1.

0 Seismic design
Earth undergoes movements in different directions along the surface thereby producing sliding
of crust and some portions of the mantle on the hot molten outer core. These movements of
Earth masses produce a division of the crust in some portions called tectonic plates, moving in
different directions and with different velocities. Sometimes
equilibrium among plates exists due to the shear forces along the plate boundaries
named faults. But when the strain energy is exceeded in some fault portions, a
sudden slipping occurs, being the source of the earthquake. The comparison
between the distribution of the epicenters of strong earthquakes and the tectonic
plate borders shows very clearly that the main cause of earthquakes is the relative
movements of tectonic plates. The majority of earthquakes in the world occur
along these borders, named interplate earthquakes, but there are also earthquakes
shaking the zones within the plate itself, far from the plate borders, named intraplate
earthquakes. Statistically, the frequency of earthquake occurrence is given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Frequency of occurrence of earthquakes based on observations since 1900

Descriptor Magnitude Average annually

Very great > 9.0 1 at 20 years

Great 8.0 – 8.9 1

Major 7.0 – 7.9 18

Strong 6.0 – 6.9 120

Moderate 5.0 – 5.9 800

Light 4.0 – 4.9 6200

Minor 3.0 – 3.9 49000

Very minor 2.0 – 2.9 About 1000 per day

1.0 – 1.9 About 8000 per day

Earthquake causes ground motions in random fashion, both horizontally and vertically, in all
directions radiating from the epicenter. Consequently, structures founded in the ground vibrate,
inducing inertial forces on them. It is therefore essential to endure (i) stability, (ii) strength and
(iii) serviceability with acceptable levels of safety, by way of suitable design and detailing.

The characteristics (i.e. intensity, duration, etc.) of seismic ground vibrations expected at any
location depends upon the magnitude of the earthquake, its depth of focus, distance from the
epicenter, characteristics of the path through which seismic waves travel, and the soil strata on
which the structure stands.

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Although structural design for seismic loading is primarily concerned with structural safety
during major earthquakes, serviceability and the potential for economic loss are of concern.
Seismic design therefore requires an understanding of the structural behavior under large
inelastic, cyclic deformations. Behavior under this loading is fundamentally different from
wind or gravity loading. It requires a more detailed analysis, and the application of a number
of stringent detailing requirements to assure acceptable seismic performance beyond the elastic
range. Some structural damage can be expected when the building experiences design ground
motions because almost all building codes allow inelastic energy dissipation in structural
systems.

In view of the mitigation of seismic risk some topics have been developed, which include;

Engineering seismology: developed to solve the problems of the earthquake hazard, which is
branch of seismology, having the purpose to use the seismological knowledge for the seismic
design of buildings, by proposing the seismic action functions of the source and site
characteristics

Earthquake engineering: with the task to solve the problems of construction vulnerability, is a
branch of more general field of structural engineering science, having the purpose to develop
specific methodologies for analysing the effects of seismic actions on constructions.

Seismic design: collects the data given by engineering seismology referring to seismic loads
and using the methodologies proposed by the earthquake engineering and performs a complex
examination of structures, including numerical analysis, structural conformation, solutions for
details, and eventually an engineering overview on the designed structure. The main scope of
seismic design is to obtain the economical victory over a string earthquake by reducing
structural damage controlled by the designer.

Lateral load resisting systems: seismic structural systems

During an earthquake of given intensity, the magnitude of forces induced in a structure mainly
depends on (i) damping (ii) ductility and (iii) energy dissipation capacity of the structure. The
induced seismic forces on the structure can be reduced by enhancing ductility and energy
dissipation capacity in the structure, thus reducing the probability of collapse. In general,
ductility of a structure, or its members, is the capacity to undergo large elastic deformations
(beyond the initial yield deformations) without significant loss of strength or stiffness.
According to Blume, a structure must have both strength as well as ductility for satisfactory
performance during an earthquake. The main structural elements and their connections should
be designed to have a ductile failure. This will enable the structure to avoid sudden collapse.
Since reinforced concrete is relatively less ductile in compression and shear, dissipation of
seismic energy is best achieved by flexural yielding.

