How do you apply convolutional and pooling layer on textual information with ReLU

Activation function? Explain how does ReLU assign numerical value to text?

Convolutional and pooling layers are commonly used in computer vision tasks to
process images, but they can also be applied to textual information, such as
sentences or documents. The application of these layers to text involves
representing the text as a sequence of numerical vectors, where each vector
represents a word or a character in the text. This representation is typically
obtained using techniques such as word embeddings or character embeddings.

Once the textual input has been represented as a sequence of numerical vectors, it
can be fed into a convolutional layer, which applies a set of learnable filters to
the input sequence. Each filter convolves over a window of neighboring vectors and
produces a new vector as output, capturing a local feature of the input sequence.

The ReLU activation function is then applied element-wise to the output of each
filter. ReLU stands for Rectified Linear Unit, and it simply returns the input
value if it is positive, and 0 otherwise. The ReLU activation function is commonly
used in deep learning models as it introduces non-linearity, which enables the
model to capture complex patterns in the data.

After the ReLU activation function is applied, the output of the convolutional
layer is typically passed through a pooling layer, which aggregates neighboring
vectors by taking their maximum, minimum, or average value. The pooling layer
reduces the dimensionality of the input sequence, while preserving the most salient
features.

The output of the pooling layer can then be fed into further layers of the neural
network, such as a fully connected layer or a recurrent layer, for further
processing and prediction.

In summary, the application of convolutional and pooling layers to textual

information involves representing the text as a sequence of numerical vectors,
applying a set of filters to capture local features, applying the ReLU activation
function to introduce non-linearity, and aggregating neighboring vectors using a
pooling layer. The ReLU activation function assigns a numerical value to each
vector by simply returning the input value if it is positive, and 0 otherwise,
enabling the model to capture complex patterns in the data.

How do you convert text to series of numerical vectors for CNN processing?
To convert text into a series of numerical vectors for CNN processing, we need to
perform two main steps: tokenization and embedding.

Tokenization: The first step is to break down the text into smaller units, such as
words, subwords, or characters. This process is called tokenization, and it
transforms the raw text into a sequence of tokens. There are various ways to
tokenize text, such as using regular expressions, pre-built tokenizers, or custom
tokenization rules.

Embedding: Once we have a sequence of tokens, we need to convert them into

numerical vectors that can be fed into a CNN. This is done using an embedding
layer, which maps each token to a high-dimensional vector representation, also
known as an embedding. The embedding layer is trained to assign similar vectors to
tokens that have similar meanings or contexts.
There are several types of embeddings that can be used for text data, including:

Word embeddings: These embeddings represent each word in the vocabulary as a dense
vector. Popular word embedding methods include Word2Vec, GloVe, and FastText.

Character embeddings: These embeddings represent each character in the input text
as a dense vector. Character embeddings can be useful for handling rare or out-of-
vocabulary words.

Subword embeddings: These embeddings represent each subword unit (e.g., prefixes,
suffixes, or character n-grams) as a dense vector. Subword embeddings can be useful
for handling misspellings, typos, or morphological variations.

Once we have converted the input text into a sequence of numerical vectors using
the embedding layer, we can feed it into a CNN model, which will learn to extract
relevant features from the text and make predictions based on them. The CNN can
have multiple layers of convolution, pooling, and dense layers, depending on the
complexity of the task and the size of the input data.

What is word and character and subword embedding in CNN for NLP?
!
Word, character, and subword embeddings are techniques used in Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNNs) for Natural Language Processing (NLP) to represent text as
numerical vectors that can be processed by the CNN.

Word embeddings: Word embeddings are a type of embedding that represent words as
dense vectors in a high-dimensional space. Word embeddings are learned from large
text corpora using unsupervised learning techniques such as Word2Vec, GloVe, and
FastText. The embedding assigns a vector to each unique word in the corpus, such
that semantically similar words are represented by vectors that are close to each
other in the embedding space. The word embeddings are used as input to the CNN to
extract features from the text.

Character embeddings: Character embeddings represent each character in a word as a

dense vector. In contrast to word embeddings, which treat each word as a separate
entity, character embeddings allow the model to learn subword-level features, which
can be useful for handling rare or out-of-vocabulary words, as well as for
capturing morphological information. Character embeddings are learned by training a
CNN to predict the next character in a sequence given the previous characters.

