CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24

CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24

SOLUTIONS
1. Predict whether vant Hoff factor, (i) is less than one or greater than one in the following:
(i)CH3COOH dissolved in water. (ii) CH3COOH dissolved in benzene.
Sol: (i) When acetic acid dissolves in water, it dissociates into CH3COO− and H+ ions and thus the Van't Hoff factor
is greater than 1.
(ii) Acetic acid dimerizes when dissolved in benzene and thus the Van't Hoff factor is less than 1.
2.Give the reasons for the following.
(a)Aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water.
(b)Measurement of osmotic pressure method is preffered for the determination of molar masses of
macromolecules such as proteins and polymers.
Sol: (a)Aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water due to the presence of more oxygen.The
solubility of oxygen in water increases with a decrease in temperature as the solubility of a gas in
given liquid decreases with an increase in temperature.
(b) Measurement of osmotic pressure is carried out at room temperature which does not require heating.
Heating may change the nature of the polymer.
3. Elevation of BP of 1M KCl solution is nearly double than that of 1M sugar solution.
Sol: Elevation of boiling point is a colligative property and depends on the number of solute
particles. Both KCl and sugar solution has the same molarity. But the van't Hoff factor for KCl is twice
that for sugar. Hence, the elevation of the boiling point of 1M KCl solution is nearly double that of 1M
sugar solution. ΔTb=iKbm ΔTb∝i
Note: Sugar is non-electrolyte and does not dissociate in water. Hence, it has van't Hoff factor of 1.
KCl is an electrolyte and dissociates in water. 1 molecule of KCl gives 2 ions. KCl→K++Cl−. Hence, it
has van't Hoff factor of 2.
4. State Henry’s law. Write its one application. What is the effect of temperature on solubility of gases in liquid?
Sol: The partial pressure of the gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
Pgas = KHxgas . Dissolution of gas in liquid is an exothermic process and heat is evolved during dissolution. With an
increase in temperature, heat is supplied which shift the equilibrium in the backward direction.
5. .(i)Gas (A) is more soluble in water than Gas(B) at the same temperature, which one of the two gases will
have higher value of KH (Henry’s constant) and why?
Ans. According to Henry's law, the solubility of a gas is inversely proportional to the Henry's law constant (KH) for
that gas. Hence, gas (B) being less soluble, would have a higher KH value.
6. . Out of two 0.1 molal solutions of glucose and of potassium chloride, which one will have a higher boiling
point and why?
(ii)What happens when the external pressure applied becomes more than the osmotic pressure of solution?
Ans. (i)0.1 molal KCl solution will have higher boiling point, because KCl dissociates into K+and Cl−ions. The number
of particles are double than 0.1 m glucose solution, therefore, higher elevation in boiling point, hence higher the
boiling point.
(ii) The solvent molecules from the solution pass through the semipermeable membrane to the solvent side. This
process is called reverse osmosis.
(7)Blood cells are isotonic with 0.9% sodium chloride solution. What happens if we placed blood cells in a
solution containing (i)1.2% sodium chloride solution (ii)0.4% sodium chloride solution?
Ans. (i) 1.2% sodium chloride solution is hypertonic that results in shrinking of cells.
(ii) 0.4% sodium chloride solution is hypotonic that results in swelling of cells.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
8.(i)On mixing liquid X and liquid Y, the volume of the resulting solution increases. What type of deviation from
Raoult’s law is shown by resulting solution? What change in temperature would you observe after mixing liquids
X and Y?
Ans. The resulting solution will show negative deviation from Raoult's law. The temperature of solution will
increase.