In order to resist lateral forces induced during an earthquake, we may have the following
systems as described in cl. 5.2.2 of BS EN 1998-1(2004);

1. Moment resisting space frames systems

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  Ordinary moment resisting frame
 Ductile moment resisting frame
2. Bearing wall systems
3. Building frame system
4. Dual system consisting of ductile moment resisting space frame and ductile shear (or
flexural) wall

Moment resisting frames: they resist forces in members and joints primarily by flexure and rely
on a frame to carry both vertical and lateral loads. Moment-resisting frames can be constructed
of concrete, masonry or steel. There are five types of moment-resisting frames: steel and
concrete special moment resisting frames (SMRF), masonry moment resisting wall frames
(MMRWF), concrete intermediate moment resisting frames (IMRF), steel or concrete ordinary
moment resisting frames (OMRF) and special steel trusses moment frames (SRMF). An
ordinary moment resisting frame is a space frame capable of carrying all vertical and horizontal
loads, by developing bending moments in the members and at joints, but not meeting the special
detailing requirements for ductile behavior. In contrast to this, special moment resisting frame
or ductile moment resisting frame is a moment resisting frame detailed to provide ductile
behavior and comply with requirements given in the code. A frame of continuous construction
comprising flexural members and columns designed and detailed to accommodate reversible
lateral displacements after the formation of plastic hinges (without decrease in strength) is
known as ductile moment resisting frame. Horizontal forces at any floor or roof level is
transmitted to the foundation by using the strength rigidity and ductility of a moment resisting
frame. The energy dissipation, ductility and structural response of space frames depend upon
type of members, connections (joints), and materials of construction used.

Bearing wall systems: a bearing wall system is a structural system that relies on the same
elements to resist both gravity and lateral load. There are two types of structural walls: bearing
wall and shear wall. A bearing wall is designed and constructed to resist vertical loads. A shear
wall (or flexural wall) is a wall designed to resist lateral forces in its own plane. Lateral forces
are resisted by shear walls, light bracing in bearing walls or braced frames. Shear walls are
reinforced concrete walls cantilevering vertically from the base designed and detailed to be
ductile so as to resist seismic forces and to dissipate energy through flexural yielding at one or
more plastic hinges. Shear walls should extend from the foundations either to the top of the
building or to a lesser height as required from the design consideration. A shear wall building
is normally quite rigid as compared to a framed structure.

Building frame systems: a building frame (vertical load-bearing frame) is a complete self-
contained three-dimensional unit composed of interconnected members. Building frame
systems use a complete space frame to carry the vertical load and a separate system of non-
bearing shear walls or braced frames to resist the lateral loads. Unlike the bearing wall system,
failure of the primary lateral support system does not compromise the ability of the structure
to support brevity loads. A frame may or may not have bracing. If it does it is known as a
braced frame. A braced frame is a vertical truss system of interconnected members designed to
resist lateral loads through the development of axial loads in the members. Types of building

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frame systems are: steel eccentrically braced frames, light framed walls with shear panels,
concrete or masonry shear walls etc.

Dual systems: Buildings with dual system consist of ductile shear walls and ductile moment
resisting frames such that:

(a) The two systems are designed to resist the total design lateral force in proportion to
their lateral stiffness considering the interaction of dual system at all floor levels
(b) The moment resisting frames are designed to independently resist at least 25 per cent
of the base shear

Improving earthquake resistance of minor building

In designing a structure, selection of the structure’s basic plan, shape and configuration is a
critical step. The decision will influence the ability of the structure to withstand earthquake
ground shaking. The following factors have found to have contributing effect;

Vertical discontinuities in load path: one of the major contributors of structural damage in
structures during strong earthquake is the discontinuity in the load path or load transfer. The
structure should contain a continuous load path for transfer of the seismic force, which develops
due to accelerations of individual elements, to the ground. Failure to provide adequate strength
and toughness of individual elements in the system, or failure to tie individual elements
together can result in distress or complete collapse of the system. The load path must be
complete and sufficiently strong.

