Physics 101 Lab Manual

SPRING SEMESTER 2024

Name: ____________________
ID: _____________________________
Faculty: _________________________
Lab Tutorial Number: ______________
List of Contents:
1. Introduction
1.1. Aim
1.2. Lab Manual
1.3. Attendance and grading
1.4. Lab Reports
1.5. Grades Sheet

2. Experiment 1: Conservation of Energy

2.1. Aim
2.2. Theory
2.3. Equipment
2.4. Experimental Procedure
2.5. Experimental Data
2.6. Analysis and Discussion of Results
2.7. Error Calculations
2.8. Conclusion
2.9. Grades

3. Experiment 2: Force Table and Vector Addition of Forces

3.1. Aim
3.2. Theory
3.3. Equipment
3.4. Experimental Procedure
3.5. Experimental Data
3.6. Analysis and Discussion of Results
3.7. Error Calculations
3.8. Conclusion
3.9. Grades

4. Experiment 3: Simple Pendulum

4.1. Aim
4.2. Theory
4.3. Equipment
4.4. Experimental Procedure
4.4.1. Part 1 Procedure
4.4.2. Part 1 Data Collection
4.4.3. Part 2 Procedure
4.4.4. Part 2 Data Collection
4.5. Error Calculations
4.6. Discussion of Results
4.7. Conclusion
4.8. Grades

5. Experiment 4: Conservation of Momentum

5.1. Aim
5.2. Theory
 5.3. Equipment
5.4. Experimental Procedure and Data collection
5.4.1.1. Perfectly Inelastic Collision
5.4.1.1.1.1. Equal Mass Carts
5.4.1.1.1.2. Unequal Mass Carts
5.4.1.2. Elastic Collision
5.4.1.2.1.1. Equal Mass Carts
5.4.1.2.1.2. Unequal Mass Carts
5.5. Discussion of Results
5.6. Conclusion
5.7. Grades

6. Experiment 5: Acceleration due to Gravity (Free Fall)

6.1. Aim
6.2. Theory
6.2.1.1. Theoretical Part
6.2.1.2. Theory of the experimental part
6.3. Equipment
6.4. Experimental Procedure
6.4.1.1. Procedure 1
6.4.1.2. Procedure 2
6.5. Experimental Data
6.6. Analysis and Discussion of Results
6.6.1.1. Procedure 1
6.6.1.2. Graph
6.6.1.3. Procedure 2
6.7. Error Calculations
6.8. Conclusion
6.9. Grades

7. Experiment 6: Projectile Motion

7.1. Aim
7.2. Theory
7.3. Equipment
7.4. Experimental Procedure
7.5. Experimental Data
7.6. Data Analysis
7.7. Error Calculations
7.8. Conclusion
7.9. Grades

8. Experiment 7: Sliding Friction

8.1. Aim
8.2. Theory
8.3. Equipment
8.4. Experimental Procedure
8.5. Experimental Data
8.6. Data Analysis
8.7. Discussion of Results
 8.8. Conclusion
8.9. Grades

9. Experiment 8: Newton’s Second Law of Motion (Air Track)

9.1. Aim
9.2. Theory
9.3. Equipment
9.4. Experimental Procedure
9.4.1.1. Part 1
9.4.1.1.1.1. Theoretical Data
9.4.1.1.1.2. Experimental Data
9.4.1.1.1.3. Error Calculation
9.4.1.2. Part 2
9.4.1.2.1.1. Experimental Data
9.4.1.2.1.2. Error Calculation
9.5. Discussion of Results and Conclusion
9.6. Grades

10. Experiment 9: Simple Harmonic Motion (Mass on a Spring)

10.1. Aim
10.2. Theory
10.3. Equipment
10.4. Experimental Procedure
10.5. Experimental Data
10.6. Graphs
10.7. Analysis and Discussion of Results
10.8. Error Calculations
10.9. Conclusion
10.10. Grades

11. Experiment 10: Young’s Modulus

11.1. Aim
11.2. Theory
11.3. Equipment
11.4. Experimental Procedure
11.5. Data Collection
11.6. Error Calculations
11.7. Conclusion
11.8. Grades
1. Introduction:
All branches of science, without exception, rely on experimental data to verify their theories
about the universe. It is not sufficient to just learn from textbooks in order to comprehend the
concepts of Physics and other sciences. By performing hands-on experiments, you are able to
explore and confirm the concepts that scientists have put forth to describe the laws that gov-
ern our universe.

1.1. Aim
The aim of this lab is to acquire experience in using the lab equipment and techniques, to
develop skills in measurements, data collection, and data analysis, to learn proper com-
munication of scientific results by means of written reports, and to reinforce the concepts
and theories taught in the lectures.
1.2. Lab Manual
The lab manual can be downloaded from CMS, or you can find a copy at the university
photocopy center. It contains the theory behind the experiments as well as worksheets
needed for data collection. You should read the lab manual before coming to class to be-
come familiar with the experiment. You should take responsibility to learn safe operating
procedures from the lab instructor. The lab manual is also a good source of safety tips.
1.3. Attendance and grading:
Students who arrive more than 15 minutes late from the start of the session will not get
the attendance of this session. To earn the grade for your lab each week you must suc-
cessfully complete all the steps of the experiment and write all the data, analysis, error
analysis, and graphs -if exist- in a clear and concise manner in your lab manual. Poorly
executed experiments, poorly written reports, incorrect answers to questions, unlabeled
graphs, using inappropriate scales for the axes, or unitless quantities will results in a poor
grade. Needless to mention that all forms of cheating, plagiarism, and fabrication are pro-
hibited and will receive zero for that experiment. Students who forget their lab manual,
will not get the grade of that experiment. Anyone with unexcused absence will receive a
zero for missed experiment.
1.4. Lab Reports:
In general, two students will work together with each lab setup. If necessary, larger
groups will be used as directed by your instructor. However, after obtaining the data,
when writing the lab report (writing data, drawing graphs, performing calculations, an-
swering questions, and discussion of results etc.) each student is expected to work inde-
pendently.
 Grade

Data Conduct &

Experiment Date Signature
collection Data workspace Final grade
/10 analysis /5 condition /20
/5

1. Conservation of Energy

2. Force Table

3. Simple Pendulum

4. Conservation of Momentum

5. Free Fall

6. Projectile Motion

7. Sliding Friction

8. Air Track

9. Simple Harmonic Motion -

Mass on a Spring

10. Young’s Modulus

Name:

ID:
 Experiment 1: Conservation of Energy

Aim

Verification of the law of Conservation of Energy.