9. What happens when we place the blood cell in water (hypotonic solution)? Give reason.
Ans. he cell will swell and even may burst due to inflow of solvent because of osmosis.
10. What is Positive and Negative Deviation of Non ideal solution, Give example. What are effects?
Ans. Those solutions in which force of attraction between A − B is less than A − A and B − B, shows positive
deviation from Raoult's law, e.g. ethanol and water show positive deviation from Raoult's law. Δ𝑚�𝑖�𝑥�𝐻� = +𝑣�𝑒�
Those solutions in which force of attraction between A − B is moe than A − A and B − B, shows negative deviation
from Raoult's law, e.g. HCl and water show negative deviation from Raoult's law. Δ𝑚�𝑖�𝑥�𝐻� = -𝑣�𝑒�
11.Define the following terms
(i)Max BP Azeotropes (ii)Min BP azeotropes (iii) Van’t Hoff Factor (iv)Molarity
(v)Molality (vi)Raoult’s law (vii)Ideal Solution (viii)Osmotic Pressure (ix)Abnormal molar mass
(x)Isotonic solution (xi)Hypertonic solution (xii)Hypotonic solution (xiii) Colligative properties
12. What type of intermolecular attractive interaction exists in the pair of methanol and acetone?
Ans. H-bonding exists between methanol and acetone. It also has dipole-dipole attraction.
13. What is an increase in temperature observed on mixing chloroform and acetone?
Ans. It is because force of attraction between chloroform and acetone is more than the force of attraction
between CHCl3 − CHCl3 or Acetone-Acetone. Therefore, ΔH = -ve, i.e. exothermic process, therefore, there is
increase in temperature.
14. Why does sodium chloride solution freeze at a lower temperature than water?
Ans. It is because when NaCl is added, vapour pressure of solution becomes less and at a lower temperature,
vapour pressure of solid and solution will become equal, i.e. freezing point is lowered.
15.Define Ebullioscopic constant and Cryoscopic constant?
Ans. Ebullioscopic Constant (Boiling Point Elevation Constant): It is equal to the elevation in boiling point of 1 molal
solution, i.e. 1 mole of solute is dissolved in 1 kg of solvent. The unit of is Kmolal−1 or Kkgmol−1
Cryoscopic constant may be defined as the depression in freezing point when one mole of non-volatile solute is
dissolved in one kg of solvent. The unit of is Kmolal−1 or Kkgmol−1
16.How does temperature effect the molarity and molality?
Ans. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of solution. Its disadvantage is that it
changes with change in temperature as volume is temperature dependent.
17. When outer shell of two eggs are removed, one of the eggs is placed in pure water and other is placed in
saturated solution of NaCl, what will be observed and why?
Ans. Egg in water will swell whereas in NaCl solution it will shrink. This is because due to osmosis.
18. A person suffering from high blood pressure should take less common salt, why?
Because higher quantity of NaCl will increase number of sodium and chloride ions in the body fluid which can
increase the osmotic pressure of body fluid, i.e., blood pressure of a person.
19. Why do doctors advise gargles by saline water in case of sore throat?
Ans. Saline water is a hypertonic solution and when we gargle using saline water, osmosis occurs.
20. What type of azeotropic mixture will be formed by a solution of acetone and chloroform. Justify?
Ans. Mixture of chloroform and acetone shows negative deviation from Raoult's law, thus it forms
maximum boiling azeotrope. This is because chloroform molecule is able to form hydrogen bond with acetone.
This decreases the escaping tendency of molecules for each component and consequently the vapour pressure
decreases resulting in negative deviation from Raoult's law.
21. What is the cause of anoxia and bends?
Ans. At high altitudes, the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level because the atmospheric
pressure is less. Low blood oxygen causes anoxia.
The Bends is an illness that arises from the rapid release of nitrogen gas from the bloodstream and is caused
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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
by bubbles forming in the blood and other tissues when a diver ascends to the surface of the ocean too rapidly.
22. An unripe mango placed in a concentrated salt solution to prepare pickle, shrivels. Why?
Ans. It loses water due to osmosis. Due to osmosis, solvent molecules moves from low concentration side to high
concentration side. Hence, a raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses water via osmosis and shrivel
into pickle.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
1.Write the advantages of fuel cell?
Ans. Fuel cells can convert the energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methanol into electrical energy.
Advantages:
(i) The reactants are continuously supplied to the electrodes from the reservoir. Unlike conventional cells, the fuel
cells do not have to be discharged when the chemicals are consumed.
(ii) They are non polluting because the only reaction product is water (for hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell).
2. Define Kohlraush law of Electrolysis. And its applications
Ans. An electrolyte's limiting molar conductivity is equal to the sum of the individual limiting molar conductivities
of the cations and anions that make up the electrolyte.
(i) Calculation of molar conductance at infinite dilution for weak electrolytes
(ii) Determination of degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte.
(iii) Dissociation constant for weak electrolvte.
3. The conductivity of 0.02M solution of NaCl is 2.6 × 10-2 S cm-1 . What is its molar conductivity ?
SOL:

4.A solution of Ni(NO3 )2 is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a current of 5.0 amp for
20 minutes. What mass of the nickel will be deposited at the cathode ? (Ni = 58.7 u)
SOL:

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24

3.3

5.The electrical resistance of a column of 0.05M NaOH solution of diameter 1 cm and length 50 cm
is 5.55 × 103 ohm. Calculate its resistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity?
Ans.

