brahms’ earliest

work. According to Geiringer, the inclusion of two trios showed the influence of

Schumann. 37 After the publication of the two compositions, Brahms sent the royalties back to

his family. 38 When Schumann developed mental illness in later years, Brahms and his family

grasped the opportunity to repay the Schumanns. Brahms rented an apartment above Clara’s

flat in order to care for them easily. During this time, their friendship deepened. Geiringer

wrote that “Clara felt that her profound sympathy inspired the young composer, and this was

a great consolation to her.” 39

In 1863, Brahms accepted the leadership position of the Wiener Singakademie, a

famous choral society, and experienced great success. In 1869, Brahms settled in Vienna.

Before he accepted the director position of Gesellschaft Der Musikfreunde in the autumn of

1872, 40 Brahms refused various other positions, including one at the Royal Musical College

in Berlin which was operated by his friend Joachim. When he finished his directorship of the

Gesellschaft Der Musikfreunde, Brahms decided not to accept any long-term positions. After

35
Ibid., 37.
36
Gerig, Famous Pianists, 217.
37
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 205.
38
Ibid,. 39.
39
Ibid., 43.
40
Ibid,. 111.
 14

the premier of the German Reqieum, in 1868, Brahms was steadily growing more famous as

a composer. He was internationally renowned and financially secure. He had an increasing

number of concert tours, visiting almost all the major cities of Europe. In 1876, Cambridge

University offered Brahms an honorary doctoral degree in music for his high service to art.

Unfortunately, Brahms had to forfeit the degree because he could not attend the ceremony

due to his fear of seasickness. 41 Brahms was on the summit of his life and career.

In his late fifties, Brahms felt that his creativity had diminished. After his fifty-eighth

birthday celebrated in Ischl, he told his friend, Eusebius Mandyczewski, that “I have been

tormenting myself for a long time with all kinds of things, a symphony, chamber music and

other stuff, and nothing will come of it. . . . I’m just not going to do any more. . . . I am going

to be good and lazy!” 42 He drew up his will in which he made donations to several charitable

musical organizations; in addition, he donated his valuable collection of original manuscripts

to the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. 43 During these years, Brahms mainly revised a

collection of canons that he had written during his time with the Hamburg ladies’ choir; and

he finished the Vocal Quartets, Op. 112, which he had started to compose in 1888. Geiringer

wrote: “it is true that for the time being he undertook only tasks that did not require much

creative effort.” 44 According to Geiringer, Brahms’ creativity was reignited after he heard a

performance by Richard Mühlfeld, the clarinetist of the Meiningen Orchestra. Brahms felt

that the tone of the clarinet was particularly appropriate for the serious mood of his later

41
Ibid., 123.
42
Jan Swafford, Johannes Brahms, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 566.
43
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 177.
44
Ibid. 177.
 15

compositions. 45 Mühlfeld’s performance impressed and inspired Brahms deeply. As the

result, he wrote the Clarinet Trio in A Minor and the Quintet in B Minor for Clarinet and

Strings. 46 After his fifty-ninth birthday, Brahms decided to compose new pieces. He told

Clara that he was composing for himself alone. 47 In Johannes Brahms, Kalbeck described

what he heard and saw one morning in 1892 when he visited Brahms’ home in Ischl. He

wrote “the strangest growling, whining, and moaning, which at the height of the musical

climax changed into a loud howl.” 48 It was Brahms who was working on the small piano

pieces which later became Op. 116 Fantasien and Op. 117 Intermezzos. 49 Kalbeck observed

that Brahms had tears on his face. 50 Brahms sent these small piano pieces to Clara before

Christmas in 1892. Kalbeck quoted Clara’s journal:

(the pieces) full of poetry, passion, sentiment, emotion, and with the most
wonderful effect of tone. . . . In these pieces I at last feel musical life stir again in
my soul. . . . How they make one forget much of the suffering he has caused
one. 51

During 1891-1892, Brahms finished four sets of piano miniatures: Op. 116, 117, 118, and

119. In the summer of 1894, he composed two clarinet sonatas (Op. 120). The works he

composed in 1896 included Vier ernste Gesänge (Four Serious Songs) and Eleven Organ

Chorale Preludes. During the last several year of his life, Brahms suffered considerable pain

from the deaths of close friends, including Elisabet von Herzogenberg and Hans von Bülow.

45
Ibid., 178.
46
Swafford, Johannes Brahms, 573.
47
Ibid, 578.
48
Ibid., 580.
49
Ibid., 579.
50
Ibid., 580.
51
Ibid., 583.
 16

The great sadness for Brahms was Clara’s death in 1896. After her death, Brahms health

became seriously compromised. On April 3, 1897, Brahms breathed his last.

PIANO COMPOSITIONAL STYLE

From age ten to his mid-teen years, when Brahms studied with Eduard Marxsen, he

was rigorously trained in the keyboard compositions of Bach, Beethoven, and the early

romantic school. 52 The works of these composers established the solid foundation for

Brahms’ further development. His early recital program included the virtuosic/salon style

which was dominant in the 1830s and 1840s as well as more serious works such as

Beethoven’s Waldstein Sonata, but, according to Frisch, Brahms chose to align himself with

the high-minded traditions of Beethoven, 53 which Brahms maintained throughout his life.

Because Brahms earned the reputation of a genius pianist, he composed for this instrument

throughout his career.

Geiringer divided Brahms’ compositional life into four periods. Almost all the large-

scale piano works were written during the first two periods: 1851-1863. The first period

includes compositions created prior to 1855, such as the Scherzo in E-flat Minor (1851), the

Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor (1852), the Piano Sonata in C Major (1853), the Piano Sonata

in F minor (1853), the Variations on a Hungarian Song, Op. 21, no. 2 (1854), and the

Variations on a Theme of Schumann (1854). In this period, Brahms was under the influence

of a great romantic nature. 54 Frisch comments that Brahms’ early piano pieces display a

52
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 18.
53
Frisch, “Brahms: From Classical to Modern,” 318.
54
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 201.
 17

rhythmic and motivic vitality combined with the piano idiom. 55 Geiringer says Brahms’

works show a vigorous, virile, and cheerful spirit. 56 In addition, Brahms’ interest in the art of

variations and the influence of his teacher, Marxsen, can also be found in his early works.

For example, people may discover a similarity between the themes of Marxsen’s

Characteristic Variations on a Peasant Dance, Op. 67, no.1 and the theme in Brahms’

Variations Op. 21, no. 2.

Brahms’ preference for German folk songs also appeared in his early piano works. In

Masters of the Keyboard, Wolff says “Brahms is the first classical composer who studied

folk songs seriously.” 57 Geiringer also indicated that Brahms showed his love of the German

folk songs in his youth. 58 For example, in the Sonata Op. 2, the melody fits to the words of

Mir ist leide, an old German song. Brahms acknowledged this to his friend. 59

Another compositional technique Brahms adopted is the romantic transformation of

themes which was a hallmark of the period 1820 to1850 and was frequently used by

Schubert, Liszt, and Chopin. Frisch defined thematic transformation as “the contour,

rhythmic proportions, and intervallic structure of a theme remain essentially intact, but the

tempo, articulation, and mood are strikingly recast.” 60 Unlike other composers who created

transformations by changing tempo, dynamics, articulations, or mood, Brahms broke the

themes into smaller groups and manipulated them separately. This style is more characteristic

55
Frisch, “Brahms: From Classical to Modern,” 318.
56
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 205
57
Konard Wolff, Masters of the Keyboard: Individual Style Elements in the Piano Music of Bach, Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Brahms (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 250.
58
Geringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 17.
59
Frisch, “Brahms: From Classical to Modern,”321.
60
Ibid., 323.
 18

of the Viennese classicists than of romantics. Thus, Brahms is called “a classicist among

romantics.” 61

People often have the impression that Brahms’s early piano pieces have the scope of

orchestral music. Geiringer and Frisch made similar comments on the orchestral concepts in

Brahms’ piano work. According to Geiringer, the earliest piano composition, Scherzo in E-

flat Minor, in which the peculiar style is set just for strings and wind instruments already

showed that tendency. 62 The sound of orchestral scope causes the dense texture in Brahms’

piano works, especially in the early period. Brahms’s usage of full chords with many

doublings is a well-known technique. He also embedded a melody in chords or presented a

melody accompanied in thirds or sixths. Brahms’s favorite device of playing with rhythm is

noted by many scholars. The hemiola, two against three, and syncopations are common in his

music.