Theory

Mechanical energy is described as the energy associated with an object’s motion and position.
An object on earth, isolated from any outside influences, experiences two forms of energy that
both contribute to the object’s total mechanical energy: gravitational potential energy !!, and
kinetic energy K. The object’s total mechanical energy E is equal to the sum of its gravitational
potential energy and kinetic energy:
" = !! + & (1)
Gravitational potential energy is described as the energy stored in an object due to the attraction
from earth’s gravitational field. This energy is based on the object's mass m, height h, and
earth's gravitational acceleration g:
!! = '(ℎ (2)
An object's kinetic energy is described as the energy stored in the object due to its motion. This
energy is based on the object's mass m and speed v. As an object's speed increases, its kinetic
energy K increases in the form:
1
&= ' *2 (3)
2
If friction can be ignored, the total energy of the car does not change. The Law of Conservation
of Energy is stated as

E = constant Þ K initial + U initial = K final + U final (4)

In this lab experiment a cart is started from rest on a variety of shapes of tracks (hills, valleys,
loops, straight track), the speed of the cart at various points along the track is measured using a
photogate connected to a Smart Timer. The potential energy is calculated from the measured
height and the kinetic energy is calculated from the speed. The total energy is calculated for two
points on the track and compared.
Equipment

Roller Coaster Complete System

Photogate Heads
Smart Timer
Cart

Experimental Procedure

Figure 1: Hill with Photogates

1. The track would be configured as shown in Figure 1. Also make sure that the catcher is
placed at the end of the straight part to keep the cart from going off the end of the track.

2. Place the cart at the top of the hill on the left. Mark on the white board where you start
the cart. Measure the initial height of the cart. Note it down as ℎ# in Data Table 1. (ℎ#
will be measured from the table to the track).

3. Place the cart at the top of the hill in the center and measure the height of the cart. Note it
down as ℎ1 in Data Table 1.

4. Place the cart at the bottom on the flat part of the track and measure the height of the cart
from the table (ℎ2).
5. Use the Smart Timer à Select measurements on Speed àSelect mode
on One Gate Modeà connect the wire of Photogate 1 to gate 1 on the
right side of the Smart Timer à Start. It will measure the speed of the
cart at the top of the hill (*1).
Note: The Smart Timer measures only 1 Photogate at a time, which means you
need to repeat the same steps to measure the speed of the cart at the bottom end
of the track at Photogate 2 (*2). Also note that The Smart Timer measures the
speed in [cm/s] (convert it into [m/s]).
6. Place the cart at the top and release it from rest (*# = 0). Make sure that the cart is placed right on the
track with one wheel ahead and the two wheels at the back.

7. Calculate the initial total energy of the cart and note it down in Data Table 1.

8. Calculate the total energy of the cart at the top of the hill.

9. Calculate the percent of total energy lost between the initial position till the top of the hill
using the followed equation;

EnergyLost
%Lost = ×100
InitialEnergy
Note it down in Calculation Table 2.

10. Calculate the total energy of the cart at the bottom as well then calculate the percent of
the total energy lost between the starting position at the beginning of the track and the
final position at the right end of the track. Also note it down in Calculation Table 2.
Experimental Data

Data Table 1

Mass of the Cart m = ---------

Point h [m] !!"# [m/s] "%[J] K [J] #&[J]

Initial

Analysis and Discussion of Results

i. How does your cart’s potential and kinetic energy compare at the three different points?
Explain why the values are different or similar between the three points.

ii. Using the initial energy you calculated at the initial position of the cart and the
conservation of energy concept, calculate the speed at Gate 1 and Gate 2 theoretically.
Note them down as *%ℎ'( 1and *%ℎ'( 2 in Calculation Table 1.
Error Calculations

|*$ℎ&'. − *)*+.|
% 12232 = × 100
*$ℎ&'.
Calculation Table 1

% Error of '1

% Error of '2

EnergyLost
%Lost = ×100
InitialEnergy

Calculation Table 2

% Lost (1

% Lost (2
Conclusion

• Sources of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data collection --------- /10

Data analysis and final results --------- /5

Conduct and workspace condition---------- /5

 Experiment 2: Force Table and Vector Addition of Forces
Aim
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the resultant force of two forces; first experimentally
by using the force table and then theoretically by using trigonometry.

Theory
Weight force: The weight of an object is the force acting on the object due to gravity, it is a
vector quantity, and its magnitude can be found by the following equation; !! = $%; with
%=9.81m/s2.
Scalars: Physical quantities that can be completely specified by magnitude only.
Vectors: Physical quantities have both magnitude and direction.
Resultant Force: The resultant force is described as the total amount of force acting on the object.
Given +$ = !1&,̂ + !1'/̂ and +( = !2&,̂ + !2'/̂ ;
The resultant +) of these two forces will be equal to the following;
+) = +$ + +( = (!1& + !2&) ,̂ + (!1' + !2') /̂
Pythagorean theorem:

Trigonometric ratios for a right-angled triangle:

Theory for the experimental method:

The experimental method used in this experiment is based on the following rationale; two forces are
applied on the force table by suspending masses over different pulleys at different angles. Next, the
amount of mass hanging over the third pulley is adjusted until the force from this pulley balances the
forces from the other two pulleys. The third force is called the equilibrant (Fe) because it is the force
that establishes equilibrium. The equilibrant is not the same as the resultant (FR). The resultant is the
algebraic sum of the two applied forces. The equilibrant has the same magnitude as the resultant, but
it is in the opposite direction of the resultant because it must balance the resultant force. The
equilibrant is the ‘negative’ of the resultant.

180°

Equipment

Force table with pullets, ring, and

string
Mass holders
Slotted masses
Balance

Experimental Procedure
N.B. The pulleys can be moved across the table by loosening the bottom screws and dragging
the pulleys to the desired position then tightening the screws such that the pulley is fixed at
that position. The angles are read by the scale on the table itself by reading the angle at which
the string attached to the pulley aligns with the scale of the table.
Do NOT move the pulley labelled “3” throughout the experiment, only move the pulleys
labelled “1” and “2”.
Follow the angle and sign conventions provided to you in the setup, all angles are with
reference to the positive x-axis.
1. Place the pulley labelled “1” at the 0.0°mark on the force table and place a total of 50 g
(including the mass of the hanger) on the end of the string. Calculate the weight force (F=mg)
produced by this mass. Record that value as F1 in Data Table 1.
2. Place the pulley labelled “2” at the 120.0° mark on the force table and place a total of 100g on the
end of the string (including the mass of the hanger). Calculate the weight force produced
(F=mg) and record it as F2 in Data Table 1.
3. Read the value of the set angle for the pulley labelled “3” by using the scale on the table and note
down that value for the angle of the equilibrant FE1 in Data Table 1.
4. Determine by trial and error the magnitude of mass needed in order for the ring to be centered on
the force table. Record this value of mass in Data Table 1 for the equilibrant force FE1.
5. Calculate the weight force produced by the mass you have obtained. Record this value as
the equilibrant force FE1 in Data Table 1.
6. The resultant FR1 is equal in magnitude to FE1, and its direction (angle) is 180° from FE1.
Record the value of the force FR1, the mass equivalent of this force (FR1÷ %) and the direction
(angle) of the force in Data Table 1.