Irregularities in strength and stiffness: a “weak” storey is defined as one in which the
storey’s lateral strength is less than 80% of that in the storey above. The storey’s lateral strength
is the total strength of all seismic resisting elements sharing the storey shear for the direction
under consideration i.e. the shear capacity of the column or the shear walls or the horizontal
component of the axial capacity of the diagonal braces. A “soft” storey is one in which the
lateral stiffness is less than 70% of that in the storey immediately above, or less than 80% of
the combined stiffness of the three stories above. The essential characteristic of a weak and soft
storey consists of a discontinuity of strength or stiffness, which occurs at the second storey
connections. This discontinuity is caused by lesser strength or increased flexibility, the
structure results in extreme deflections in the first storey of the structure. The soft story concept
however, has technical and functional advantages over the conventional construction.

Mass irregularities: mass irregularities are considered to exist where the effective mass of any
storey is more than 200% of the effective mass of an adjacent storey. The effective mass is the
real mass consisting of the dead weight of the floor plus the actual weight of partition and
equipment. Excess mass can lead to increase in lateral inertial forces, reduced ductility of
vertical load resisting elements, and increased tendency towards collapse. Irregularity of mass
distribution in vertical and horizontal planes can result in irregular responses and complex
dynamics.

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Vertical geometry irregularity: this is considered when the horizontal dimension of the lateral
force resisting system in any storey is more than 150% of that in an adjacent storey. The vertical
setback can also be visualised as a vertical re-entrant corner. The general solution of a setback
problem is the total seismic separation in plan through separation section, so that portions of
the building are free to vibrate independently.

Proximity of adjacent buildings: pounding damage is caused by hitting of two buildings

constructed in close proximity with each other. Pounding may result in irregular response of
adjacent buildings of different heights due to different dynamic characteristics. Damage due to
pounding can be minimised by drift control, building separation, and aligning floors in adjacent
buildings.

The general principles in earthquake design may include

 Structures should not be brittle or collapse suddenly. Rather, they should be tough, able
to deflect or deform a considerable amount
 Resisting elements such as bracing or shear walls, must be provided evenly throughout
the building in both directions side-to-side as well as top to bottom
 All elements, such as walls and the roof, should be tied together so as to act as an
integrated unit during earthquake shaking, transferring forces across connections and
preventing separation
 The building must be well connected to a good foundation and the earth. Wet soils
should be avoided and the foundation must be well tied together as well as tied to the
wall. Where soft soils cannot be avoided, special strengthening must be provided
 Care must be taken that all materials are of good quality, and are protected from rain,
sun, insects and other weakening actions, so that their strength lasts
 Unreinforced earth and masonry have no reliable strength in tension and are brittle in
compression. Generally they must be suitably reinforced by steel or wood

Categories of buildings

For categorising the buildings with the purpose of achieving seismic resistance at economical
cost, three parameters are significant:

 Seismic intensity zone where the building is located

 How important the building is
 How stiff is the foundation soil

The basic value of the behavior factor ( ) for buildings that are regular in elevation (Cl.
5.2.2.2) are given in Table 5.1 of the code.