From 1868 to 1890, Brahms reduced his composition of piano works. He was

engaged with orchestra pieces, vocal music, and chamber music. In this period, Brahms

reached the peak of his career. The German Requiem represents the mature style of the

composer, and elevated his name among audiences. Geiringer comment that “in this period,

the peculiar ‘Brahmsian’ combination of the spirits of the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth,

and nineteenth centuries reached its highest development.” 63 His previous emotional

outbursts and exuberant vigor were gradually replaced by serious emotional content in his

works. As Geiringer pointed out, “the joyous and effervescent Scherzo of his youthful works

61
Ibid., 323.
62
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 205.
63
Ibid., 202.
 19

gave away to quieter and serener forms.” 64 In the period from 1878 to 1879, Brahms only

wrote two piano sets: Op. 76 and Op. 79. Brahms’ attempt to achieve clarity, severity, and

simplicity are reflected by these works. 65 Geiringer noted that these qualities were lacking in

Brahms’ works before his mature period.

At the end of his life, Brahms composed for the piano again. From 1892 to1893, he

produced four sets of short character pieces, Op. 116, 117, 118, and 119. Most are

individually named Capriccio and Intermezzo. In this last period, Brahms was more serious,

introspective, and natural. Instead of large orchestral works, he preferred chamber music,

piano music, and songs. Geiringer thinks that the decrease of scope reflects the concentration

of Brahms’ intelligence and technical refinement. 66 These works show the highest level of

simplicity and concentration. Geiringer summarized that Brahms’ later works have more

limited modulations, less complicated harmony, and more uniform rhythm. 67 Brahms kept

his feature of thematic transformation, for instance, the similarity between themes of Op.

116, no. 3 and no. 7. The two themes have similar melodic contour, the arpeggiated

descending thirds. F. E. Kirby summarized several differences between the later character

pieces and the early pieces: (1) that the later pieces have less connection with literary works,

and (2) that more virtuoso skills are prominent in the early music, especially in the sonatas. 68

Brahms adapted the pre-classical stylistic elements in his later pieces, such as the bass

64
Ibid., 203.
65
Ibid., 219.
66
Ibid., 203.
67
Ibid., 220.
68
F .E. Kirby, “A Short History of Keyboard Music,” (New York: The Free Press, 1966), 334.
 20

subject returned in ostinato manner in Op. 118, no. 5. 69 He kept the contrapuntal approach

and the dense texture which are signatures of his works. All these features make the later

Brahms pieces more attractive when listening to them and more challenging when

performing them.

BRAHMS OP. 116, FANTASIEN

Op. 116, Fantasien, was composed in 1892, the late period of Brahms’ life. The

collection consists of seven miniatures: three of them are Capriccii and four are Intermezzi.

No. 4 had the title notturno in Brahms’ original holograph. Op. 116 is the first collection of

his late piano works. It was also the first that he composed for the piano after he had stopped

writing for the instrument about ten years before. These small-scale pieces were a departure

from Brahms’ early piano compositional style which featured large scale, virtuosic

technique, and brilliant sonority. In Nineteenth-Century Piano Music, Frisch comments that

these later pieces require a higher level of musicality rather than demanding techniques. The

same comment appears in Clara Schumann’s diary after she received the manuscript from

Brahms. She wrote: “As far as demands on the agility of fingers, the Brahms pieces are,

except in a few places, not difficult. But the spiritual technique therein demands a delicate

understanding. One must entrust oneself completely to Brahms in order to render these piece

in the way that he has imagined them.” 70

Frisch also gives the historical background of the publication of Op. 116. Originally,

there were only five pieces in Op. 116, but no evidence showed which five pieces they were.

69
Geiringer, Brahms, His Life and Work, 221.
70
Frisch, “Brahms: From Classical to Modern,” 338.
 21

At the last moment, Brahms decided to add two more pieces to the two- volume set. 71

According to Frisch, the set is considered the most coherent whole among Brahms’ late piano

sets. Frisch indicates that Op. 116 shows both the overall tonal plan and thematic

interrelationship. The arpeggiated descending thirds figure in the opening of Nos. 3 and 7 is

an obvious instance of thematic uniform. In addition, the opening of No. 1 also has the

descending thirds. As to artistic achievement, Frisch points out that Op. 116 along with other

sets represents the summit of the piano literature of the nineteenth century. The late pieces

essentially reflect the most important compositional technique Brahms had developed for

many years. These pieces are not retrospective of his career but forecast the musical

development in twentieth century. 72

A thesis written by Mary Lynn Matthews, “A Study of Formal Structure in Johannes

Brahms’ Character Pieces for Solo Piano, Op. 116-119,” focuses on the formal structure of

Brahms’ late sets and gives charts to illustrate the structures. In addition, she analyzes the

motives, harmonies, and phrases of the four sets. The author also points out the use of

“falling third technique” 73 which Brahms used to unify the pieces, especially in op. 116.

Bernice Feinstein’s dissertation “The Seven Capriccios of Johannes Brahms: Op. 76,

nos. 1, 2, 5, 8 and op. 116, nos. 1, 3, 7” uses Erik Erikson’s theory, which identifies eight

ages in the human life cycle, to describe seven capriccios written in different compositional

71
Ibid.,, 336.
72
Frisch, “Brahms: From Classical to Modern,”338.
73
Mary Lynn Matthews, “A Study of Formal Structure in Johannes Brahms’ Character Pieces for Solo
Piano, Op. 116-119” (Master’s thesis, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 1980), 14.
 22

periods. 74 According to Feinstein’s division of Brahms’ life, the four from op. 76 were

written at the peak of Brahms’ career and the three from op. 116 were written during his last

stage of life. The last stage, in Erikson’s theory, is the individual’s major effort nearing

completion, and it is the time for reflection. As she wrote her dissertation in 1972, Feinstein

was surprised by the sparse literature written for Brahms’ miniatures. She reports that both

teachers and professional pianists pay less attention to these capriccios except the op. 76, no.

2. Even Brahms’ friend, Theodor Billroth, felt these “lesser piano pieces” would never

receive the universal affection accorded to those of Schumann and Chopin. 75 Feinstein also

analyzes the formal structures, phrases, and motives. She gives suggestions on performance

as well. For example, in the analysis of op. 116 no.1, Feinstein suggests that the student

needs to keep the steady tempo in order to create a scherzo-like style. In another place, she

recommends a light wrist staccato without pedal to clarify the melodic line. 76 In the

summary, Feinstein claims that the capriccios present Brahms’ manipulation of

compositional procedures, rhythmic invention, contrapuntal skills, and thematic variation.

Moreover, she states that these pieces feature the suitable length of teaching. These pieces,

according to Feinstein, would be beneficial for intermediate and advanced pianists. 77

Camilla Cai’s dissertation “Brahms’ Short, Late Piano Pieces Opus Numbers 116-

119: A Source Study, An Analysis and Performance Practice” includes many details about

the publishing process of Opus 116-119. Chapter four of her dissertation presents the

74
Feinstein, “The Seven Capriccios of Johannes Brahms,” 7.
75
Ibid., 9.
76
Ibid., 180.
77
Ibid., 226.
 23

historical background of Op. 116 and indicates that the original design of Op. 116 included

five pieces and not the seven that Brahms sent to Clara Schumann in 1892. This opinion is

held by many other scholars, but there is no evidence to show which five pieces were

included in the original design. From the correspondence between Brahms and Clara and

from Clara’s comments on the pieces, Cai hypothesizes that the two pieces added were nos. 1

and 7. 78 Cai also provides details about how Brahms made changes, such as some tempo

marks, to the holograph of Op. 116, and how he altered the title of no. 4 from nocturne to

intermezzo before publication. Cai indicates the compositional principles of Opus 116-119,

such as the melodic-harmonic thirds and the delineating forms. In Op. 116, she chose to only

highlight no. 4, the central or middle piece of the set, to illustrate that there are six

possibilities when analyzing the form. Cai writes: “No single, standard formal design can

explain this piece, or contribute the tonal overview of the important formal elements.” 79

Kirby gives the historic background and compositional features of Brahms’

miniatures in A Short History of Keyboard Music. He indicates that Brahms’ early piano

music, especially the character pieces, is bounded up with literary works. However, most of

the late character pieces do not continue that tendency. Formally, the pieces are based on the

old ternary scheme without elaborations. In some piece, Brahms expanded it to five or more

sections in a style similar to the rondo. 80 Besides the formal homogeneity, the music style

also shows the generalization of the late pieces.

78
Cai, “Brahms’ Short, Late Piano Pieces,” 177.
79
Ibid., 324.
80
Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music, 239.
 24

TEXTURE
Sources of the concise definition of the term “texture” are limited. The Harvard

Dictionary of Music indicates that texture has two aspects: one is horizontal and the other is

vertical. The term may also refer to tone color, rhythm, and the characteristics of

performance such as articulation and dynamic level. It describes texture as “a woven fabric . .

. [that texture in] music consists of horizontal (‘woof’) and vertical (‘warp’) elements.” 81 In

the horizontal texture, the successive sounds form the melody and the contrapuntal lines or

the melody and the accompaniment. The vertical texture combines sound simultaneously that

form harmonies.