Experimental Data
Data Table 1

Experimental Solution

Force Mass (kg) Force (N) Angle (°)

F1 0.050 0.0°

F2 0.100 120.0°

Equilibrant FE1

Resultant FR1

Data Analysis and Discussion of Results

N.B. Refer back to the background section for necessary equations and help with this section.

1. Use trigonometry to resolve the components of F1 and F2 (into x and y components) and
record them in Calculations Table 1. Show you work in the space provided below.
2. Add the components algebraically and determine the magnitude of the resultant by the
Pythagorean theorem. Show you work in the space provided below. Note down that value in
Calculations Table 1.

3. Deduce the value of the angle of the resultant force from the positive x-axis. Note down that
value in Calculations Table 1.

Calculations Table 1

Theoretical Solution

Force Force (N) Angle (°) x-component y-component

F1 0.0°

F2 120.0°

Resultant FR1
Error Calculations

1. Calculate the percentage error between the experimental value of FR (from Data Table 1) and
the theoretical value for FR (Calculations Table 1) by using the following equation; Record the
value in Calculations Table 2 for the % error space.
|Experimental−Theoretical|
% Error = x 100
Theoretical

2. Calculate absolute error between the angle of the experimental solution and the theoretical
solution using the following equation; Record the value in Calculations Table 2 for the Absolute
error space.
Absolute error = |Experimental - Theoretical|

Calculations Table 2

%error = %

Absolute error = ---------------- °

Conclusion

• Sources of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data collection --------- /10

Data analysis and final results --------- /5

Conduct and workspace condition---------- /5

 Experiment 3: Simple Pendulum

Aim

1- To determine the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.

2- To investigate the dependence of the period T of a pendulum on the length L and the mass
m of the bob.

Theory
A mass m moving is undergoing oscillatory motion is said to exhibit simple harmonic motion if
its displacement x from some equilibrium position is described by a single sine or cosine
function. This happens when the particle is subjected to a force F directly proportional to the
magnitude of the displacement x and directed toward the equilibrium position. In equation form
this is:

! = −%& (1)

The period T of the motion is the time for one complete oscillation, and it is determined by the
mass m and the constant k. The equation that describes the dependence of T on m and k is:

A pendulum does not exactly satisfy the conditions for simple harmonic motion, but it
approximates them under certain conditions. An ideal pendulum is a point mass m on one end of
a massless string with the other end fixed as shown in Figure 19-1. The motion of the system
takes place in a vertical plane when the mass m is released from an initial angle q with respect to
the vertical.

The downward weight of the

pendulum can be resolved into
two components as shown in
Figure 19-1. The component
'( )*+q equals the magnitude
of the tension T in the string.
The component '( +,-q acts
tangent to the arc along which
the mass m moves. This
component provides the force
that drives the system. In
equation form the force F along
the direction of motion is:
Page 2 of 6

! = −'( +,- . (3)

For small values of the initial angle q , we can use the small angle approximation
+,-q » /0-q » &/2 in Eq. (3), which gives:
!"
!=− & (4)
$

Although Eq. (4) is an approximation, it is of the form of Eq. (1) with % = '(/2. Using that
value of k in Eq. (2) gives:

Eq. (5) predicts that the period T of a simple pendulum is independent of the mass m and the
angular amplitude q and depends only on the length L of the pendulum. So, by varying the length
L for a simple pendulum and measure T, an experimental value of g may be obtained.

Equipment
 o Part 1 – Mass and Period

Procedure

1. Measure the individual mass of the two pendulum bobs. Record the mass in order from
smallest to largest in Data Table 1.

2. Attach the pendulum bob with the smallest mass to the thread.

3. Use your hand to pull the pendulum bob back, displacing it with a small angle from its
equilibrium position.

4. Once you release the pendulum bob, it will swing freely, click “START” on the Stopwatch
simultaneously.

5. After 10 complete oscillations, click “STOP” on the Stopwatch, record the given time / in
%
Data Table 1, then calculate the periodic time 3 = 10 .

6. Repeat the previous three steps 2 more times, and record the values of T1, T2 and T3 in Data
Table 1.

7. Calculate the average period 3!"#, for the corresponding pendulum bob in Data Table 1.

8. Repeat the same data collection steps for the second pendulum bob, keeping the horizontal
displacement constant for each.

Data Collection

Plot a graph between the average periodic time Tavg. on the y-axis and the mass of bob on
the x-axis.

Data Table 1
Bob Mass Time for 10 Time for 10 Time for 10 T1 T2 T3 Tavg.
(kg) Oscillations t1 Oscillations t2 Oscillations t3 (s) (s) (s) (s)
(s) (s) (s)
1

2
 Page 4 of 6

o Part 2 – Length and Period

Procedure
1. Attach the heavier pendulum bob to the string.

2. Using the meter stick, measure the length of the pendulum arm , calculate its square root, and
write down the value in Data Table 2.

3. Use your hand to pull the pendulum bob back, displacing it with a small angle from its
equilibrium position.

4. Once you release the pendulum bob, it will swing freely, click “START” on the Stopwatch
simultaneously.

5. After 10 complete oscillations, click “STOP” on the Stopwatch, record the given time / of
∆%
10 oscillations in Data Table 2, and calculate the periodic time 3 = 10 .

6. Repeat the previous three steps 2 more times, and record the values as T1, T2 and T3 in Data
Table 2.

7. Take the average period, record its value next to its corresponding pendulum bob mass in
Data Table 2.

8. Repeat the same data collection steps 3 more times, keeping the initial small angle
constant for each trial and shortening the length of the pendulum arm by 10 cm each time.

Data Collection
1- Plot another graph between the average periodic time Tavg. on the y-axis and the square root
of the arm length on the x-axis.

2- From the slope of the graph, determine the experimental value of g using Eq. (5).

3- Calculate the percentage error between the theoretical and the experimental value of the
acceleration due to gravity g.

Data Table 2
Page 5 of 6

Error Calculations

(%ℎ*+. = m/s2 |(%ℎ*+. − (*./.|

788*8 = × 100% =
|(%ℎ*+. |

2> 2
(%&'. = ( ) = m/s2
+A*BC

Discussion of Results

o Did changing the mass of the pendulum bob affect the period of the simple pendulum?
Justify your answer.

o Did changing the length of the pendulum arm affect the period of the simple pendulum?
Justify your answer.
Page 6 of 6

Conclusion

• Sources of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data collection ---------- /10

Data analysis and final results ---------- /5

Conduct and workspace condition ---------- /5

 Experiment 4: Conservation of Momentum

Aim

Verification of the Conservation of Momentum Law.