CHEMICAL KINETICS
1. Difference between Molecularity and order of the reaction?
Ans.
Molecularity of the reaction Order of the reaction
Molecularity is the number of ions or molecules Number of molecules of the reactant whose
that take part in the rate-determining step concentration changes during the chemical
change
It is always a whole number It can either be a whole number or a fraction
It is theoretical concept It is experimental concept

2. For the reaction 3H2 + N2 → 2NH3 , how are the rate of reaction expressions.
3. What is the order of reaction whose rate constant has the same units as the rate of reaction ?
4. The rate constant of a reaction is 3 × 102 min-1 . What is its order of reaction ? (On the basis of
units of rate constant)
5. In a reaction 2A → Products, the concentration of A decreases from 0.5 mol L-1 in 10 minutes.
Calculate the rate during this interval.
6. . A reaction which is first order with respect to A has rate constant 6 min-1 . If we start with [A] =
0.5 mol L-1 , when would [A] reach the value of 0.05 ML-1 ?
7. The rate constant for first order reaction is 60/s. How much time will it take to reduce the
concentration of the reaction to 1/10 of its initial value ?

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
8. The rate of most of reaction double when their temperature is raised from 298 K to 308 K.
Calculate the activation energy of such a reaction.
9. A first order reaction takes 69.3 min for 50% completion. Set up on equation for determining the
time needed for 80% completion.
d & f Block elements
1. Write their general electronic configurations of d & f block elements?
Ans. The general outer electronic configuration of d block elements is (n−1)d(1−10)ns(0−2). The general
outer electronic configuration of f− block elements is (n−2)f(0−14)(n−1)d(0−1)ns2.
2. Group 12 elements are not considered as transition elements. Why?
Ans. 12th group is also not the transition element because these have fully filled d-subshell in these
elements, like Zn , Hg, Cd.
3. Sc is a transition element whereas Zn is not. Why?
Ans: On the basis of incompletely filled -orbitals in case of scandium atom in its ground state 3d1, it is
regarded as a transition element. On the other hand, zinc atom has completely filled -orbitals 3d10 in its
ground state as well as in its oxidised state, hence it is not regarded as a transition element.
4. Silver atom has completely filled d orbitals in the ground state (4d10). How can you say that it is
a transition element?
Ans. In the +1 oxidation state, an electron is removed from the s-orboital. However, in the +2 oxidation
state, an electron is removed from the d-orbital. Thus, the d-orbital now becomes incomplete (4d9).
Hence, it is a transition element.
5. In 3d series, the melting point and enthalpy of atomisation of Manganese is less compared to
those of its immediate neighbours. Why?
Ans. Manganese has 5 free electrons in its d orbital so it take place more in metallic bonding as compared
to other elements in its neighbourhood (left and right in periodic table) who have 4 free electrons in their d
orbital.
6. What is Lanthanide contraction? What is its consequence?
Ans. The steady decrease in the size of lanthanide ions with the increase in atomic number is called
lanthanide contraction. Consequences: There is not regular trend in ionization potential in the group due to
lanthanide contraction. Similarity of 2nd and 3rd transition group.
7. Why do transition elements show variable oxidation states?
Ans. They show variable oxidation state because transition metals have (n-1)d orbitals empty that
are closer to the outermost ns orbital in energy levels. These orbitals are never fully filled. So, they
can always accommodate more electrons in (n-1)d orbitals.
8. Why is Cr2+ reducing whereas Mn3+ oxidizing when both have d4 configuration?
Ans. E∘ value for Cr3+/Cr2+ is negative (−0.41V) whereas E∘�value for Mn3+/Mn3+ is positive
(+1.57V). Hence, Cr2+ ion can easily undergo oxidation to give Cr3+ ion and therefore, acts as strong
reducing agent where as Mn3+ can easily undergo reduction to give Mn2+ and hence acts as
oxidizing agent.
9. How would you account for the irregular variation of first ionisation enthalpies in the first
series of the transition elements?
Ans. The irregular variation of ionization enthalpies can be attributed to the extra stability of
configuration such as d0, d5, d10. Since these states are exceptionally stable, their ionization enthalpy
are very high.
10. Which is a stronger reducing agent Cr2+ or Fe2+ and why?
Ans. Cr2+ is a stronger reducing agent. Because Cr3+ will acquire t2g configuration.
11. Why is Cu+ unstable in aqueous solutions?
Ans. This is because although energy is required to remove one electron from Cu+ to Cu2+ high hydration
energy of Cu2+ compensates for it. Therefore Cu+ ion in an aqueous solution is unstable.
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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
12. Actinoid contraction is greater from element to element than lanthanoid contraction.
Why?
Ans. The shielding effect of 5f orbitals is poorer than the shielding effect of 4f orbitals. Due to
this, the valence shell electrons of actinide experience greater effective nuclear charge than that
experienced by lanthanides. Hence, actinoid contraction is greater than lanthanoid contraction.
13. Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic behavior
Ans. Paramagnetism arises due to the presence of unpaired electrons in atomic and ionic species.
Most of the transition metal atoms and their ions contain unpaired electrons in their penultimate
(n-1)d orbitals.
14. Transition metals and many of their compounds The enthalpies of atomization of
transition metals are high?
Ans. The enthalpies of atomization of a transition metal are high because they have a large number
of unpaired electrons and hence have strong metallic bonding.