Earthquake loads versus static loads

Earthquake loads may be compared with wind loads which both act horizontally but their
physical action is different;

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According to the common design philosophy the basis is the pressure on the exposed surface
areas in case of wind and the inertia forces, resulting from the random motions of the ground
at the base of the structure, in case of an earthquake (Figure 3.1(a)

Wind forces on the structure have a non-zero component superimposed with a relatively small
oscillating component. Thus under wind forces, the structure may experience small fluctuations
in the stress field, but reversal of stress occurs only when the direction of wind reverses, which
happens only over a large duration of time measured at the level of hours

On the other hand, the motion of ground during the earthquake is cyclic around the neutral
position of the structure. Thus, the stress state in the structure sue to seismic actions undergoes
many complete reversals, which happens during the small duration of an earthquake, at the
level of seconds (Figure 3.1b)

Maximum wind forces are reached in average intervals measured in days, while for the
maximum earthquake forces the intervals are measure in dozens of years (Figure 3.1c), which
can be greater than the existence of the building

The risk of exceeding the maximum wind forces is very high, while it is reduced for the
earthquake maximum forces. During the life of a structure, the maximum wind forces can be
reached many times, while the maximum earthquake forces never are they reached or reached
once or maximum two times

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Figure 3.1: Wind loads versus earthquake loads (a) actions (b) variation in time (c) max
recorded values

Basis of seismic design philosophy

The main actions that a structure is supposed to carry (dead, live, snow, etc.) are
essentially static loads. Their maximum values can be easily determined using
probabilistic approaches. The earthquake does not belong to such kind of actions.
The input is the dynamic motion of the ground and the dynamic characteristics of
structure determine how much that motion is amplified or de-amplified in terms of
structural response. Because the input is given under form of dynamic
displacements, the requested structural resistance can be interpreted as an energy
dissipation capacity rather than a strength capacity. This energy can be interpreted
as the product of forces and displacements. Therefore, the structure performance
against earthquake can be improved either by increasing its strength or by
increasing its deformability, or by increasing both

The design of structures under static loads is commonly based upon the limit
states criteria. The response of structures to this kind of action, determined as the
maximum possible values using a probabilistic approach, is analysed with a linear
elastic model (only in very special cases a non-linear model is used). The load
effects in the members are then compared with their resistance capacity, thus
giving rules for sizing members so that the probability of exceeding various limit

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states (serviceability or ultimate) is sufficiently low. So, no damage for these static
loads is accepted.

The seismic design against earthquake loads is based on a different philosophy due to some
reasons;

- The design for the largest credible seismic load, resulting from the strongest expected
earthquake in the structure is unreasonable and economically unacceptable. While the
maximum values for the static loads can arise frequently, these maximum seismic loads
are very rare during the structure life. Therefore, the design earthquakes are selected at
a given level, which is smaller than the one associated to the largest possible load.
- The determination of the proper seismic loads is a very difficult task, due to the
complexity of seismic phenomena. Thus in some cases, the earthquake actions could
exceed the design values. As a consequence, the structures can occasionally fail to
exhibit their performance under these events, which exceed the design values and
consequently they may suffer local damage.

The above criteria are assumed as a basis of the modern design philosophy, according to which
the design lateral force is obtained by dividing the maximum force that a structure will
experience by a reduction factor q, which is specified by seismic design codes. The use of this
factor is possible provided that the structure can stably withstand a structural damage in the
range of plastic deformations without collapse due to loss of strength. This property is called
ductility, which represents the ability of the structure to undergo plastic deformations without
any significant reduction of strength. There are three ductility types: good (high), medium and
poor (low) ductility.

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Figure 3.2: Design philosophy for earthquake loads: (a) Definition of reduction factor q (b)
good, medium and poor ductility

Frequency of earthquakes

Descriptor Magnitude

Great 8 and higher

Major 7 -7.9

Strong 6 – 6.9

Moderate 5 – 5.9

Light 4 – 4.9

Minor 3 – 3.9

Very minor <3.0

Determination of design earthquake forces is computed by the following methods:

 Equivalent static lateral loading

 Dynamic analysis

Equivalent static force method

This method is based on the concept of replacing the inertia forces at various lumped masses
(i.e. storey levels) by equivalent horizontal forces that are proportional the weight of the body
(therefore its mass) and its displacement (its acceleration). The summation of these
concentrated forces is balanced by a base shear at the base of the structure. This method may
be used for calculation of seismic lateral forces for all structures specified in the building codes.