Theory

The momentum of an object of mass m moving with a velocity v is

!"#$%&'# = * = #+ (1)

The direction of the momentum is the same as the direction of the velocity.

For a system of particles, the total momentum of the system is constant if there are no external
forces acting on the system, where the forces exerted between particles of the system are called
internal forces, and they don’t change the momentum of the system. Thus, the momentum is
conserved in collisions between two objects since the forces that the objects exert on each other
are internal to the system.

This means that the total momentum just before the collision is equal to the total momentum just
after the collision, regardless of whether it is elastic or inelastic. If the momentum of the first
object decreases, the momentum of the second object increases by the same amount, and we can
state it as:
*Total Before Collision = *Total After Collision (2)

In this experiment, we will demonstrate the elastic and inelastic collisions by two dynamics carts,
where their velocities are recorded using two Rotary Motion Sensors connected to them.
Magnetic bumpers are used in the elastic collision and Velcro bumpers are used in the
completely inelastic collision.

Equipment

Two Smart Carts (Red and Blue)

Set of two 250g Mass Bars
Dynamics Track
Electronic Balance
 Experimental Procedure and Data Collection

1. Launch your SPARKvue software and click on “open PASCO

Experiment” option.

2. Select “Essential Physics” on the shown list, then choose

“11A_ConservationOfMomentum.spklab”.

3. Click “Bluetooth” icon on the top right corner, and then

connect the two Smart Carts.

4. Click “Zero Sensor Now” from “Velocity, Red” and “Velocity,

Blue” menu.

I. Perfectly Inelastic Collisions

A. Equal Mass Carts

1. Measure the masses of the blue and the red carts by the electronic balance and write down
their values on Data Table 1.

2. Place the blue cart at rest in the middle of the track, place the red cart
at the right edge of the track with the Velcro bumpers facing each
other.

3. Click on “Velocity, Red” menu, choose “Change Sign” in order for both carts to move in the
same direction.

4. Click “Start” and give the red cart a push toward the blue cart, then click “Stop”
before either cart reaches the end of the track.
5. Click on the tool icon on the bottom left corner, choose “Scale to fit” tool

6. Select the velocities of both carts just before and after the collision using the “Show/hide
multi-coordinate tool” and note down their values in Data Table 1.

7. Calculate the initial and the final momentum for each cart just before and after the collision.

8. Calculate the percentage difference between the total initial momentum (before collision) and
the total final momentum (after collision).
 Figure 1: the cursor on the graph shows the expected values of the velocities before the collision.

Figure 2: the cursor on the graph shows the expected values of the velocities after the collision.

I. A)
Data Table 1:
Before Collision After Collision
mi vi pi mf vf pf
Red Cart

Blue Cart

pi = pi,r + pi,b pf = pf,r + pf,b

Total Momentum

The percentage !"! #"" !

difference #! $#" " 100 =
$ %
$
 B. Unequal Mass Carts

1. Place the two-mass bars on the blue cart and find the mass
of the blue cart with the bars using the electronic balance and write its value in Data Table 2.

2. Repeat the procedure from Part A and record the values in Data Table 2.

Figure 3: the cursor on the graph shows the expected values of the velocities before the collision.

Figure 4, the cursor on the graph shows the expected values of the velocities after the collision.
 B)
Data Table 2:

Before Collision After Collision

mi vi pi mf vf pf
Red Cart

Blue Cart

Total pi = pi,r + pi,b pf = pf,r + pf,b

Momentum

The percentage
difference ,-0 − -1 ,
-0 + -1 2 100 =
/ 2 /

II. Elastic Collisions

A. Equal Mass Carts

1. Measure the masses of the blue and the red carts by the electronic balance and write
down their values in Data Table 3.

2. Place the blue cart at rest in the middle of the track, place the red cart at right edge of the
track, with the magnetic bumpers facing each other.

3. Click on “Velocity, Red” menu, choose “Change Sign” in order to turn back its actual
directions. Click on “Velocity, Blue” menu, choose “Change Sign” in order for both carts
to move in the same direction.

4. Click “Start” and give the red cart a push toward the blue cart, then click “Stop” before
either cart reaches the end of the track.

5. Click on the tool icon on the bottom left corner, choose “Scale to fit” tool.

6. Select the velocities of both carts just before and after the collision using
“Show/hide multi-coordinate tool” and write down their values on Data Table 3.

7. Calculate the initial and the final momentum for both carts just before and just
after the collision.

8. Calculate the percentage difference between the total initial momentum (before
collision) and the total final momentum (after collision).
 Figure 5: the cursor on the graph shows the expected values of the velocities before the collision.

Figure 6: the cursor on the graph shows the expected values of the velocities after the collision.

II. A)
Data Table 3:

Before Collision After Collision

mi vi pi mf vf pf
Red Cart

Blue Cart

pi = pi,r + pi,b pf = pf,r + pf,b

Total
Momentum

The
percentage ,-0 − -1 ,
difference -0 + -1 2 100 =
/ 2 /
B. Unequal Mass Carts

1. Place the two-mass bars in the blue cart and find the mass of the cart with the mass bars
using the electronic balance and write down its value in Data Table 4.

2. Repeat the procedure from Part A and record the values in Data Table 4.

Figure 7: the cursor on the graph shows the expected values of the velocities before the collision.

Figure 8, the cursor on the graph shows the expected values of the velocities after the collision.
 B)
Data Table 4:

Before Collision After Collision

mi vi pi mf vf pf
Red Cart

Blue Cart

pi = pi,r + pi,b pf = pf,r + pf,b

Total
Momentum

The
percentage ,-0 − -1 ,
difference -0 + -1 2 100 =
/ 2 /

Discussion of Results
o Was the momentum conserved for all types of collisions? Explain.
Conclusion

• Sources of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data collection --------- /10

Data analysis and final results---------- /5

Conduct and workspace condition---------- /5

 Experiment 5: Acceleration due to Gravity (Free Fall)

Aim
The purpose of this experiment is to verify the theoretical value of the acceleration due to gravity as
well as examining the free fall motion of objects of different masses.

Theory
Free Fall motion:
A free-falling object is an object that is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Any object
that is being acted upon only by the force of gravity is said to be in a state of free fall. There are
two important motion characteristics that are true for free-falling objects:

• Free-falling objects do not encounter air resistance.

• All theoretically free-falling objects (on Earth) accelerate downwards at a rate of 9.81 m/!2.