Subword embeddings: Subword embeddings represent each subword unit (e.g., prefixes,
suffixes, or character n-grams) as a dense vector. They are used to handle
misspellings, typos, and morphological variations, as well as to capture fine-
grained semantics of words. Subword embeddings are learned using unsupervised

This is done using an embedding layer, which maps each token to a high-dimensional
vector representation,
also known as an embedding. The embedding layer is trained to assign similar
vectors to tokens that have
similar meanings or contexts. Popular word embedding methods include Word2Vec
Subword embeddings: These embeddings represent each subword unit (e.g., prefixes,
suffixes, or character n-grams) as a dense vector

What are n-grams in NLP and how are they used in CNNs for sentiment analysis, are
they propagated through CNN? How do you convert word to word embedding?

N-grams in natural language processing (NLP) refer to contiguous sequences of n

items from a given text, which can be characters, words, or even larger units such
as phrases or sentences. For example, in the sentence "The quick brown fox jumps
over the lazy dog", the 2-grams (also called bigrams) would be "The quick", "quick
brown", "brown fox", "fox jumps", "jumps over", "over the", "the lazy", and "lazy
dog". Similarly, the 3-grams (trigrams) would be "The quick brown", "quick brown
fox", "brown fox jumps", "fox jumps over", "jumps over the", "over the lazy", and
"the lazy dog".

In CNNs for sentiment analysis, n-grams can be used as features for the model. The
CNN takes a sequence of words as input and applies convolutional filters to
generate feature maps, which capture local patterns in the sequence. By using
different filter sizes, the CNN can capture n-grams of different lengths. The
output of the convolutional layer is then passed through a max-pooling layer to
obtain a fixed-size representation of the input sequence. This representation is
then fed into a fully connected layer to predict the sentiment of the input text.

N-grams are propagated through the CNN in the form of feature maps, which are the
result of applying convolutional filters to the input sequence. The feature maps
capture local patterns in the sequence, including n-grams of different lengths.

To convert a word to a word embedding, we need to represent it as a vector of

numbers that captures its semantic meaning. One common approach is to use pre-
trained word embeddings such as Word2Vec or GloVe, which map each word to a dense
vector of fixed size. These embeddings are trained on large amounts of text data
and capture semantic relationships between words based on their co-occurrence in
the text. To use pre-trained word embeddings, we first load the embedding matrix
into memory and then look up the embedding vector for each word in our input
sequence. Alternatively, we can also train our own word embeddings from scratch
using techniques such as skip-gram or CBOW.

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How are subword embeddings and n-grams of sentence mapped to a high-dimensional
vector representation. How do you assign similar vectors to similar meanings?
Explain the mathematical background and concepts behind this technique.

!
Subword embeddings and n-grams are both techniques used to generate high-
dimensional vector representations of text data.

Subword embeddings involve breaking down words into smaller units, or subwords,
such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Each subword is then mapped to a high-
dimensional vector representation using techniques like Word2Vec or GloVe. These
vector representations can capture the meaning of subwords and their relationship
to other subwords in the same language. When these subword vectors are combined to
represent a full word, the resulting word embedding can capture more nuanced
information about the word's meaning, especially for rare or out-of-vocabulary
words.

N-grams, on the other hand, involve breaking down sentences into sequences of
contiguous n words (e.g. bigrams for n=2, trigrams for n=3). Each n-gram is then
mapped to a high-dimensional vector representation using techniques like Bag-of-
Words or TF-IDF. These vector representations can capture the frequency and
distribution of n-grams in a given text corpus. When these n-gram vectors are
combined to represent a full sentence, the resulting sentence embedding can capture
the overall meaning of the sentence based on the distribution of its constituent n-
grams.

To assign similar vectors to similar meanings, we use techniques like cosine

similarity or Euclidean distance to measure the similarity between two vector
representations. If two words have similar meanings, their vector representations
will be closer together in the high-dimensional vector space. Similarly, if two
sentences have similar meanings, their sentence embeddings will be closer together
in the high-dimensional vector space.

The mathematical background and concepts behind these techniques involve linear
algebra and vector calculus. Word and sentence embeddings are typically represented
as high-dimensional vectors in a continuous vector space, and similarity between
vectors is measured using geometric operations like dot products, cosine
similarity, or Euclidean distance. These techniques allow us to perform
computational operations on text data and build sophisticated natural language
processing models, such as language translation

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How are subword embeddings and n-grams of sentence mapped to a high-dimensional
vector representation. How do you assign similar vectors to similar meanings?
Explain the mathematical background and concepts behind this technique. Do not
explain what subword embeddings and n-grams are, just explain the mapping process
to a high-dimensional vector representation with appropriate mathematical
formulas.