In Guideline for Style Analysis, Jan LaRue indicates that “the vertical texture can be

described by using the term thick or thin, simple or doubled, continuous or gapped,

alternating or overlapping, balanced or top- (bottom-) heavy, pure or mixed between voices

and instruments.” 82 He also uses fabric to describe the vertical and horizontal combination of

textures.

In The Analysis of Music, John D. White explains texture as “when two or more

people first tried singing or playing their music together.” He gives three types of texture that

include wide spacing, close texture, and open texture. 83 He also describes the nature of

81
Willi Apel, “Texture.” In Harvard Dictionary of Music, http://books.google.com/books?id
=TMdf1SioFk4C&pg=RA4-PA842&lpg=RA4-PA842&dq=music+horizontal+texture&source=bl&ots
=1HtVxu6V_g&sig=EL3NlgrHrgHtBCTUDEJ7-fpp3Sc&hl=en&ei=ZLbaSqLTA4ncsgOGlN2xCQ&sa
=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=music%20horizontal%20te
xture&f=false. (accessed October 17th, 2009).
82
Jan LaRue, Guideline for Style Analysis (New York: W. W. Norton Company, 1970), 27.
83
John D. White, The Analysis of Music (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1984), 160.
 25

texture as relating to the number and ranges of voices, such as the occurrence of doublings on

some voices, or the tessitura of the voices.

Janet M. Levy, in the article “Texture as a Sign in Classic and Early Romantic

Music,” describes texture as “the most surface and the most complex . . . its effects are, after

all, so immediate and palpable.” 84 She also indicates that texture is related to the many

component parts of music, such as melody, harmony, rhythm. It is also affected by

orchestration, register, and others.

In Structural Functions in Music, William Berry considers texture as the following:

Texture is conceived as that element of musical structure shaped

(determined,conditioned) by the voice or number of voices and other component
projecting the music materials in the sounding medium, and (when there are two
or more components) by the interrelations and interactions between them. 85

He summarizes the two processes of textures: progression and recession. In the progression,

more voices are added to the texture or the present voices become independent. The

recession happens when the independence decrease between the voices or the voices depart.

The progression contributes to the increasing intensity of the music.

Generally, there are three types of textures in music. The first is polyphonic texture or

contrapuntal texture in which “each part represents a horizontal line of individual design,

connected with the other lines by the (vertical) relationships of consonance or harmony.” 86

For example, in fugue or canon, in horizontal line the voices imitate each other. When two or

more voice parts merge, they create the vertical relationship between the lines and form the

84
Janet M. Levy, “Texture as a Sign in Classic and Early Romantic Music,” Journal of the American
Musicological Society, xxxv (1982): 482.
85
William Berry, Structural Functions in Music (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1976), 191.
86
Apel, “Texture,” 842.
 26

counterpoint and harmony. The second texture is homophonic texture. The distinction

between the melodic part and accompanying part is clear, such as a solo song with a piano

accompaniment. The Harvard Dictionary of Music defines the third type of texture as the

variety of intermediate textures that are between the strictly polyphonic and strictly

homophonic textures. This dictionary suggests Beethoven’s Sonata Op. 106 for piano as an

example to illustrate the mixture of horizontal and vertical elements which were used

commonly in nineteenth-century piano music.

TEXTURE IN ROMANTIC PERIOD

Texture as an important element in music composition includes aspects of tone color,

range, and amount of sound. Texture may also be indicative of stylistic characteristics of an

historical period or of an individual composer. Like other musical elements, texture

developed or changed from one stylistic period to another. From monophony in the Middle

Ages, polyphony in the Baroque period and homophony in the Classical period, textural

elements contributed to the characteristics of each epoch. The composers of the Romantic

period developed their own textural styles, partially based on past traditions. For example,

the polyphonic writing was not dominant in a Romantic composition and also did not follow

the strict rules of the Baroque period. Most of time in Romantic piano music, polyphony

appears as one type of texture in a work.

In his book Romantic Music: Sound and Syntax, 87 Leonard G. Ratner summarized

four types of textures used in romantic period, which are melody and accompaniment,

87
Ratner, Romantic Music: Sound and Syntax.
 27

arpeggiation, full chords, and polyphony. 88 These terms only can be generally used to

describe texture. As for each composer, the textural writing style was different. Textural

writing as an important part of a composition reflects the aesthetics of a composer’s creative

ideas. Other composers in the same period as Brahms, such as Chopin and Schumann, had

their own style of textural writing.

Schumann has a reputation of featuring different types of texture in his works. In his

dissertation Texture in Robert Schumann’s First-decade Piano Works 89, Thomas Sauer

reviewed two dissertations about Schumann’s texture written by Germen. Both of the

dissertations point out that the chordal texture is a leading feature in Schumann’s texture

writing. Sauer points out that Schumann’s preference of fully realized harmonies is the

reason people found chordal texture in many of his works. Sauer gives an example from

Schumann’s Davidsbündlertänze, no. 16, to show that the bass notes below the chords in the

treble clef project and support the melody (Figure 3). Unlike the obscure melody in Brahms’

works, melody in Schuman’s texture writing is more clearly shown. Schumann frequently

uses another line to support the melody rather than acting as a countermelody. In one such

example, “Little Song,” from Album for the Young, Op. 67, Schumann writes an embedded

texture in the left hand (circled notes) to support and reinforce the right- hand melody (Figure

4). Another example of chordal texture occurs in Papillons, Op. 2, no. 8, where Schumann

also placed melodic tones in the top notes of the right-hand chords that are supported by the

top notes of the left-hand chords (Figure 5).

88
Ibid., 38.
89
Thomas Sauer, “Texture in Robert Schumann’s First-decade Piano Works” (PhD diss. The City
University of New York, 1997), 30.
 28

Figure 3. Schumann’s Davidsbündlertänze, no. 16, measures 1-3. Source: Schumann,

Robert. Serie VII: Für Pianoforte zu zwei Händen. Edited by Clara Schumann.
Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1881-1912.

Figure 4. Schumann, Op. 68, “Little Song,” measures 1-5. Source:

Schumann, Robert. Album for the Young. Los Angeles: Alfred Publishing,
2006.

Figure 5. Schumann, Op. 2, no. 8, measures 17-23. Source: Schumann,

Robert. Papillions. Munich: Henle, 2007.

In her dissertation Texture and Pedaling in Selected Nocturnes of Frederic Chopin, 90

Lisa Zdechlik reviewed studies that focus on the analysis of texture in piano literature.

Zdechlik agrees with another author, Kevin Moore, who concluded that polyphonic texture

90
Lisa Zdechlik, “Texture and Pedaling in Selected Noctures of Frederic Chopin” (PhD diss. The
University of Oklahoma, 2001).
 29

appears frequently in Chopin’s works and that the use of an implied voice is a leading feature

in Chopin’s textural writing. In her dissertation, Zdechlik analyzed texture in four nocturnes

of Chopin. She analyzed the parametric profile, such as melody, rhythm, and harmony, and

she shows the textural types used by Chopin in his nocturnes, such as monophonic,

homophonic, chordal, polyphonic, and heterophonic. In the last chapter, Zdechlik

summarized that although the homophonic texture is predominant in the nocturnes, other

textures, such as polyphonic texture, are used. The example from the B section of Nocturne

in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, no. 1 shows an example of Chopin’s polyphonic writing (Figure

6). The figure presents the imitated two layers of the right hand. Zdechlik also pointed out

that the use of monophonic texture for important expressive points is another feature of

Chopin’s textural writing. Since each composer had his own approach of textural writing,

Brahms’ textural writing in piano music will be discussed in next section.

Figure 6. Chopin, Nocturne, Op. 27, no. 1, measures 29-34. Source:

Chopin, Frederic. Complete Preludes, Nocturnes & Waltzes. New York:
G. Schirmer, Inc., 2006.

TEXTURE IN BRAHMS’ PIANO WORKS

The dense texture is a signature of Brahms’ works, something generally recognized

among the musicians who study and perform Brahms. Nearly all the books on his life and

compositional style have description of his musical texture. In Augustus Arnone’s

dissertation “Textural Ambiguity in the Piano of Johannes Brahms,” the entrance of Brahms
 30

Ballade Op. 10 No. 4 is offered as an example to show that Brahms has written a piano

indicates that Brahms used the low register overtone effect which creates a kind of sonic fog

to interfere with the melodic clarity. Arnone introduces the ambiguity of Brahms’s chamber

texture designed in every respect to partially obscure the melodic line. 91 Arnone also music

and tells a story that shows Brahms’ intention to cover the sound of cello melody when

Brahms was accompanying his F Major Cello Sonata, Op. 99.