Useful equations when dealing with free fall motion;

1
#! = #" + &"# t + *t $
2
&!# = &"# + *t
$ $
&!# = &"# + 2*(,% − ,& )
1
#! = #" + /&"# + &!# 01
2

Where;
2" is the final position of the object, 2# is the initial position of the ball, 3#,% is the initial velocity
of the ball and 3",% is the final velocity of the ball, 4 is the acceleration of the motion and t is the
time of flight of the motion.
N.B. All the quantities in the above equations are vectors (Except for t), we will be taking the
sign convention of the axes as are our directional convention, i.e., upwards is positive,
downwards is negative, leftwards is negative, rightwards is positive.
Theory of experimental procedure:

A metal ball is to be suspended from a magnet. When the timer switch is pushed, the object is
released, and the timing starts. Timing stops when the ball hits the time-of-flight sensory pad
at the end of its motion.

The ball is released from different heights and this height is determined by the markings on
your support rod. These variables are then used to determine the value of the acceleration due
to gravity.

Equipment

Drop box
Student Timer
Time-of-flight sensory pad
Two metallic spheres
Stainless Steel support rod

Experimental Procedure

Procedure 1:

This procedure is to verify the theoretical value of the acceleration due to gravity by
experimentation.

1. Start with the clamp at the highest level which is 90 cm (indicated by markings on the support
rod). Note down that value as the first y value in Data Table 1.
2. Press on the upper part of the drop box to magnetize it (the black
gadget on top of the rod).
3. Attach your metallic sphere to the drop box up such that your
setup looks like that of Figure 1.
4. Start the student timer, make sure it is set to zero. Note that the
sensors inside the drop box are very sensitive so make sure
before releasing the metallic sphere that the timer reads zero.
5. When ready, gently click on the release button on the drop box
(the silver part) so that the sphere is released from it. The sphere
will undergo its free fall motion hitting the sensory pad at the
Figure 1
 bottom of the apparatus, this will stop the timer. Note down the reading of the timer at this instant
under the 11 values in Data Table 1.
6. Repeat the previous step-from the same height-two more times and note the results down as 12 and
13.

7. Calculate the average time using 1()* = +1++2++3 and note down the answer in Data Table 1.
3

8. Calculate the square of the average time and note it down in Data Table 1.
9. Repeat the above procedure with the same sphere for different starting heights, from 90 cm till
30 cm with 10 cm intervals, by adjusting the clamp apparatus across the supporting rod. Note
down the corresponding y and 11, 12, 13, 1()*, and 1()*2 values for each run in Data Table 1.

Procedure 2:

In the following procedure we will be testing the effect of mass on freely falling objects by
using two objects of different masses for the runs, while keeping the height a constant.

1. Start with one of the provided spheres, fix the height of the apparatus at y =70 cm.
2. Release the sphere as with procedure 1 and note down the time of flight of the fall as 11 in Data
Table 2. Only take the time measurement once in this procedure, we will not be taking an
average.
3. Repeat the procedure while keeping the same release height (70 cm) for the second sphere
provided and record the time of the fall as 12 in Data Table 2.

Experimental Data

Data Table 1
y(m) × :;−. </(s) <.(s) <0(s) <123(s) Δy(m) <123.(=.)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Data Table 2
Sphere 1 11= ----------------------- s

Sphere 2 12= ----------------------- s

Analysis and Discussion of Results

Procedure 1:
1. Calculate the displacement (∆2 = 2" − 2#) of the ball during its motion by taking 2# as your y
values from Data Table 1 and 2" always being equal to zero as the final position of the ball is
always at the bottom of the apparatus which is our zero level. Note down the values in Data
Table 1.

Graph
2. Plot a graph between ∆2 on y-axis and 1()*2 on x-axis and draw a best fit line through your
points.
3. Calculate the slope of your best fit line and note down this value as slope in Calculations Table 1.
4. Find the acceleration of the motion (which is supposed to be the acceleration due to gravity) by
using the following equation; !!"# = $ ∗ &'()* (this relation can be obtained by using the
equations given in the background section).
Note down the final answer as ?456 in Calculations Table 1. Show your work in the space
provided below.

Calculations Table 1

Slope= ?)*+. =
Procedure 2:

1. How does the time of the first object compare to that of the second object? Conclude the
effect of mass on freely falling objects.

Error Calculations

Calculate the percentage error between the theoretical value for the acceleration due to gravity
@789: = A. C:D/=. and the experimental value obtained ?456 by using the following equation;

|Experimental − Theoretical|
% GHHIH = x 100
Theoretical
Conclusion

• Sources of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data collection --------- /10

Data analysis and final results---------- /5

Conduct and workspace condition --------- /5

 Experiment 6: Projectile Motion

Safety Precautions:
Do not stand in front of the launcher at any point during the motion, beware of your surroundings
when launching the projectile and make sure it is safe to launch at the desired instant.

Aim
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the maximum height of an object undergoing
projectile motion.

Theory
Projectile motion is a form of motion experienced by an object that is projected near the Earth's
surface and moves along a curved path under the sole effect of gravity.

• For symmetric projectile motion:

Where;
R is the maximum range
h is the maximum height of the trajectory.

Figure 1 symmetric projectile motion, we are working with the same system till position C, i.e. the experimental procedure is
a symmetric motion.
Equipment

Photogates
Two Large C Clamp
Mini Launcher
Push Rod
Metal Sphere
Carbon Paper
Meter Stick

Experimental Procedure
1. Launch your SPARKvue software and click on “build new experiment” option.
2. Select the first layout option “one display”.
3. Choose “digits display” option on your software denoted by the following icon.
4. Connect your photogate to the software by clicking on the Bluetooth icon on the top right
corner of your screen. Open the photogate, then from the popup that is displayed
afterwards choose the “smart gate only” option then “smart gate timer”, as show below.

5. On the digital display on your screen, click on “select measurement” and choose “speed
between gates”, this will set your photogate to measure the initial velocity of the launched
projectile at the instant of launching.
6. Using the push rod, push the ball into the launcher until the third click is heard. At this
point start recording on the software. Using the string, pull back on the trigger and
launch the projectile.
7. Stop recording on the software and note down the measured velocity value, write this
value as !! in Data Table 1 in m/s.
8. Measure the distance from the launcher ∆# to the board and calculate the range R of the
trajectory by using the following equation: % = 2∆#. Note down both values in Data
Table 1.
9. Calculate the angle ( for which this range is possible by using the equations given in the
background section (you have the value of !! and %).
10. Set your launcher to your calculated angle. Your setup should look like that in Figure 2.
 Figure 2

11. Now that your setup is ready, launch the projectile again (you do not need to use the
software anymore at this point).
12. Note the location on your setup where the ball strikes your board. Measure the distance
from the launcher’s vertical position ()!) to the point the ball strikes the board ()#), you
will have to subtract the height of the launcher from your total height measured
from the table to the point the ball strikes the board. Record this value as ∆)$%&,(&) in
Data Table 1 in meters.