15. Transition metals form alloys and interstitial compounds. why?

Ans. The reason why transition metals form interstitial compounds is that the lattice of transition metals
contains open spaces that can be filled with atoms such as H, C, and N. Interstitial compounds are formed
when Hydrogen, Carbon, and Nitrogen atoms become trapped inside the crystal lattice of metals.
16. The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxoanions of transition metal. why?
Ans. The oxoanions of metals have covalent nature in which oxygen is involved in the multiple bonding
with the metal atom. This is responsible for the high oxidation state of the metal in oxoanions. For
example, the element Mn exhibits +7 oxidation state in permanganate ion (MnO4)−.
17. For the 3d series elements the Eo M2+/M reduction potentials are irregular. why?
Ans. he E0 M2+/M values are not regular which can be explained from the irregular variation of ionization
energy and sublimation energy of Mn due to half‐filled orbitals.
18. Explain the oxidizing action of acidified K2Cr2O7 with a) Iodide ions b) H2S c) Fe2+
Ans. K2Cr2O7 gains electrons to get reduced and behaves as an oxidizing agent. The reaction of
K2Cr2O7 with H2S, iron (II) solution and other iodide are as follows: (i) K2Cr2O7 oxidizes iodide to
iodine. (ii) K2Cr2O7 oxidizes iron (II) solution to iron (III) solution i.e., ferrous ions to ferric ions.
COORDINATION COMPOUNDS
2−
1.[NiCl4 ] is paramagnetic while [Ni(CO)4 ] is diamagnetic though both are tetrahedral. Why ?
Ans. In [NiCl4 ] −2 , Ni has 3d8 4s0 configuration, Cl− can’t pair up while in [Ni(CO)4 ], Ni has 3d8 4s2
configuration, CO pair up electrons.
2. CuSO4 is colourless while CuSO4 .5H2 O is coloured. Why ?
Ans. CuSO4 does not has any ligand, so splitting of d-orbital take place while CuSO4 .5H2 O has water
ligand.
3. What is meant by denticity of a ligand ? Find out denticity of :
(i) C2 O4 −2 (ii) EDTA
Ans. The number of ligand group/coordinating group. (i) 2 (ii) 6
4. A metal ion Mn+ having d4 valence electronic configuration combines with three didentate
ligands to form a complex compound. Assuming ∆o > p :
(i) Draw the diagram showing d-orbital splitting during this complex formation.
(ii) What type of hybridisation will Mn+ have ?
(iii)Name the type of isomerism exhibited by this complex.
(iv) Write the electronic configuration of metal Mn+.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
5. [Fe(CN)6 ] 4− and [Fe(H2O)6 ] 2+ are of different colours in dilute solution. Why ?
Ans. In both the cases Fe is in + 2 state, it has 4 unpaired electrons but CN− and H2 O has different crystal
field splitting energy.
6. Write all the geometrical isomers of [Pt(NH3)(Br)(Cl)(Py)] and how many of these will exhibit
optical isomerism ? Here, Py = Pyridine.
Ans. 3 isomers are possible.
Monodentate ligand in square planar complex do not show optical isomerism
7. What is meant by chelate effect?
Ans. When a bidentate or a polydentate ligand contains donor atoms positioned in such a way that when
they coordinate with the central metal ion, a five or a six membered ring is formed. This effect is called
Chelate effect. As a result, the stability of the complex increases.
Example: the complex of Ni2+ with ‘+ ion’ is more stable than NH3.
8. Describe the shape and magnetic behaviour of following complexes :
(i) [CO(NH3)6]3+
(ii) [Ni(CN)4]2- (At. No. Co = 27, Ni = 28)
9. [Fe(H2O)6]3+ is strongly paramagnetic whereas [Fe(CN)6]3- is weakly paramagnetic. Explain.
10. Compare the following complexes with respect to their shape, magnetic behaviour and the
hybrid orbitals involved :
(i) [CoF4]2- (ii) [Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2]– (iii) [Ni(CO)4] (Atomic number : Co = 27, Cr = 24, Ni = 28)
Ans. (i) [COF4]2_ : Tetrafluorido cobalt (III) ion
Coordination number = 4 Shape = Tetrahedral Hybridisation = sp3