In a dissertation entitled “Texture in Selected Solo Piano Works of Brahms and

Works for Two Pianos of Johannes Brahms: a Performance Project,” Dimitri Nazarenko

claims there is abundant research about the forms, rhythm, thematic development, and

harmony in Brahms’ piano works. However, he noted that texture, as a crucial element of a

successful performance, is lacking of supporting detail. 92 He also mentions that the

understanding of Brahms’ textural complexity will affect the student’s decisions about

tempo, dynamic nuance, and touch. Nazarenko writes that one of the significant features is

Brahms’ polyphonic thinking. The devices Brahms used frequently are imitation, inversion,

augmentation, diminution, pedal point, and ostinato. Even in his homophonic writing, the

accompaniment sometimes has the feel of polyphony. Brahms used his favorite two against

three rhythms to individualize two equal sounds. The developed counterpoint of the bass line

is another aspect of Brahms’ polyphonic writing. Nazarenko quotes Wolff’s comment on

Brahms’s polyphonic writing saying that “often the bass pairs with the melody in the way

91
Augustus Arnone, “Textural Ambiguity in the Piano of Johannes Brahms” (DMA diss., Cornell
University, 2007).
92
Dimitri Nazarenko, “Texture in Selected Solo Piano Works of Brahms and Works for Two Pianos of
Johannes Brahms: A Performance Project” (DMA diss., University of Maryland, 2003).
 31

that the two voices, while clearly individual, can be understood when played together.” 93

Another means Brahms used to increase the sound density was the low register. He often

wrote the melody using the middle register or using the counterpoint line in the middle

register against the melody. The last feature of Brahms’s texture is harmonic doubling and

melodic doubling. Nazarenko claims that in harmonic doubling Brahms used the third

doubling to sharp a chord, and used the fifth doubling to create a feel of “increasing weight.”

Brahms used the third and sixth to double the melody.

The third and sixth Brahms used to double the melody and the doubled full chords are

described in Kirby’s Music for Piano: A Short History as well-known textural features of

Brahms’s composition. 94 Kirby includes Brahms’s F Minor Sonata for piano, the main theme

of the rondo of the Sonata in C major, and the Scherzo and Trio in F-sharp Minor as

examples. Besides this two features, Kirby mentions the chordal texture that appears in the

beginning of his sonatas as well as the density of texture created by an orchestral effect in the

Piano Sonata in F-sharp Minor. A new device Brahms used was to move the melody in the

inner voice or bass line. For example, in the Schumann Variation Op. 9, he often put the

theme in the bass. 95 When presenting the character pieces of the later period of Brahms,

Kirby indicates that the tendency of dense texture is more obvious. The chordal melody and

arpeggiated melody move in thirds that can be observed in the character pieces. These

features appear in the Op. 116, No. 3 and 5.

93
Nazarenko, “Texture in Selected Solo Piano Works.” 4.
94
F. E. Kirby, Music for Piano: A Short History (Portland: Amadeus Press, 2003), 232.
95
Kirby, Music for Piano: A Short History, 235.
 32

There are numerous descriptions of Brahms’s dense texture. Generally, Brahms used

three devices to create dense textures. The first is the chordal melody and doubled full

chords. The second is to obscure melody which is embedded into the accompaniment or

located in the low register. The third is polyphonic writing. This thesis is based on these

three devices to analyze texture in Brahms’s Op. 116.

TEXTURE IN PIANO PEDAGOGY

When people read a score or listen to music, texture is one of the most obvious

features that can be perceived. Since texture is a crucial component of a composition, textural

analysis becomes an important part of the musical analysis. Textural analysis can describe

the stylistic tendency of a composer. Also, the analysis of texture can help to clarify the

structure. Moreover, the characteristics of texture can contribute to the expressive effect of

music. Hence, the analysis and the execution of texture cannot be neglected or avoided in a

piano lesson or practice, and understanding the texture may lead to a successful performance.

There are numerous books that discuss the importance of texture in teaching, practice,

and performance. Some discuss the texture of chords and how to voice them, such as

Seymour Bernstein’s book With Your Own Two Hands and Walter Gieseking’s and Karl

Leimer’s book Piano Technique. Bernstein discusses how to voice chords. He claims voicing

is a technique which delineates the autonomous properties of a chord through dynamics. 96

Bernstein points out that voicing a chord on piano can provide pleasurable auditory and

physical sensations. When voicing a chord, vertical notes need to be treated individually or

the pianist needs to imagine they are played by different instruments. In a chordal passage,

96
Seymour Bernstein, With Your Own Two Hands (New York: Schirmer Books, 1981), 140.
 33

the pianist needs to listen and play it like a string quartet or choirs. Bernstein gives step-by-

step instruction of how to play a four-note chord. He also emphasizes the importance of

listening carefully to the four sounds.

There is a section on playing chords in Piano Technique. The authors indicate that

separate tones of a chord need different degrees of strength. Gieseking and Limar indicate

that voicing a chord is the most difficult technique and demands great concentration and

diligence, 97but it can also be an interesting experience. When playing both melody and

accompaniment within one hand, the melody should be two or three degrees stronger in

sound than the accompaniment. The accompanying chord should not blur the melody, and it

should not be played too soft to be heard. It demands perfect technique and the absolute

control of fingers. Gieseking and Leimer also point out that these techniques can only be

obtained by carefully training the ear. 98

In The Teaching of Artur Schnabel, Wolff indicates the importance of reading the

score, the first step of learning the music. The reading should be an intense artistic activity. If

there are two melodies, they must be read as two independent components from the very

beginning of sight-reading the music. In the section “Proportions of Sound,” there is a

discussion on voicing. Wolff presents Schnabel’s view of voicing, “in a four-part chord in

close position, the four notes are sounded as ‘members of family’ with a slight

preponderance of first the top, then the bottom note above the rest.” 99 Schnabel liked to ask

students: “What happens here?” in his class. He consistently asked this question because it
97
Walter Gieseking and Karl Leimer, Piano Technique (New York: Dover Publications, INC., 1972), 56.
98
Ibid., 56.
99
Konrad Wolff, The Teaching of Artur Schnabel: A Guide to Interpretation (New York: Praeger
Publishers, 1972), 159.
 34

refers to what can or needs to be heard in a passage. Schnabel addressed the importance of

listening as well.

Heinrich Schenker writes about the importance of bringing out the texture during

performance. He wrote: “In order to produce the character of polyphony it frequently is

necessary to have different dynamics in different fingers.” 100 Schenker suggests that the

imitated sound or articulations of different orchestra instruments can help to produce the rich

texture. He also points out that the basses which occur after the beats need to be played

louder than the melody. The example he gives is from Beethoven’s F Minor Piano Sonata,

op. 57, second movement. Schenker provides two examples of different textures: octave and

rendition of the bass. He emphasizes the importance of a well shaped bass in a successful

performance. He writes: “ The performer must understand that the bass of the piano should

receive as varied a treatment of dynamic nuances as the bass line of the orchestra, which has

to follow its own specially described shading.” 101

100
Heinrich Schenker, The Art of Performance (New York: Oxford University, 2002), 14.
101
Ibid., 16.
 35

CHAPTER 3

ANALYSIS OF TEXTURE IN BRAHMS’ OP. 116

WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

The textures of Brahms’ Op. 116 are analyzed in this chapter. The analysis of textures

focuses on the three types of texture, chordal texture, polyphonic texture, and texture with

embedded melody. For each type of texture, two or three examples are chosen and analyzed,

and practice suggestions are given. Examples are selected from the pieces to facilitate the

discussion of voicing problems and to illustrate procedures for practicing textures. The

analysis in this study is used as a tool to produce a convincing performance of texture. After

analyzing the materials, decisions on how to express the piece need to be made. The

execution of textures involves many issues, such as voicing, balance, touch, and most

importantly, hearing. To execute these techniques, the student first needs to observe master

pianists, who show the technical gestures or movements. Next, the student needs to tackle

these technical aspects by studying with a knowledgeable teacher. The concepts of voicing,

balance, and touch are too abstract to be described in pedagogical books. These concepts and

techniques can more easily be learned through a teacher’s demonstrations that are based on

the teacher’s personal performance or experience. Since the technical abilities and styles of

students vary, it is difficult to provide detailed instructions that are applicable to all students.

The practice exercises and suggestions in this chapter are general guidelines for solving

textural problems in performance.

 36

TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE IN OP. 116

In his early piano work, Brahms was fond of large scale forms, such as sonata form or

theme and variations. However, he adopted smaller musical forms, such as ternary form and

binary form, in his later piano pieces. This later preference is found in Op. 116. Of the seven

pieces, five use ternary form. When examining the music, the changes of texture always

follow the change of sections within the structure. The following discussion describes how

Brahms used different kinds of texture to indicate the changes within the form.