Experimental Data
Data Table 1

!!= m/s

∆#= m

R= m

(= -°

∆)$%&,(&)= ------------- m
Data Analysis
Calculate the maximum height of the trajectory theoretically using the equation given in the theory
section. Show your work in the space below and note down your final value as ∆)$%&,*ℎ(,

∆)123,5ℎ78= m

Error Calculations

Calculate the % error between the theoretical value for the maximum height of the trajectory and
its experimental counterpart by using the equation below.

% Error = |EXperimental−theoretical| x 100

theoretical

Calculations Table 2

% error = %
Conclusion

• Source of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data collection --------- /10

Data analysis and results ---------------- /5

Conduct and workspace condition---------- /5

 Experiment 7: Sliding Friction

Aim
The purpose of this experiment is to find the coefficient of static friction and the coefficient of
kinetic friction for different surfaces.

Theory
When a force F is applied to an object resting on a horizontal surface, e.g., a tray, it will not
move until the applied force reaches a certain maximum value which is equivalent to the static
friction force acting on the tray due to the surfaces involved. The coefficient of static friction !s
is then defined to be the ratio between the static frictional force Fs and the normal force FN:
!s = Fs/FN = Fmax/mg (1)

where Fmax is the maximum applied horizontal force that does not cause slipping, i.e., the force
just before the object starts moving (in our experiment the applied force is your pulling force,
hence the maximum force in the equation is the maximum pulling force), and FN equals mg (the
weight of the object being pulled) since there is no vertical motion.

After the object starts moving, in the case of constant velocity (zero acceleration), the applied
force then becomes equal to the kinetic friction force acting on the object (in our case, the applied
force is the pulling force causing the motion). The coefficient of kinetic friction !k is hence
defined to be the ratio between the kinetic frictional force Fk and the normal force FN:
!k = Fk/FN = F/mg (2)

Equipment

Balance
Motion Sensor
Force Sensor
Set of two masses, 250 g each
Discover Friction Accessory
String
Experimental Procedure
1. Launch your SPARKvue software and click on the build new experiment option.
2. Select the first layout option (one display).
3. Fill up the layout by choosing the graph display option on your software denoted by the
following icon;

4. Click on the “add plot area” on the strip at the bottom of your screen; denoted by the below icon.
This will add a new graph below your first graph.

5. Connect your sensors to the software by clicking on the Bluetooth icon on the top right corner of
your screen, click on the motion sensor (named motion on your software) and on the force
sensor (named force accel on your software).
6. Now on the first graph space on your screen, click on “select measurement” and choose “force”
under “force wireless sensor” as shown in the figure below, this will set your force sensor to
measure the applied force and display it as a function of time on your graph.

7. On the second graph space on your screen, click on “select measurement” and choose “velocity”
under “wireless motion sensor” as shown in the figure below. This will set your motion sensor to
measure the velocity of the tray as a function of time throughout its motion. It is important to
keep the velocity constant throughout the motion.
8. Before taking your measurements, change the sign of the force sensor in order to obtain positive
force readings by clicking on the “change sign option” as shown in the figure below.

9. Set the measurement frequency to 40Hz by clicking on “periodic” at the bottom of the page.
10. Start with the tray labelled “Cork” and load it with 500g of mass. Use the balance to determine
the mass of the tray with the loads, and then record this mass in kilograms in Data Table 1.
11. Place the tray on the table, the tray should be placed 15cm away from the motion sensor
before the start of the motion. Your setup should look like that in Figure 1.
N.B. while pulling, make sure your hand is positioned such that the string attached to the
tray is always parallel to the table throughout the motion and not angled.

Figure 1

12. Start recording, pulling with the force sensor, slowly and steadily until the cart begins to slide
along the track. Once sliding, continue to pull with the force sensor such that the tray moves at a
constant speed along the surface of the track for a few seconds.
13. Stop recording.
14. While selecting the data on your force-time graph (Figure 6), use the two-point coordinates tool
(Figure 3) to obtain the value of the static friction force by noting down the value of the peak on
the graph just before the tray starts moving, write that value down as Fs in Data Table 1.
15. Now using the selection tool (Figure 4), select the part of your force-time graph which shows
a somewhat constant force after the peak, i.e., the horizontal line portion.
16. On your selection, use the statistics tool (Figure 5) to obtain the value for the mean force in this
interval, this value corresponds to the kinetic friction of the surfaces. Note down that value down
as "! in Data Table 1.
17. Repeat the above procedure for the second tray labelled “Plastic” and record its data in Data
Table 1.

Figure 2 selecting data in graph 1 (Y1); force-time graph

Figure 3 Two-point coordinate tool

Figure 4 selection tool to highlight portion of graph

Figure 5 statistics tool to calculate mean

Figure 6 graphs and selection references, force-time graph on top, velocity-time graph at the bottom.
Experimental Data
Data Table 1

Parameters Cork Plastic

Mass of the friction tray and load (kg)

Fs (N)
"" (N)

Data Analysis

N.B. Perform the analyses below for the two friction trays and record the values under the
corresponding slots in the table.
1. Calculate the normal force of the tray plus its load (it is equivalent to the weight of your
system=$!"!#$%) and enter this value as "% in Calculations Table 1. Show your work in the
space below.
Cork Plastic

2. Calculate the static coefficient of friction (µs) by using equation (1) in the background
section and enter this value in Calculations Table 1. Show your work in the space below.
Cork Plastic
3. Calculate the kinetic coefficient of friction (µk) by using equation (2) in the background
section and enter this value in Calculations Table 1. Show your work in the space below.

Cork Plastic

Calculations Table 1

Parameters Cork Plastic

"# (N)

µs

µk
Discussion of Results

Answer the following questions in the provided spaces.

1. The graph below is representative of the force applied to an object as it is pulled across a
horizontal surface. Describe the motion of the object for the positions labeled in the graph, i.e.,
moving, not moving, starting its motion.

A B C

2. How did the value of µs compare to µk , i.e., larger/ smaller?

Conclusion

• Sources of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data collection --------- /10

Data analysis and final results --------- /5

Conduct and workspace condition --------- /5

 Experiment 8: Newton’s Second Law of Motion - Air Track
Aim
Verifying Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

Theory
The relationship between the net force F exerted on a body of mass m and the acceleration a
of the body is Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

! = $% (1)

A mass m1 is shown in Figure 1 on a horizontal surface. It is connected to a second mass

m2 by a string running over a pulley, and there is tension T in the string connecting the
masses.
By considering that m1 is moving on a frictionless surface, three forces act on it, but only the
force located along the x-direction is responsible for the movement of the body, whereas
the weight of m1 and the normal force from the Table N are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction, and their sum to zero. Thus, Eq. (1) can be written as:

) =m1a (2)

However, the two forces acting on mass m2 are its weight m2g and the tension T, by
assuming that the pulley is frictionless. Because m1 and m2 are connected, the
acceleration of m2 has the same magnitude as the acceleration of m1. In equation form:

m2 ! – ) = $ 2 - (3)

In order to determine the acceleration of the system, we will solve Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) together,
to obtain:
$!
-= 0
($" + $! )

Figure 1: The force applied on "1 by the weight of "2

 Equipment

2m Air Track Hanger Set with 4 slotted masses

Air Supply Two Photogates
Glider with a Flag Pulley
Hook String
End stop with rubber band bumper Four – 50 g masses for the glider

Figure 2: Front view of the air track Figure 3: Side view of the air track

Experimental Procedure
o Part 1:

1. Launch your SPARKVue software and click on “build new experiment”

option.
2. Select the first layout (one display).