Dynamic analysis

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This method involves the rigorous analysis of the entire structural system by studying the
dynamic response of the structure by considering the total response in terms of component
modal responses.

Type of ground soil (Cl. 3.1.2)

The site classification scheme is based on the following parameters:

 Type of deposit (i.e. different types of rocks and soils)

 Average shear wave velocity
 Depth of layers

The classification of soil conditions contains five soil classes;

Class A refers to hard rock, igneous rocks characterized by shear wave velocity greater than
800m/sec

Class B considers gravelly soil and soft to firm rock, characterised by shear wave velocity
between 360 – 800m/sec

Class C refers to stiff clays and sandy soils and clays, medium stiff to hard clays and silt clays
with shear velocity between 180 - 360m/sec

Class D considers soft clay soils, with shear velocity less than 180m/sec ad soil depth between
60 to 200m

Class E refers to special soft soils (liquefiable soils, highly organic clays, very high plasticity
clays and soft soils), for which special geotechnical investigations are recommended.

Reliability differentiation
The levels of the seismic action are meant to be applied to ordinary structures and are
considered the reference seismic action (which is anchored to the refence peak ground
acceleration ). However, EN 1998-1 foresees the possibility to differentiate the target
reliabilities for different types of building or other constructions, depending on its importance
and consequences of failure. EN 1998-1 prescribes that reliability differentiation is
implemented by classifying structures into different importance classes. An importance factor
is assigned to each importance class. The different levels of reliability are obtained by
multiplying the reference seismic action by this importance factor as indicated in table 4.3 of
the code and reproduced below.

Table: importance classes for buildings

Importance Buildings Importance factor

class

I Buildings of minor importance for public safety, e.g. 0.8

agricultural buildings

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 II Ordinary buildings, not belonging in the other categories 1.0

III Buildings whose seismic resistance is of importance in 1.2

view of the consequences associated with a collapse, e.g.
Schools, assembly halls, cultural institutions etc.

IV Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of vital 1.4

importance for civil protection, e.g. hospitals, fire
stations, power plants, etc.

The design ground acceleration is given as;

The reference peak ground acceleration on type A ground, for use in a country or parts of
a country may be derived from zonation maps (Cl. 3.2.1 (2)).

Horizontal elastic response spectrum (cl. 3.2.2.2)

The ground motion is described by EN 1998-1 by the elastic ground acceleration response
spectrum Se, denoted as the elastic response spectrum. The design response spectrum is a
smooth response spectrum specifying the level of seismic resistance required for a design.
Seismic analysis requires that the design spectrum be specified. The code stipulates a design
acceleration spectrum or base shear coefficients as a function of natural period. The basic shape
of the horizontal elastic response spectrum, normalised by ag, is as shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Shape of the elastic response spectrum

The basic spectral shape is composed by four branches:

 Very low period branch, from peak ground acceleration to the constant acceleration
branch

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  Constant acceleration
 Constant velocity
 Constant displacement

These branches are separated by three corner periods: , and and the soil factor S for
Type 1 and Type 2 spectral shapes as given in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 of the code.

Ground displacement and displacement spectra (cl. 3.2.2.4)

The code indicates that the design ground displacement corresponding to the design ground
acceleration ag, may be estimated by

= 0.025. . . .

Methods of analysis (Cl. 4.3.3)

The seismic effects and the effects of the other actions included in the seismic deign situation
may be determined on the basis of the linear-elastic behaviour of the structure. The reference
method for determining the seismic effects shall be the modal response spectrum in analysis,
using a linear-elastic model of the structure and the design spectrum. The table below provides
the methods.