The Capriccio, Op. 116, no.1, is structurally interesting. There are two structural

analyses provided by Feinstein in her dissertation “The Seven Capriccios of Johannes

Brahms, Op. 76, Nos. 1, 2, 5, 8 and Op. 116, Nos. 1, 3, 7.” First, Feinstein describes a varied

sonata-allegro form. 102 There are three parts: the exposition (mm. 1-58), development (mm.

59-131), and the recapitulation (mm. 132-207). Although it has three parts of a traditional

sonata form, the two themes reversed in the recapitulation where the second theme is

repeated before the first theme. Fernstein’s second analysis identifies a form with two

alternating sections: A in mm. 1-20 (transition mm. 21-36), B in mm. 37-58, A’ in mm. 59-

102, B’ in mm. 103-131 (transition mm. 132-147), B’’ in mm. 148-175, and A’’ in mm. 176-

192 with a coda in mm. 192-207. Based on the analyses of two possible forms, Fernstein’s

second analysis is more convincing. The A section in mm. 1-20 uses a chordal texture with

syncopated rhythm (Figure 7). The transition (mm. 21-36) combines chordal and polyphonic

textures with hemiola (Figure 8). The B section (mm. 37-58) uses polyphonic texture with

doubled octaves (Figure 9).

102
Feinstein, “The Seven Capriccios,” 169.
 37

Figure 7. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 1-4. Source: Brahms,

Johannes. Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G.
Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 8. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 21-26. Source:

Brahms, Johannes. Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica
Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 9. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 37-43. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

The Intermezzo, Op. 116, no. 2, is a ternary form. The A section (mm. 1-18)

combines homophonic texture with contrapuntal texture in the inner voice (Figure 10). The

primary melody in the right hand begins with eighth notes while the bass voice of the left

hand accompanies with a downbeat triplets. The B section (mm. 19-50) features embedded

texture combined with polyphonic texture (Figure 11). The re-transition is from measure
 38

Figure 10. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 2, measures 11-14. Source: Brahms,
Johannes. Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G.
Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 11. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 2, measures 19-23. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag,
1986.

51-65 which used the material from A section. The A’ section starts at measure 66 with the

same texture of the A section.

The third piece of Op. 116 is also a ternary form. The A section falls between

measure 1 and measure 34. This section features embedded texture, but there are a few

examples of polyphonic texture as well. The direction of the stems in the treble clef or right

hand distinguishes the embedded melody (Figure 12) from the accompaniment. The B

section (mm. 35-70) uses polyphonic texture (see circled notes in Figure 13) and chordal

texture (see boxed notes in Figure. 13). The chordal and polyphonic textures project a

chorale-feel to the section. The A’ section has the same texture as the A section.
 39

Figure 12. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 7-9. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 13. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 35-38. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

The Intermezzo, no. 4, is ABAB. In the A section (mm. 1-35), polyphonic writing is

used melodically as well as rhythmically (Figure 14). In the beginning (measure 1-7),

question and answer phrases occur between the left and right hands (Figure 15). In measure

8, a homophonic texture is used with the right hand executing the primary melody. Two

measure later (measure 10), Brahms returns to a polyphonic texture. The homophonic texture

of the B section (Figure 16) clearly shows a right-hand melody supported by inner thirds and

octaves, creating a thicker sound, and a left-hand arpeggiated accompaniment. The A’

section returns at measure 50 and the B’ section begins at measure 60.

The fifth piece of Op. 116 is a rounded binary form. Both A sections combine chordal

and polyphonic textures. The opening chords begin a two-note-slur motive, where the

alternation of two highest then the two lowest notes of the right hand and the two lowest then

the two highest notes of the left hand, that creates the primary melody (Figure 17). The
 40

Figure 14. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 4, measures 30-32. Source: Brahms,
Johannes. Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G.
Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 15. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 4, mm. 1-4. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag,
1986.

Figure 16. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 4, measures 38-41. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 17. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 5, measures 1-4. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.
 41

two-note slurs of the right and left hands move in contrary motion. The B section starts at

measure 11. The texture in this section is polyphonic (Figure 18). There are three voices in

this section. The soprano, stemmed upwards, is the primary melody and middle voice,

indicated with the slur between staves, is an imitation of the soprano. The two voices are

separated by three eighth notes. The bass voice doubles the soprano and the middle voice in

the first three measures. Starting at measure 15, the bass is a repeated, single harmonic tone

until the end of B section.

Figure 18. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 5, measures 12-16. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

No. 6 reflects another ternary form. Like no. 3 of this collection, Brahms used vertical

texture for both A sections and linear texture for the B section. Both A sections combine

chordal and polyphonic textures (Figure 19). The right hand plays two melodic lines, which

are stemmed in opposite directions in the treble clef. The left hand plays the harmonic bass in

octaves. The B section features a melody embedded within broken chords (Figure 20).

The last piece, no. 7, is also a ternary form. Both A sections are embedded melodic

and polyphonic textures in simple duple meter. The melody that is indicated by stems and

slurs is embedded within the broken chords of the right hand and the left hand (Figure 21).

The B section in 6/8 meter (compound duple meter) is homophonic. The syncopated melody,

beginning on middle C and indicated by the three-measure slur between staves, switches
 42

Figure 19. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 6, measures 1-4. Source: Brahms,
Johannes. Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann.
Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 20. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 6, measures 25-28. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 21. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 1-4. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

between hands (Figure 22). The accompaniment is arpeggiated. The transition from measures

47 to 61 returns to simple duple meter. A monophonic treatment is applied to the motive of

the A section, and it is split between two hands (Figure 23). The coda in 3/8 meter begins in

measure 74 and uses chordal texture. Brahms uses hemiola at measure 82 where he ties the

third beat to the first beat of the next measure to create a duple effect (Figure 24).
 43

Figure 22. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 21-25. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 23. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 47-50. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 24. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 80-85. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

CHORDAL TEXTURE
Chordal texture, an important element in Brahms’ piano music, was discussed in the

previous chapter. Generally, musicians consider Brahms to be a composer who captured the

sound of the entire orchestra when he composed. For this reason, thick texture frequently

created by chords covering a wide range of the piano is prominent in his piano works. In his

book A Short History of Keyboard Music, Kirby indicates that Brahms often used third and
 44

sixth to double the melody and the harmony. 103 This doubling is one way in which Brahms

created a thick, chordal texture.

In many passages of chordal texture within Brahms’ piano compositions, the student

must first identify the melodic tone of a chord or the significant melodic line within a phrase.

In Brahms’ music, the melody may be accented, doubled stemmed or stemmed by voice, or

sometimes indicated with slurs. There are also some phrases without any markings, where

the student needs to analyze the voices to identify the possible melodies.

The appropriate strategies for voicing chords were discussed in pedagogical or

performance books and articles. In “Playing Chords,” 104 Leimar and Gieseking suggest that a

chord needs to be played with different strengths on each finger to separate the melody and

the harmony. Leimar and Gieseking also indicate that the melodic note of the chord should

be two to three levels louder than the accompanying tones.

To practice chordal voicing, the student needs to listen carefully, to be self-critical,

and to possess great patience. Before practicing, the student should determine a sound

concept for each chord that guides the distribution of weight on each note of the chord. To

choose an appropriate sound, the student may play the melodic note and the harmonic notes

with separate hands since voicing a chord with two hands is easier than using one hand.

After the student decides on an appropriate sound concept, achieving a different

weight on each note within one hand is the next difficulty. The practice of weight use within

one hand starts with the melodic notes. Since the hand often needs to play an interval or

chord, the hand position is stretched and not comfortable when playing a single note. In this
103
Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music, 334.
104
Gieseking and Leimar, 56.
 45

practice, the student should maintain a chordal shape in the hand position and should play the

melodic note while keeping the harmonic notes silent. Although playing only one melodic

tone, the student must hear the harmony in the inner ear, which allows the melodic tone to

relate to the overall musical context.

After practicing the melody tones, a similar method can be used to practice the

harmonic tones. To practice the harmony, the student may use different articulations to

separate the melodic tones and the harmonic tones. The student may practice the melodic

tones louder with legato and the harmonic tones with a softer finger staccato. This practice

develops better control of the fingers. The distinctive articulation of the two tones may

establish the sound concept clearly. The final step is to play the complete chord. If all the

fingers produce the sound with a drawing motion, the student will have better control of the

distribution of strength. For the melody note, the finger needs to have a stronger drawing

motion to create a firmer, deeper sound. The suggestions above can generally be used to play

chords in the works of many composers. But, since their music varies, the distribution of

finger weight may also vary.