!
Subword embeddings and n-grams are commonly used techniques for mapping natural
language text to high-dimensional vector representations in natural language
processing (NLP).

To represent subwords or n-grams as vectors, we typically use a neural network

model, such as a feedforward neural network or a convolutional neural network
(CNN), that learns to map each subword or n-gram to a vector in a high-dimensional
space. The process involves training the neural network on a large corpus of text,
where the network learns to predict the likelihood of observing a particular
subword or n-gram given its context in the text.

The mapping process can be described mathematically as follows:

Let X be a subword or n-gram represented as a sequence of characters, and let f(X)

be its corresponding high-dimensional vector representation. The mapping function
f(X) is learned by training a neural network on a corpus of text, where the network
takes X as input and outputs a high-dimensional vector representation f(X).

The neural network used for this task typically consists of several layers of
nonlinear transformations, such as convolutional layers, pooling layers, and fully
connected layers, that progressively transform the input X into a high-dimensional
vector representation f(X). The specific architecture and parameters of the network
are optimized during training to maximize the likelihood of observing the input
subword or n-gram in the context of the text.
Once the mapping function f(X) is learned, we can use it to represent any subword
or n-gram as a vector in the high-dimensional space. Similar subwords or n-grams,
i.e., those that have similar meanings or contexts in the text, will be mapped to
vectors that are close to each other in the high-dimensional space.

To measure the similarity between two subword or n-gram vectors, we typically use a
distance metric, such as Euclidean distance or cosine similarity, which measures
the geometric distance or angle between the two vectors in the high-dimensional
space. The closer the distance or angle, the more similar the two subwords or n-
grams are in meaning or context.

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Word2vec is a popular probabilistic model that captures the semantic relationships
between words based on their co-occurrence in the text. The model learns vector
representations for words by training a neural network on a large corpus of text
data. In particular, word2vec uses a skip-gram model to predict the context words
given a target word.

The basic idea behind the skip-gram model is to use the target word as input and
train the model to predict the context words that appear within a certain window
size around the target word. The context words are treated as output variables, and
the model learns to predict the probability distribution of context words given the
target word.

To formalize this idea, let us denote the corpus of text data as a sequence of
words W = {w_1, w_2, ..., w_N}, where N is the total number of words in the corpus.
The skip-gram model aims to maximize the following objective function:

J = 1/T ∑_{t=1}^T ∑_{-m≤j≤m,j≠0} log p(w_{t+j}|w_t)

Here, T is the total number of target words in the corpus, m is the window size,
and p(w_{t+j}|w_t) is the conditional probability of observing a context word
w_{t+j} given a target word w_t. The conditional probability is modeled using the
softmax function:

p(w_{t+j}|w_t) = exp(u_j^T v_t) / ∑_{i=1}^V exp(u_i^T v_t)

Here, u_j and v_t are the vector representations of the context word w_{t+j} and
the target word w_t, respectively, and V is the size of the vocabulary.

The vectors u_j and v_t are learned by minimizing the objective function J using
stochastic gradient descent. The gradient of the objective function with respect to
the vector representations can be computed using backpropagation through the
softmax function.

In practice, the skip-gram model is usually trained using a negative sampling

method that approximates the softmax function with a set of binary logistic
regression models. The negative sampling method is more efficient than the full
softmax method and produces vector representations that capture the semantic
relationships between words based on their co-occurrence in the text.
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Questions:

How are subword embeddings and n-grams of sentence mapped to a high-dimensional

vector representation. How do you assign similar vectors to similar meanings?
Explain the mathematical background and concepts behind this technique.
How do you predict the sentiment of the input text with fully connected layer?
Provide mathematical model and therough explanation.

How does word2vec probabilistic model captures semantic relationships between words
based on their
co-occurrence in the text. Provide mathematical background of the model.

To use pre-trained word embeddings, we first load the embedding matrix into memory
and then look up the embedding vector for each word in our input sequence.
Alternatively, we can also train our own word embeddings from scratch using
techniques such as skip-gram or CBOW.

How to calculate cosine similarity of text/word, propose alternative metrics for

text similarity

How to use CNN to generate response, instead of just calculating the probability of
next word