11.Compare the following complexes with respect to structural shapes of units, magnetic behaviour and
hybrid orbitals involved in units :
[Co(NH3)6]+3, [Cr(NH3)6]3+, Ni(CO)4 (At. nos. : Co = 27, Cr = 24, Ni = 28)
Ans. (i) [Co(NH3)6]+3 → Octahedral shape, d2sp3 hybridisation, diamagnetic
Formation of [Co(NH2)6]+3 → oxidation state of Co is +3.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24

HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

1. Haloalkanes easily dissolve in organic solvents, why?
Ans. the intermolecular forces between the haloalkanes and organic solvent are the same as the ones being
broken in the separate haloalkanes and solvent molecules.
2. What is known as a racemic mixture? Give an example.
Ans. It is always optically inactive since rotation caused by the molecules of one enantiomer is exactly
cancelled by equal and opposite rotation caused by the molecules of the other enantiomers. for
example, an equimolar mixture of (+)-2-bromobutane and (-)-2-bromobutane is called a racemix mixture.
3. The order reactivity of haloalkanes is RI>RCl>RBr.
Ans. The order of reactivity of Haloalkanes is RI > RBr > RCl > RF due to the following reason: The
reactivity of alkyl halides mostly corresponds to bond energy and electronegativity of the halide.
4. Ethers have low Boiling points. Why?
Ans. Ethers, unlike alcohols, have no hydrogen atom on the oxygen atom (that is, no OH group).
Therefore, there is no intermolecular hydrogen bonding between ether molecules, which makes their
boiling points much lower than an alcohol with similar.
5. t-butyl bromide more reactive towards SN1 reaction as compared to n-butyl bromide.Why?
Ans. Tert- butyl bromide is a three degree compound where as N- Butyl bromide is a One degree
compound, so it means that T-Butyl butyl bromide is more reactive towards SN 1 Reaction.
6. CH2=CH-CH2-Cl more easily hydrolysed than CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl.Why?
Ans. Reactivity towards hydrolysis depends on formation of carbocation intermediate. CH3=CH-CH2-Cl
on removal of chloride ion forms allyl carbocation. Allyl carbocation shows resonance effect and thus is
highly stable carbocation. CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl on removal of chloride ion forms ethyl carbocation.
7. Cyclohexyl chloride is more reactive than chlorobenzene. why?
Ans. Out of Chlorobenzene and Cyclohexyl chloride, which one is more reactive towards nucleophilic
substitution reaction and why? Ans. Cyclohexyl chloride is more reactive towards nucleophilic
substitution reaction because C—Cl bond strength is less in cyclohexyl chloride than chlorobenzene.
8. Chloroform stored in dark coloured bottle. why?
Ans: to avoid the formation of phosgene, chloroform is stored away from light and air. In dark coloured
bottles, no light can enter.
9. Out of (CH3)3C-Br and (CH3)3C-I, which one is more reactive towards SN1 and why?
Ans: Because the bond between carbon and iodine in this case is weaker than the bond between carbon
and bromine in (CH3)3C-Br, the (CH3)3-CI substrate is more reactive towards the SN1 reaction.
10.p-dichlorobenzene has higher melting point than that of ortho or meta isomer.why?
Ans: p-dichlorobenzene has higher melting point than those of o- and m- isomers. It is due to the greater
symmetry of para-isomer that fits in the crystal better as compared to ortho and meta-isomers.
11. Thionyl chloride method is preferred for preparing alkyl chloride from alcohols.Why?
Ans. Thionyl chloride is preferred because alkyl halide is prepared using thionyl chloride the by-products
that we get are. These are both gases and they escape out leaving behind the desired product which is an
alkyl chloride.
12. Out of chlorohexane and chlorobenzene which one is more reactive towards nucleophilic
substitution reaction and why?
Ans. Cyclohexyl chloride is more reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reaction because C—Cl bond
strength is less in cyclohexyl chloride than chlorobenzene. In cyclohexyl chloride chlorine atom is bonded
to sp3 hybrid carbon atom while in chlorobenzene chlorine is bonded to sp2 hybrid carbon atom that's
why C—Cl bond is more strong in chlorobenzene and less reactive toward Nucleophilic substitution.
13. Chloroform contains chlorine but it doesn’t give white ppt with AgNO3 solution, why?