Three passages with chordal texture were selected from Brahms’ Op. 116 and

analyzed, and practice suggestions are provided. In the A and A’ sections of no. 5, both

hands play a similar motive (see Figure 25, pickup to m. 1) which is a melodic two-note slur

using eighth notes combined with an accompanying chord on the first eighth note. Brahms

used two-note slurs to show the melody. According to the marks, the outer notes of some

chords need to be voiced while other chords require the student to voice the inner
 46

Figure 25. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 5, measures 1-4. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

notes. In Figure 18, the first two-note slur is above the notes of the treble clef, the primary

melody, and below the secondary bass tones of the bass clef. The second slur is below the

notes of the treble clef and above the notes of the secondary line in the bass clef. The

placement of the slurs shows the primary melody. This section not only uses chordal texture,

but also combines chordal and contrapuntal texture. The two-note slurs of the bass line and

the melodic line move in contrary motion. In this section, the two lines may have equal

volume. Because of the combination of the two textures, the student may practice them at the

same time.

After practice in the voicing of the chords as described earlier in this chapter, the

student may practice the melodic lines in each hand with the suggested fingering. Because

the two-note slur has a forward momentum that leads to the second note, the first note of the

two-note slur cannot be played too heavily. The student should lean into the second note of

each two-slur to maintain an equal dynamic rather than the typical loud-soft execution of

many two-note slurs. After practicing each hand individually, the student may play the

melodic line of the treble clef and the contrary line of the bass clef with hands together to

achieve the desired balance. The practice needs to focus on the contrary motion and the

balance. The next step is to practice with all the written notes in one hand. In this practice,
 47

the student may use different articulations for the melodic tone and the harmonic tone. This

method was mentioned earlier as a general procedure for practicing chord voicing. After

practicing hands separately, the student may practice with both hands. In order to achieve

lighter harmonic notes and better control of the fingers, the practice may continue to use

different articulations. The student always needs to pay attention to the balance between

hands. The third step is to play all the notes of the right hand while voicing the melody and

balancing with the contrary melodic tones of the left hand. After this, the student may reverse

the two hands with the left hand playing all of its notes while the right hand only plays the

melodic line. At last, the student may practice with all the written notes in a slow tempo

while listening carefully for the melodic lines. Student must remember to employ a drawing

motion to play all notes and chords, especially the fingers on the melodic tones.

Some chordal passages do not have markings to identify the primary melody. For this

kind of music, a student needs to analyze the score to determine the melodic line. For

example in Op. 116, no. 6, the chordal passage in measures 1- 8 (see Figure 26), Brahms

does not indicate the primary melody. In this passage, the right hand plays two lines that are

indicated by the different stem directions and the left hand plays the harmonic bass line. The

slurs appear above the treble clef (right hand), but the crescendo and decrescendo below the

eighth notes may indicate the primary melody. When examining the score, the first three

slurs of the right hand are sequential melodic patterns. The original pattern of three quarter

notes, pitches B-B-A stemmed upwards, in the top line continues with the eighth notes of the

inner line stemmed downwards in the treble clef. Brahms may have used the dynamic marks

to show the primary melody switching to the inner line or voice. Many concert pianists have

chosen to project this melodic line in their audio recordings. The first sequence appears
 48

Figure 26. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 6, measures 1-11. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

completely in the top line of second phrase. Like the original pattern, the next sequence has

three quarter notes in the top line and then is completed in the inner voice. The fourth phrase

has slurs above and below notes of the treble clef (see Figure 26), where the music modulates

from f-sharp minor to C-sharp major. The inner line of this fourth phrase has more chromatic

pitches to facilitate the modulation.

After determining the melodic line, the first step is to play it alone to produce the

dolce e ben legato. The purpose of this practice is to establish an appropriate articulated

sound for the melody. The next suggestion is to divide the right hand or treble voices

between two hands. This practice allows the student to balance the sound when two or more

voices appear in one hand. The top notes of the first three chords are the most important. The

inner pitches, B-B#-C#, that move contrary to the melodic pitches are less important. The

student may isolate and practice the top quarter notes and the middle quarter notes to hear the

contrary motion. After these practice steps, the student should have a concept of the balance

between the two lines and may play the two lines within one hand. When playing all the
 49

notes of the treble clef with the right hand, the student uses more weight on the fourth and

fifth fingers to project the chosen melody. Since the first two melodic notes are repeated, the

student needs to use a vertical drawing motion of the wrist to connect them. The melodic

passage using eighth notes is easier to play because there are fewer tones played by the right

hand, and the stronger fingers play these melodic notes. A wrist rotation may aid the

execution of the legato in the latter half of the first phrase. In summary, the repeated melodic

notes require a vertical wrist motion and the eighth notes demand a rotating wrist motion.

Since the bass line is independent and is in the low register of piano, the student only needs

to control the volume to prevent the left hand from overwhelming the right hand.

Another example from Op. 116, no. 1, occurs in measures 21-36. This passage

contains two eight-measure phrases (mm. 21-28 and mm. 29-36), and each of them is divided

into three phrases (see Figure 27). The first phrase is measure 21-24 where the right hand

plays a chordal structure of four tones. Three of the four tones are an octave (C) combined

with a second below (B); these chord tones are repeated five times. The inner fourth tone

within this repeated chord creates an ascending chromatic voice largely played by the second

finger. The student may choose to voice one of two melodies: one is the repeated treble C’s

played by the fifth finger of the right hand, another is the inner chromatic line. The higher

treble C may be practiced with the octave middle C. The student needs to lean into the fifth

finger of the right hand to create more weight on the melodic tone. Since this melody uses a

repeated octave, a clockwise wrist motion may provide a smoother sound. After practicing

the octaves, the student can add the repeated B’s of the right hand. If voicing the inner

chromatic line, the student needs to practice it alone. This ascending inner voice is largely

played by the second finger of the right hand. The student may use a clockwise wrist motion
 50

Figure 27. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 21-

24. Source: Brahms, Johannes. Fantasien, Op.
116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G.
Henle Verlag, 1986.

similar to the motion used to produce the legato octaves. After practicing the two individual

lines, the student may play them together with different articulations. While the repeated

octaves are played legato with a clockwise wrist motion, the ascending chromatic line may

be practiced staccato. The articulations may also be reversed. Next, the student practices the

two lines legato and applies more weight on the right-hand fingers used to voice the chosen

melody. Finally, the student adds the B’s to the practice.

Chordal texture appears frequently in Brahms’ works. Brahms has indicated some of

the primary melodic tones with various markings, but in some cases, he does not identify the

primary melody. When chordal texture is used, the first task is to determine the primary

melody. After determining the melodic line, the student needs to create an appropriate sound

concept that dictates the proper distribution of weight on the fingers. The first practice step is

to voice the primary melody followed by adding more chord tones on each practice repetition

until all textual layers have been included. During the process, listening to oneself is an

important element of the practice. To achieve the appropriate sound concept, the student

needs to have an expectation of the sound before actually playing. When playing, the student

needs to listen carefully to adjust the balance of sound.

 51

EMBEDDED TEXTURE
Embedded texture is another feature of Brahms’ piano music. In this texture, the

melodic notes are weaved or embedded within another line. This kind of melody also can be

called embedded melody. Some of the melodic tones have double stems and some of them do

not. The difficulty of playing this texture is to voice the melodic notes. Often, this kind of

texture is written with shorter note values, such as eighth or sixteenth notes, and is played in

a moderate or fast tempo that makes the voicing technique harder.

The three selected examples of embedded melody occur in the B sections of Op. 116 nos. 2

and 6, and a transition of no. 7. The B section of no. 2 is written in broken octaves of

sixteenth notes (see Figure 28). In this section, there are no double stems to show the melody.

However, the alternative version (ossia) has the higher register notes appearing on the eighth-

note pulse and all of them are double stemmed. The alternative version shows Brahms’ desire

to emphasize the higher tones. When analyzing the right-hand patterns, the student discovers

stepwise two-note groups alternating between the higher and the lower octaves (see the

circled and boxed notes in Figure 28). The stepwise motive is also emphasized in the left-

hand part of the B section as well as in both clefs of the A section (Figure 29). Moreover, this

stepwise motive of two notes is one of the features that unify the seven pieces.

The practice of an embedded melody may start with playing the higher pitches of the

treble clef with the right hand and the lower pitches in the same clef with the left hand.

Through this practice, the student may hear the music flowing between the two groups like a

dialog or conversation, or the two groups of pitches (higher and lower) may function as a call

and response. When practicing the two ranges of pitches with the right hand, the student may
 52

Figure 28. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 2, measures 19-23. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag,
1986.

Figure 29. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 2, measures 1-9. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

use legato for the higher pitches and staccato on the lower pitches in order to distinguish the

different lines. The student also needs to pay attention to the combined movements of the

arm, the wrist, and the fingers since the right hand is stretched or extended when playing

octaves as well as to the fingering (fingers 1-4 and 2-5) to produce a very legato line.