3. Select the digits display from the shown list.

4. Click on the “Bluetooth” icon on the top right corner

and connect the first smart gate.

5. Choose from the shown list “Smart gate and Auxiliary port”,
then choose “Photogate timing (Two Photogates)”.

6. Set the Flag length on 0.025 m, and photogate spacing to

0.3 m.
7. Connect the second Photogate.
8. Click on “Select measurement” and choose “Acceleration between
gates”

9. Measure the mass of the glider by using the digital balance and record its value as $1 in Tables
1 and 2.

10. Measure the mass of the hanger set with the slotted masses by the digital balance and record
its value as $2 in Table 1 and Table 2.

11. Calculate the theoretical value of the acceleration #!ℎ#$. as referred in Eq. (4) and record it in
Table1.

12. Place the two Photogates with a distance = 30 cm between each other.

13. Place the glider in the middle of the track as shown in Figure 2, without initial velocity and
make sure to be positioned before the two photogates.

14. Let the hanger hang over the pulley by the string that is connected to the glider as shown in Figure 3.

15. Turn on the Air Supply in order to create a frictionless surface, while holding the glider in its place.

16. Click “Start”, let the glider move until it passes through the two photogates and reaches the
end stop, then click “Stop”.

17. Record the value of the acceleration measured by the software in Table 2 as -123.

18. Calculate the error between the experimental and the theoretical value of the acceleration and
record it in Table 3.
 • Theoretically:

Table 1

"1 = kg
!Tℎ'( = m/s2

"2 = kg

• Experimentally:

Table 2

"1 = kg
!Exp = m/s2

"2 = kg

Error Calculation
Table 3

#Tℎ&' = "/+2
)*()* + *+,(- )
% Error = x 100 =
*+,(-

#E/0 = "/+2
 o Part 2:

10 The mass of the hanger is fixed as $2, then record the value of the glider as $1 you
measured in part 1as a 1st trial in Table 4

11 Record the value of the acceleration ##)*. you measured in Part 1 as a 1st trial in Table 4.

12 Add two masses to the glider, each mass on each side, then measure the mass of the glider by
the digital balance and record its value as $1 in Table 4.

13. Place the glider in the middle of the track as shown in Fig.2, without initial velocity and
make sure to be positioned before the two photogates.

14. Let the hanger hang over the pully by the string that is connected to the glider as shown in Fig.3

15. Turn on the Air Supply in order to create a frictionless surface, while holding the glider in its place.

16. Click “Start”, let the glider move until it passes through the two photogates and reaches
the end stop, then click “Stop”.

17. Record the value of the acceleration measured by the software in Table 4 as ##)*..

18. Repeat the same procedures by attaching another two masses on each side of the glider and
record the corresponding $1 and ##)*..

19. Plot a graph between

20. From the obtained slope calculate the value of the acceleration due to gravity as gexp. as
referred to in Eq. (4).

21. Calculate the error between the experimental and the theoretical values of the acceleration
due to gravity on Table 5.
 Table 4

$2= kg

1
trials aexp. m1 (m1+m2) ($1 + $2)
(m/s2) (kg) (kg) (kg-1)

Slope = kg.m./s2

Error Calculation

Table 5

!Tℎ&' = "/+2 )*()* + *+,(- )

% Error = x 100 =
*+,(-

!Exp = !"#$% = m/s2

&!
Discussion of Results and Conclusion
o Draw the free body diagram for both masses: the glider and the hanger set.

o Source of error, if any:

o Precautions to avoid the error, if any:

Grades
Data Collection --------- /10
Data analysis and results ---------------- /5
Conduct and workspace condition---------- /5
 Experiment 9: Simple Harmonic Motion - Mass on a Spring

Aim
1- Determination of the spring constant k of a spring:
i. Directly by measuring the elongation of the spring for specific applied forces.
ii. Indirectly from measurements of the variation of the period T of oscillation for
different values of mass on the end of the spring.
2- Check the dependence of the period T of oscillation of a mass on a spring on the value of
the mass and on the amplitude of the motion.

Theory

An object that experiences a restoring force proportional to its displacement from an equilibrium
position is said to obey Hooke’s law. In equation form this relationship can be expressed as
!! = −%& (1)
where !! is a spring’s force along the x-axis, x is the amount the spring is stretched from its
equilibrium position, and k is the spring constant. The negative sign indicates that the restoring
force is in the opposite direction of the displacement.
A force described by Equation (1) will produce an oscillatory motion called simple harmonic
motion.

Hook’s law (Equation (1)) is valid only if the elastic limit is not exceeded. The elastic limit of a
substance is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied to a substance before it becomes
permanently deformed.

Along y-axis, for a mass hanging vertically from a spring, the magnitude of the force exerted by
the spring on a mass m is F = mg, then equation (1) can be written as

'g = %) (2)

Solving for the spring constant

!g
%= (3)
$

If the spring is displaced from its equilibrium position by some value A, and then released, it will
oscillate about the equilibrium position. The values of its displacement y from the equilibrium
position will range between y = A and y = −A. The quantity A is called the Amplitude of the
motion.

The time for one complete oscillation from the maximum displacement on one side of
equilibrium (+A) to the maximum displacement on the other side of equilibrium (−A) is called
the Period T.
Consider a mass m placed on the end of a spring
hanging vertically as shown in
Figure 1. The original equilibrium position of the
lower end of the spring is shown in
Figure 1(a), and the position of the lower end of
the spring when the mass is applied is
shown in Figure 1(b). For purposes of determining
the oscillatory motion, the position
shown in 1(b) can be considered as the new
equilibrium position, and displacements
can be measured from that point. In Figure 1(c),
the mass is shown pulled down to a
displacement A from this equilibrium position.
Figure 1
When released the mass will oscillate
with amplitude A.