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Ans. chloroform does not contain choride ions and it has just covalent bond,non ionizable carbon-chlorine
bonds.

14. Ethyl chloride is treated with NaI in presence of acetone.why?

Ans. When ethyl chloride is treated with sodium iodide in the presence of acetone, it undergoes a
nucleophilic substitution reaction known as the Finkelstein reaction.

15. Chlorobenzene is treated with Na metal in presence of dry ether.

Ans. Chlorobenzene on reaction with sodium in dry ether gives diphenyl. It is called Fittig reaction.

16. Methyl chloride is treated with KNO2.

Ans. When the primary halo alkanes are treated with potassium nitrite results in formation of nitro
alkanes. When the methyl chloride is treated with potassium nitrite is give methane will form along with
potassium chloride as a product.

17. C-Cl bond length in chlorobenzene is shorter than C-Cl bond length in CH3-Cl
Ans. As in chloromethane carbon holding chloride is sp3 hybridised, while in chlorobenzene it is sp2
hybridized. The delocalisation of electrons by resonance in chlorobenzene attribute for partial double
bond character due to which bond length is shorter than a single bond.
18. dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride.
Ans. The dipole moment of chloro-benzene is less than cyclo hexyl chloride as in chloro benzene C-Cl
bond is sp2 hybridised where as in cyclohexyl chloride the C − C l bond is Sp3 Hybridised . As sp2 has
more s character and more electronegative than sp3. Chlorobenzene is less polar than cyclohexyl chloride.
19. SN1 reactions are accompanied by racemisation in optically active alkyl halides.why?
Ans. his planar carbocation is attacked by nucleophile from both the sides equally to form d and l isomers
in equal proportion. Such products are called racemic mixture. Hence, SN1 reactions are accompanied by
racemisation in optically active alkyl halides.
20. Benzyl chlrode is highly reactive towards the SN1 reaction. Why?
Ans. Benzyl chloride is highly reactive towards the SN1 reaction because the intermediate benzyl
carbocation formed in the slowest step is stabilized through resonance.
21. Electrophilic reactions in haloarenes occur slowly. why?
Ans. Halogen in haloarenes withdraws electrons through-I effect and release electrons through +R
effect. The inductive effect is stronger than resonance effect and causes net electron withdrawal. As a
result, the electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes occur slowly.
22. Alkyl halides, though polar are immiscible with water. Why?
Ans. The new force of attraction between the alkyl halides and water molecules is weaker than the alkyl
halide-alkyl halide and water-water forces of attraction. Hence, alkyl halides (though polar) are
immiscible with water.
23. Grignard reagent should be prepared under anhydrous conditions.Why?
Ans. Grignard reagents (R - Mg - X) are readily decomposed by water to produce alkanes. That is why
they should be prepared under anhydrous conditions. Instead, ether is used as a solvent during the
preparation of Grignard reagent.
AMINES
1. Gabriel pthlimide synthesis is not preferred for preparing aromatic primary amines.Why?
Ans. Aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution with the salt formed by phthalimide.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
2. Reaction with benzene sulphonyl chloride, primary amine yield a product which is insoluble in
alkali.
Ans. On reaction with benzene sulphonyl chloride, primary amine yields product soluble in alkali
whereas secondary amine yields product insoluble in alkali.
3.Diazonium salts of aromatic amines are more stable than those of aliphatic amines.
Ans. Aromatic diazonium salts are more stable than aliphatic diazonium salts: Aromatic diazonium salts
exhibit resonance, which causes the positive charge to become dispersed. In aliphatic diazonium salts, no
similar resonance is seen.
4. Methyl amine in water reacts with FeCl3 to precipitate hydrated ferric oxide.?
Ans. Methylamine in water reacts with ferric chloride to precipitate hydrated ferric oxide:Due to the +I
effect of −CH3 group methylamine is more basic than water. Therefore in water methylamine produces
OH− ions by accepting H+ ions from water. Ferric chloride FeCl3 dissociates in water to form Fe3+ and Cl−
ions.
5. Ethyl amine is stronger base than NH3.why?
Ans.In ethyl amine the availability of lone pair of electrons on nitrogen atom increases due to the +I
inductive effect of the ethyl group.
6. (CH3)2NH is more basic than (CH3)3N is an aqueous solution. Why?
Ans. The basicity of amine in aqueous solution depends upon the stability of the substituted ammonium
cation. Here the combination of three factors, effect of CH3 groups, hydrogen bonding and steric
hindrance favour greater stability for ammonium cation of (CH3)2 NH than the ammonium cation of
(CH3)3N .
7. Aromatic diazonium salts are more stable than aliphatic diazonium salts.
Ans. Aromatic diazonium salts exhibit resonance, which causes the positive charge to become dispersed.
8. Aniline gets coloured on standing in air long time.
Ans. The electron density on aniline increases due to (electron donating) effect of − NH2 group and due to
high electron density aniline gets readily oxidised in air to give colour products.
9. Secondary amine is more basic than primary and tertiary amine in aqueous solution.
Ans. Secondary amines are more basic than tertiary amines because they have a lone pair of electrons on
the nitrogen atom that is more available to donate to an acid.
10. Amine is more basic than cyclohexylamine. why?
Ans. Cyclohexylamine is a stronger base than aniline because in aniline electron pair is involved in
conjugation, which makes the electron pair unavailable, where as in cyclohexyl amine, the −NH2 group is
out side the ring and there is no resonance in the ring also, thereby the lone pair present on the nitrogen is
freely.
11. Acetylation of aniline reduces its activation effect. why?
Ans. Acetylation of −NH2 group of aniline reduces its activating effect because the lone pair on the
nitrogen atom is in conjugation with the carbonyl group in acetylated aniline.
12. CH3NH2 is more basic than C6H5NH2.why?
Ans. CH3NH2 is a stronger base than C6H5NH2. The +I effect of methyl group increase electron density on
nitrogen in CH3NH2 and makes it a stronger base.
13. Although -NH2 is o/p directing group, yet aniline on nitration gives a significant amount of m-
nitroaniline.
Ans. Nitration is carried out in an acidic medium. In a strongly acidic medium, aniline is protonated to
give anilinium ion (which is meta-directing). For this reason, aniline on nitration gives a substantial
amount of m-nitroaniline.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
14. In increasing order of basic strength: C6H5NH2, C6H5N(CH3)2, (C2H5)2NH and CH3NH2
Ans. (C6H5)2NH<C6H5NH2<C6H5N(CH3)2<CH3NH2. Due to the −I effect of C6H5 group, the electron
density on N-atom C6H5−NH2 is lower than that on the N-atom (C6H5)2NH . But in case of C6H5N(CH3)2,
two CH3 group attached with N atom which increases the electron density on N-atom and
in CH3−NH3 only +I effect of methyl group increases the basicity of the compound.