Moreover, the finger movements need to be small and close to the keys to produce a soft,

even sound. To achieve a soft, legato sound in a fast tempo is impossible without using the

wrist and the arm. The rotation of the wrist and arm may improve the legato. First, the
 53

teacher and student need to decide the size of the rotation as well as its direction. Since the

higher pitches are the call, they need to be voiced louder than the lower pitches. A clockwise

rotation of the wrist and arm may produce a louder sound after the arm is dropped on the first

note.

The practice of this rotation may start in a slow tempo that allows the student to

observe and think about the motion. Practice should begin with a small section of the music,

before practice expands to more phrases or sections. There are successive thumb movements

in some places, such as the last note of measure 20 and the first note of measure 21 of Figure

24, where the student needs to have counter-clockwise motion to maintain a legato

connection. These examples need to be isolated and practiced.

The second selected example of embedded texture occurs in the B section of Op. 116 no. 6

(Figure 30). In this section, the accompaniment consists of broken chords in triplets. The

melodic tones are played by the right hand. Some of the melodic tones are embedded within

the accompaniment and appear as the first notes of the triplets, which are also double

stemmed. The first practice step is to play the melodic notes alone. Only when the melody is

clearly identified and remembered may the student use more weight on the correct fingers.

Again, the student may use different articulations to distinguish between the melody and the

accompaniment. This practice may also start with the right hand before using both hands.

After this step, the student may practice both hands while observing Brahms’ articulations.

The third example of an embedded melody using sixteenth notes occurs in a transition

of no. 7. The four elements of the transition are drawn from the A section. The first element

is the broken seventh chord in sixteenth notes in the treble clef (see Figure 31, m. 1); the

second element is the two-note leap, the first and last note of the five-note phrase in the bass
 54

Figure 30. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 6, measures 25-43. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 31. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 1-4. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

voice(m. 1 to m. 2); the third element features the two stepwise notes, stemmed upwards, in

the upper melodic line (m. 1); and the last is the melodic interval of the fourth, stemmed

upwards, which alternates with the melodic step or second, and also occurs in the upper

melodic line (m. 2). Later in the work, Brahms notated the elements in different ways. In

Figure 32, the first element, stemmed upwards, appears in measure 47 with the second

element, which is stemmed downwards. The first note of third element has a double stem and

an accent mark (m. 48). At the beginning of this section, the stepwise melody appears in

every other measure of the right hand (mm. 48, 50), and grows more intense as the dynamics

increase in measure 52. From the notation and the frequency of its appearance, the stepwise
 55

Figure 32: Brahms, Op. 116, no. 7, measures 47-50. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

motion may be considered a primary element in this section. The student may follow the

general practice steps described for the previous examples, such as using different

articulations for the elements and imagining the elements played by different instruments.

An embedded melody without double stems is easily ignored in a piano work, like the

first and second elements of Figure 28, measure 47. The student needs to carefully analyze

the music to identify the primary melodic notes. If all the notes are played the same way,

there will be no leading and support roles like those in a drama. The listener cannot hear

different colors and lines in the music, which means that the performer and the listener lose

the enjoyment of the thick textures. The performance will be plain and unconvincing. To

identify the primary melody and to practice this melody are the first steps in building a strong

inner hearing of what needs to be projected or voiced. The next step is to add one supporting

line to the primary melody. To separate the two lines between the two hands or to use a

different articulation for each line remain significant steps during the practice. At the same

time, the student needs to listen carefully to the individual lines when playing in order to

distribute the appropriate weight to each finger and to use proper touch.
 56

POLYPHONIC TEXTURE
In polyphonic texture, there are two or more relatively independent melodic lines

played simultaneously. Polyphonic texture is significant in Brahms’ compositions. His study

of counterpoint with Joachim and his knowledge of Baroque music prepared Brahms to

compose contrapuntally. He used the elements of the canon and the fugue in some of his

compositions, such as the Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel.

In other compositions, the polyphonic texture is an important tool which Brahms used

to develop his musical ideas. Auerbach’s article “Tiered Polyphony and Its Determinative

Role in the Piano Music of Johannes Brahms” 105 illustrates the importance of tiered

polyphony in Brahms’s piano work. His analysis of Brahms’ tiered polyphony provides a

unique insight which is not covered by other approaches. Auerbach analyzed the polyphony

in Brahms’s piano work Op. 79 by describing the rhythmic/metrical layering which produces

metrical dissonance based on three degrees: weak, moderate, or strict. According to

Auerbach, the lines with higher metrical dissonance are more independent. An analysis and

an awareness of Brahms’ polyphonic texture help the student and the teacher to clarify the

obscure and dense lines and to make performance decisions.

This section provides three examples of polyphonic texture in Op.116. The first

example is from Op. 116, no. 1, measures 21-24 (see Figure 33), a hemiola passage in 3/8

where both hands play a quarter-note pulse which creates a metrical feeling of 2/4. The bass

line is a chromatic scale in octaves that ascends on the beat. The right-hand chords enter one

eighth note after each left-hand octave, or the weaker portion of each beat. The two lines

105
Brent Auerbach, “Tiered Polyphony and Its Determinative Role in the Piano Music of Johannes
Brahms,” Journal of Music Theory 52 (Fall 2008):273-320.
 57

Figure 33. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 1, measures 21-28. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

occur at different rhythmic points. Brahms marked this section ben legato for a very legato

sound. If the lines are played legato and independently, the listener may easily hear that there

are two lines. However, if the student does not perform the two lines independently, it sounds

like one line with alternating low and high sounds. To avoid this kind of problem, the student

needs to play the two lines legato and to carefully sustain the octaves of the left hand and the

chords of the right hand to form two linear melodic lines.

In the left hand, a legato fingering that alternates 5-1 and 4-1 is helpful in achieving

the legato. When playing the second octave in measure 21, the student sustains the fifth

finger of the first octave until the fourth finger depresses the lowest note of the next octave.

Besides of the finger legato, a slight clockwise wrist motion on each octave assists in creating

a smoother sound. If the student has a smaller hand and needs to use fingers 5-1 to play all

the left-hand octaves, suggestions may include practicing the movement of thumb or fifth

finger also may include practicing the thumb or the fifth and fourth fingers alone. When the

same finger moves a half step towards the next note, the wrist rotates clockwise which helps

the finger to move smoothly. After practicing with a single finger, the student may practice

the legato octaves by connecting two octaves first, then connecting three, and so on. The last

step may add the overlapping or syncopated pedal, which can create a more legato sound and

sustain the octave longer. Because of the chromatic bass line, the student needs to change the
 58

pedal after each octave. Most of the right hand chords are played by the same fingers, which

creates difficulty for the student when attempting to play legato. The wrist may assist the

production of a more legato sound. All the octave chords may be played with a clockwise

wrist motion.

The second example of polyphonic texture begins in Op. 116, no. 3, measures 35-36.

This piece is in 2/2 meter with the half note as the basic pulse (see Figure 34). There are two

motives: one is the soprano line of the two measures, and the second motive is the bass line

in the same two measures. In most of this section, there are three voices or lines that are

written. But at some points, there are only two lines that can be seen and the third line is

hidden or embedded within the other two lines, such as measures 41-42 (Figure 35, and

Figure 36 where the circled notes are embedded). In some other places, there is a fourth voice

(Figure 37). The student needs to find the hidden line and to practice all lines separately.

Next, the student may practice the soprano and bass together followed by practice of any

other two lines. When finishing this practice of two lines, the student may practice three lines

with different dynamics. The line with the primary melody is played louder than the other

lines. Although it is a polyphonic texture, the student still needs to choose a primary line and

a secondary line according to the importance of the elements. For example, the triplet in the

soprano of Figure 35 is an important element from the second motive. When the two triplets

in measure 41 lead to climax in measure 42, the soprano is considered the primary melody.

The top notes of these right-hand chords need to be voiced. The secondary line includes the

circled notes in the left hand (Figure 35), which are an element from the first motive (see

Figure 36). This line is embedded in the bass line. When playing the bass,
 59

Figure 34. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 35-36.

Source: Brahms, Johannes. Fantasien, Op. 116.
Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle
Verlag, 1986.

Figure 35. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures

41-42. Source: Brahms, Johannes. Fantasien,
Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann.
Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

Figure 36. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 35-37. Source:

Brahms, Johannes. Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica
Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.
 60

Figure 37. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 3, measures 37-40. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

the student should carefully listen to the secondary line and use the inner ear to guide the

hand to connect the two notes (D-G). Since the bass line is relatively independent and low,

the student may not need extra effort to voice the line. When there are four voices in the

music, the student may follow the same practice suggestions as those suggested for three

voices.

The last example of polyphonic texture may be found in Op. 116, no. 4, measures 30-

32 which is in 3/4 meter (see Figure 38). The phrases in each hand are indicated with a slur.