The period of oscillation of the spring is independent of the amplitude A. It depends on

the spring constant k and the mass m. The period T is given by
%
*=2,- & (4)

Equation (4) is strictly true only if the spring is massless. For real springs with finite mass, a
portion of the spring mass must be included along with the mass m. It can be shown that one
third of the spring mass '", must be included in equation (4) along with m. Hence, the period of
the spring is
!"
$% # (5)
*=2"# &
Squaring equation (5)
'(! %"
*2 = &
(' + )
) (6)

Equipment

Spring with hook and pointer

Different slotted masses
Metallic holder for masses
Metallic base
Metallic multi-clamp
Metallic rod
Wooden ruler
Timer
Experimental Procedure

Spring Constant (Direct) – DO NOT OVERSTRETCH THE SPRING

1. Record the unstretched length of the spring as &( in Data Table 1.

2. Measure the mass of one of the hooked
masses and note it down in Data Table 1
and then place it on the hanger at the end
of the spring.
3. Slowly lower the mass m until it hangs at
rest in equilibrium when released.
Carefully read the position of the lower
end of the pointer-fixed on the lower end
of the spring-on the meter stick scale.
Record the value of the displacement x in
Data Table 1.
4. Repeat Step 2 for 6 more measurements
on the spring, measuring the
displacement Δx of the spring each time.
Δx = xf – xo. Record all values of m and Figure 2
Δx in Data Table 1.
5. Calculate the force mg for each mass and record the values (approximated to 3 d.p.) in
Data Table 1.
6. Make sure to remove the hanged masses after finishing to avoid deformation of the
spring.

Spring Constant (Indirect)

1. Place the 1st hooked mass on the hanger and let it hang at rest. Displace the mass slightly
(about 1 cm) below the equilibrium, release it -start the stopwatch at the same time- and
let it oscillate up and down about its equilibrium position. Measure the time required for
20 oscillations and compute the time for one period of motion in Data Table 2 along with
the mass (the hooked mass and the hanger) (approximated to 3 d.p.).
2. Repeat the procedure of step 1 for 4 times each time adding a mass m. Record the results
in Data Table 2. (Include the mass of the hanger)
3. Compute the square of the period *2 and record your calculations in Data Table 2.
$
4. Calculate the quantity ('+ )") for each value of m (approximated to 3 d.p.). (Note
that the mass of the spring 1* = 10.6 g).
5. Record these calculations in Data Table 2.
Experimental Data

Direct method
Data Table 1
2 (=
m (kg) Δx (m) mg (N)

Slope =

Indirect method
Data Table 2
Note that as the mass increases, the period (T) increases.
Mass of the hanger = 19.8 g
!#
m (kg) Time for 20 T for one *2 (s2) '+ (kg)
3
oscillation (s) oscillation (s)

Slope =

Graphs
1. Plot a graph using Data Table 1 for force mg[N] on the y-axis versus displacement Δx[m] on
the x-axis. The slope of this line is the spring constant k.

2. Graph the data from Data Table 2 for the squared period *2[s2] on the y-axis versus
%
(' + )" ) [kg] on the x-axis.
Analysis and Discussion of Results

1- From graph 1, find the slope and record it at Data Table 1.

2- Find the value of the spring constant k.

3- From graph 2, calculate the slope. Then using equation (6), find the spring constant value
k.
2
Slope = 4π 4π2
k=
+ Slope

Error Calculations

|%3ℎ56. − %89:.|
% 56676 = × 100
%3ℎ56.

k value from graph 1

k value from graph 2

Conclusion

• Sources of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data collection --------- /10

Data analysis and final results---------- /5

Conduct and workspace condition---------- /5

 Experiment 10: Young’s Modulus
Aim
Verify Young’s modulus for a wire by measuring the longitudinal stress and strain of the wire.

Theory
Young's modulus measures a wire's elasticity, indicating its ability to revert to its original length once the
applied force is removed. It's determined by the ratio of the force exerted on the object (stress) to the resulting
deformation along its axis (strain). All materials experience elastic deformation, a temporary alteration in shape
that permits a return to the initial state. However, if the stress surpasses a certain point, permanent (plastic)
deformation occurs.
For example, one can calculate Young's Modulus by calculating the deflection of a material (such as a beam)
when subjected to load.

Young’s modulus (Y) of a string is defined mathematically as:

+- 0
!=
#$%&''
= , = -, (1)
#$%()* ∆/- ∆/-
/ /
Where:

• + : the applied force of the attached weights + = 0 = 56

• , : the cross-sectional area of the wire , = 7% !

and % is radius of the wire.

• / : the length of the wire.

• ∆/ : the elongation of the wire.

 Equipment

Holder for fixing the wire

Dial micrometer (indicator)

Micrometer

Different weights

Metallic string (stainless steel) attached to the holder

Metallic base for fixing the string

How to use the Micrometer

Before measurement, wipe down the anvil and spindle

surfaces with clean tissue. This removes dirt and dust from
the surfaces, which enables accurate measurements.

1. Start by placing the object to be measured between

the anvil and the spindle, then turn the thimble to lock
the target between the two surfaces.
2. Read the value from the main scale on the sleeve and
the scale on the thimble. Use the line on the right edge
of the sleeve to read the value in units of 0.5 mm, i.e.,
each line = 0.5 55.
You can then use the scale at which the center line on the thimble (scale) lines up to read the value in units
of 0.01 55, i.e., each line = 0.01 55.

Check the below example

Reading = main scale + rotating vernier scale

= 7.5 55 + 0.24 55
= 7.74 55
Experimental Procedure
1. Fix one end of the wire to the holder and the other to the pan.
2. Place the pan above the dial indicator, making sure that the tip of the dial indicator is at the center of the
pan.
3. Measure the length of the wire using a ruler and write it down as N in the data table 1.
4. Measure the diameter of the wire using the micrometer and write it down as D in the data table 1.
5. Calculate the cross-sectional area O = 7% ! and write it down in data table 1.
6. Calibrate the dial indicator to zero.
7. Add the first weight P on the top of the pan and measure the corresponding elongation QN of the wire by
taking the reading of the dial indicator, then write it down in data table 2.
8. Repeat the previous step by adding another weight P above the old one and record the new value of the
elongation QN in data table 2.

Data Collection

1. Plot a graph between the Weight P on the y-axis and the elongation QN of the wire on the x-axis.
2. From the slope of your graph calculate Young’s Modulus using Eq. (1).
3. Calculate the percentage difference between the experimental and the theoretical values of young’s modulus
for the given material.

Data Table 1

N=

R=

S =

O = TS" =
Data Table 2

Mass P = UV QN × XY#$
Trials
(Kg) (N) (m)

Error Calculation

i!*+,- − !,./ i
Z%&'( = 1.9\10)) ]/5! (Steel _`ab`cdef` gaaha = × 100
Wire) !*+,-

/
Z'01 = 'klm& × = … … … … ]/5!
,
Conclusion
• Sources of errors, if any:

• Precautions to avoid the errors, if any:

Grades
Data Collection ---------- /10
Data analysis and final results ---------- /5
Conduct and workspace condition ---------- /5