Analysis method Criteria

Lateral force analysis Regular in plan and elevation

Regular in elevation and irregular in plan

Fundamental period:

≤4

≤ 2.0

Height of building: H<10m

Response spectrum modal Regular in plan and irregular in elevation

Irregular in plan and elevation

Fundamental period: Not special

requirements

Non-linear High irregular structures

Design base shear force (cl. 4.3.3.2.2)

The total design base shear force Fb, in a given direction is determined from the following
relation:

= … … 3.1

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Where

– ordinate of the design spectrum at period T1

T1 – fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral motion in the direction
considered (cl. 4.3.3.3.1 of BS EN 1998-1:1998)
m – total mass of the building, above the foundation or above the top of a rigid basement
– correction factor, the value of which is equal to: = 0.85 if ≤ 2 and if the
building has more than two storeys, or = 1.0 otherwise

The seismic dead load is not only the dead load (including permanent partitions) of the structure
but also has to include some live loads as and when they superimpose on the dead loads.

For buildings with heights of up to 40 m the value of T1 (in sec) may be approximated by
⁄
= … … 3.2

Where

– is 0.085 for moment resistant space steel frames, 0.075 for moment resistant space
concrete frames and for eccentrically braced steel frames and 0.050 for all other
structures

H – height of the building, in m, from the foundation of from the top of a rigid basement

Alternatively, for structures with concrete or masonry shear walls the value Ct in equation 3.2
is given as

= 0.075⁄ … … 3.3

Where

= 0.2 + ⁄

Ac – total effective area of the shear walls in the first storey of the building in m2
Ai – the effective cross-sectional area of shear wall i in the direction considered in the first
storey of the building, in m2
lwi – length of the shear wall i in the first storey in the direction parallel to the applied forces,
in m

≤ 0.9

Distribution of design force

Buildings and their elements should be designed and constructed to resist the effects of design
lateral force. The design lateral force is first computed for the building as a whole and then
distributed to the various floor levels. The overall design seismic force thus obtained at each
floor level is then distributed to individual lateral load-resisting elements, depending on the
floor diaphragm action.

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Lateral distribution of base shear (cl. 4.3.3.2.3)

The computed base shear is now distributed along the height f he building. The shear force, at
any level, depends on the mass at that level and deformed shape of the structure. Earthquake
forces deflect a structure into number of shapes, known as the natural mode shapes. Number
of natural mode shapes depends upon the degree-of-freedom of the system. From structural
idealization, an infinite degree-of-freedom is converted to finite degree of freedom system. For
example, a multi-storeyed building has been idealized into lumped mass model by assuming
the mass of the building lumped at each floor level (called node). The magnitude of the lateral
force at a particular floor (node) depends on the mass of the at node, the distribution of stiffness
over the height of structure, and the nodal displacements in a given mode. The horizontal forces
are given by;

=
∑

Where

horizontal force acting on storey i

seismic base shear according
, storey masses
, heights of the masses mi, mj above the level of application of seismic action

Vertical distribution of lateral forces

In the absence of a more rigorous procedure, the total lateral force which is the base shear Fb,
is distributed along the height of the structure in accordance to the following

= +

- lateral force applied at storey level i

- additional concentrated lateral force considered at the top of the building

Seismic weight
The seismic weight of the whole building is the sum of the seismic weights of all the floors.
The seismic weight of each floor is its full dead load plus the appropriate amount of imposed
load, the latter being that part of the imposed loads that may reasonably be expected to be
attached to the structure at the time of earthquake shaking. It includes the weight of permanent
and movable partitions, permanent equipment etc. While computing the seismic weight of each
floor, the weight of columns and walls in any storey should be equally distributed to the floors
above and below the storey. Any weight supported in between storeys should be distributed to
the floors above and below in inverse proportion to its distance from the floors.

The calculation of seismic loads for equivalent static analysis can be broken down into
following tasks:

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  Estimate self-weight and seismic mass of building
 Calculate seismic base shear in x-direction
 Calculate distribution of lateral loads and seismic moment
 Consider how frame type and spacing influence member forces

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