15. Give one chemical test to distinguish between the following pairs of compounds.
(i) Methylamine and dimethylamine (ii) Secondary and tertiary amines
(iii) Ethylamine and aniline (iv) Aniline and benzylamine (v) Aniline and N-methylaniline.
Ans. (i) Methylamine and dimethylamine :
Carbylamine test.
Methylamine, on heating with alc. KOH solution and chloroform form foul-smelling methyl isocyanide.
This test is not given by dimethylamine.
(ii) Secondary and tertiary amines :
Secondary amines give Libermann nitrosoamine test.
On heating with nitrous acid (prepared in situ), they give yellow coloured oily N-nitrosoamine.
Tertiary amines do not give such test.
(iii) Ethylamine and aniline :
Azo dye test.
Aniline on diazotization ( ice cold nitrous acid solution) followed by coupling with 2-naphthol (in alkaline
solution) forms brilliant orange or red dye. Ethylamine will not form dye. It will give brisk effervescence
(due to liberation of nitrogen gas) but solution remains clear.
(iv) Aniline and benzylamine :
Azo dye test.
Aniline on diazotization ( ice cold nitrous acid solution) followed by coupling with 2-naphthol (in alkaline
solution) forms brilliant orange or red dye. Benzylamine will not give such test.
(v) Aniline and N-methylaniline :
Carbylamine test.
Aniline, on heating with alc. KOH solution and chloroform form foul-smelling methyl isocyanide. This
test is not given by N-methyl aniline.
16. Aniline doesn’t undergo Friedel – craft reactions.why?
Ans. Aniline, N-substituted and N,N-disubstituted anilines do not undergo Friedel-Craft's reactions due to
salt formation with aluminium chloride which is used as a Lewis acid catalyst.
17. Primary amines have higher BP than tertiary amines.why?
Ans Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is present in primary amines but not in tertiary amines (H-atom
absent in amino group) so primary amines have higher boiling point than tertiary amines.
18. p-methylaniline is more than basic than p-nitroaniline.why?
Ans. When electron withdrawing group like nitro(-NO2) is at para position, electron density decreases and
thus basic character decreases. - Therefore, p-methylaniline is more basic than p-nitroaniline.
19. Acetylation of -NH2 group is done in aniline before preparing its ortho and para compounds.
Ans. NH2 group of aniline is acetylated so that controlled nitration can be carried out at para position
only, otherwise a mixture of ortho, meta and para products will form.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
ALL ORGANIC NAMED REACTIONS
1.Sandmeyer Reaction
The Cl , Br and CN nucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene ring of benzene diazonium salt in the
presence of Cu(I) ion. This reaction is called Sandmeyer reaction.