Brahms created phrases of different lengths in the two hands (see the check marks in Figure

38). The soprano begins with three triplet groups in the first phrase and incorporates hemiola

in the second phrase. The middle and bass lines are triplets until measure 31 where the two

lines combine with the soprano to create the hemiola. The three measures feature polyphonic

melodies and rhythms. The student may practice the three lines separately and lift between

the phrases. Next, the student should practice the soprano and bass line together. The third

practice step may divide the soprano and middle lines between the two hands before playing

these lines with the right hand. Different articulations may be used to separate the two lines.

Finally, the student may practice the three lines together. During practice, the student always

listens carefully for the polyphonic lines in each step.

 61

Figure 38. Brahms, Op. 116, no. 4, measures 30-32. Source: Brahms, Johannes.
Fantasien, Op. 116. Edited by Monica Steegmann. Munich: G. Henle Verlag, 1986.

The polyphonic texture is a technical and musical element that the student frequently

confronts in piano study, requiring decisions about the primary melody and the balance of

lines. Sometimes, polyphonic texture includes different melodic lines and poly-rhythms that

demand a highly developed independence of the two hands. The student needs to identify and

to play each line in the music. After this practice, the student may choose the primary line or

one or two lines if there are two equally important lines before playing the lines to achieve

the correct balance. During practice, attentive listening is necessary to express the polyphonic

lines.

In this chapter, three different types of texture were selected and analyzed: chordal,

embedded and polyphonic texture. The practice suggestions were based on the analysis and

the different types of texture. Since technical development and musical understanding vary

among students, and the practice and learning styles of the students are different, the practice

suggestions may only provide a general guide to practice. The two most important steps are

to analyze the music and to listen to the sound. These are the essential tools for making the

practice efficiently.
 62

CHAPTER 4

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter summarizes the thesis and draws conclusions on how to practice and

perform the chordal, embedded, and polyphonic textures within Brahms’ late piano work, op.

116. The recommendations for further study are also given in the chapter.

SUMMARY
Brahms, described as “a classicist among romantics” 106 by Frisch and as “the

forerunner of a new approach to musical composition” 107 by Botstein, was raised in a

German family and trained in German musical traditions. His early training in piano made

Brahms use this instrument as the central medium of his musical expression, both for solo

performance and ensembles. The most frequent forms of Brahms piano music are sonata and

variations. The large-scale, virtuoso technique and the orchestral scope are features of his

early piano music. Brahms’s later piano works, which were composed after 1890, feature

small-scale, simpler forms and fewer technical demands. Op. 116 reflects the changes and

represents the style of Brahms’ last compositional period. Brahms had retired from his

overwhelming public demands and take off the mask of Beethoven’s heir. 108 He wrote to

Clara that he had started to compose for himself. The works became intimate, introspective,

106
Frisch, “Brahms: From Classical to Modern,” 323.
107
Leon Botstein, The Compleat Brahms (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1999), 24.
108
Paul Holmes, Brahms: His Life and Times (Southborough: Baton Press, 1984), 143.
 63

and less constrained, which reflected the genuine Brahms. However, there are two features

maintained from the earlier stages of Brahms’ piano compositions to the late period. One was

the dense texture that is the topic of this thesis, and another was the complicated rhythm. In

this thesis, the textures of Op. 116 were summarized in three types.

One is chordal texture in which the music consists of successive chords. It can be a

passage of four parts music which moves in similar rhythm, or it can be a passage in which

melody is thickened by chords. The first kind of chordal texture is typical in both A sections

of no. 6. The steady moving chords, combined with polyphony, make the music sounds like a

church hymn. In this kind of passage, the student needs to bring out the primary and the

secondary melodies in different degree. The second kind of chordal texture can be found in

no. 4, the B section, where the right hand chords feature melodic tone on the top

accompanied by the left hand arpeggios.

The second texture is embedded texture in which the melodic tone is embedded

within the accompaniment. Some passages with embedded texture have indicated melodic

tone with marks, such as double stemmed notes in B section of no. 6. In some passages, the

student needs to analyze the music in order to find out the melodic tones, such as the B

section of no. 2.

The third texture is polyphonic texture in which two or more relatively independent

lines move horizontally. In op. 116, polyphonic texture appears by itself only in few places.

It is combined with other textures at most of the times. For example, both A sections in no. 5

are a combination of chordal texture and polyphonic texture. The combination of textures

increases the degree of musical and technique difficulties.

 64

The chordal texture appears more often in op. 116 than other textures. It is used with

large passages or sections. The chordal texture is predominant in no. 1. The other two

textures are not used as much as chordal texture. The polyphonic texture is used together

with chordal texture most of the time. The embedded texture is used for B section more

often. Brahms’ choices of using textures in Op. 116 relate to the plans of structure. The

changes of texture consistently coordinate with the changes of structures. When the music

goes to the second theme or another section, the texture always changed. There are no two

successive sections in Op. 116 using the same texture.

The textural issue is a topic which every piano performer will confront during the

study of piano. There are limited sources on how to play and how to teach the textures in a

piano work. Some of the books discuss the concept of texture theoretically, and some piano

pedagogical books present general methods or suggestions for playing different textures. For

many piano compositions, the teacher or student cannot find a single source that analyzes the

texture of a work being taught or studied, identifies the difficulties of the texture, and

provides creative practice methods and teaching strategies. The third chapter of this thesis

combines these three areas: the analysis of three types of texture in Brahms’ Op. 116, the

practice processes as well as the teaching points.

The first step is textural analysis which requires thorough and careful examination of

the musical score. It is a crucial step for making solid performance decisions. Through

analysis, the student would have an overview of the texture. When practicing, the student

knows which aspect he/she needs to focus on. The practice needs to focus on the primary part

or primary melody. If there is a dilemma in choosing the primary melody, students may base

on their preferences or refer to recordings. The melodic tone needs to be practiced first, and
 65

then the student practice other parts or layers. After practicing the layers individually, the

next step of practice may combine two of the layers. The practice can be split between hands

in order to have well balanced sound even if the two layers need to be played by one hand.

After this step, the layers can be played within one hand. When practicing, listen carefully is

the key to success. These steps may help student to have efficient practice.

In summary, Brahms’ four sets of piano works Op. 116-119 represent his highly

artistic standard. Many musicians compliment that these works are the most artistic works

among nineteen century piano literature. Compared with the relatively simple forms and

harmony, texture as an important element draws people’s attention. The various and

interesting textures make the pieces musically and technically challenging.

CONCLUSIONS
Although op. 116 does not feature virtuoso piano techniques, it requires a

comprehensive and mature understanding of Brahms’ late style. The pieces are more

musically than technically demanding. When choosing to assign the pieces to a student, the

teacher needs to consider the musical maturity of the student rather than the technical

readiness.

Texture is a performance issue which each performer confronts in Brahms’ piano

works. To perform texture well requires a musical understanding of the composer’s style,

knowledge about the background of the piece, and an examination of the composer’s

expectations in the music. Also, the student needs to voice the multiple layers with fine

technical control of tone and timbre. In addition, an analysis of textures is a step that the

student must take. The analysis helps the student to examine multiple lines (musical material)

clearly. Moreover, inner hearing allows student to have the ideal sound before playing. Inner
 66

hearing should be built through consistent ear training and musical listening and discussion

over the years of musical study.

Before the student start to practice details and polish the performance. He/she should

be able to present a complete performance with accurate notes and rhythm in a required

tempo. The practice of texture always starts with a slow tempo and with a single layer of

texture before gradually adding more layers to the practice. Objective listening is crucial to

an efficient practice. Recording the performance or the practice is a good way for the student

to evaluate the result. The teacher’s role at this level should be an advisor, who guides the

student to his/her own musical understanding and performance decisions. Since teachers

should have more knowledge and experience, they may provide valuable suggestions for

practice and performance.

Before assigning the piece, the teacher may briefly introduce the background of the

composer and the piece. After reviewing the score with the student and analyzing the

structural form, the student may listen to professional recordings to develop ideas about the

work. According to the student’s performance level, the teacher may give a portion of the

piece as the first assignment.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY

Texture plays an important part in Brahms’ piano compositions. This thesis only

studied the textures found in the pieces from Op. 116. Further textural study of Op. 117-119

will benefit students. Also, further study may enhance an understanding of Brahms’ textural

and overall style. Texture is only part of a performance. There are many other elements that

contribute to a successful performance of Brahms. Further study may focus on how rhythm,

harmony and expressive marks affect a performance and how to teach these elements.
 67

Further studies may also address teaching strategies for presenting Brahms which give

detailed plans for how to select and introduce a piece from Brahms’ late collections to a

student and how to help a student to develop a good performance.

 68

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Breitkopf & Härtel, 1881-1912.

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