2.Gatterman Reaction
Chlorine or bromine can be introduced in the benzene ring by treating the benzene diazonium salt solution with
corresponding halogen acid in the presence of copper powder. This is referred as Gatterman reaction.

Balz-Schiemann Reaction
When arenediazonium chloride is treated with fluoroboric acid, arene diazonium fluoroborate is precipitated
which on heating decomposes to yield aryl fluoride.

Finkelstein Reaction
Alkyl iodides are often prepared by the reaction of alkyl chlorides/ bromides with NaI in dry acetone. This
reaction is known as Finkelstein reaction.

Swarts Reaction
Heating an alkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as AgF, Hg2F2, CoF2 or SbF3 gives
alkyl fluorides. The reaction is termed as Swarts reaction.

Wurtz Reaction
Alkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to give hydrocarbons containing double the number of carbon atoms
present in the halide. This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24

Wurtz-Fittig Reaction
A mixture of an alkyl halide and aryl halide gives an alkylarene when treated with sodium in dry ether and is
called Wurtz-Fittig reaction.

Fittig Reaction
Aryl halides also give analogous compounds when treated with sodium in dry ether, in which two aryl groups are
joined together. It is called Fittig reaction.

Friedel-Crafts alkylation Reaction

When benzene is treated with an alkyl halide in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, alkylbenene is
formed.

Friedel-Crafts acylation Reaction

The reaction of benzene with an acyl halide or acid anhydride in the presence of Lewis acids (AlCl3) yields acyl
benzene.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
Reimer-Tiemann Reaction
On treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium hydroxide, a –CHO group is introduced at ortho
position of benzene ring resulting salicylaldehyde. This reaction is known as Reimer - Tiemann reaction.

Kolbe’s Reaction
Phenol with sodium hydroxide gives sodium phenoxide ion which with carbon dioxide in acidic medium results
hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid). This is known as Kolbe’s reaction.

Rosenmund Reduction
Acyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium on barium sulphate. This reaction is called
Rosenmund reduction.

Stephen reaction
Nitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid, which
on hydrolysis give corresponding aldehyde. This reaction is called Stephen reaction.

Etard reaction
Chromyl chloride oxidizes methyl group to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding
benzaldehyde. This reaction is called Etard reaction.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24
Gatterman – Koch reaction
When benzene or its derivative is treated with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the presence of
anhydrous aluminium chloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehyde. This
reaction is known as Gatterman-Koch reaction.

Clemmensen Reduction
The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with zinc-
amalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid. This is known as Clemmensen reduction.

Wolff Kishner Reduction

The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment with hydrazine followed by
heating with sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene glycol. This is known
Wolff Kishner reduction.

Tollens’ test
On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared ammoniacal silver nitrate solution (Tollens’ reagent), a bright
silver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal. The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding
carboxylate anion. The reaction occurs in alkaline medium.

Fehling’s test
Fehling reagent comprises of two solutions, Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B. Fehling solution A is
aqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline sodium potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt). These two
solutions are mixed in equal amounts before test. On heating an aldehyde with Fehling’s reagent, a reddish
brown precipitate is obtained. Aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion. Aromatic aldehydes
do not respond to this test.

Aldol condensation.
The aldol and ketol readily lose water to give α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds which are aldol
condensation products and the reaction is called Aldol condensation
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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24

Cross aldol condensation:

When aldol condensation is carried out between two different aldehydes and / or ketones, it is called cross aldol
condensation. If both of them contain α-hydrogen atoms, it gives a mixture of four products.

Cannizzaro reaction:
Aldehydes which do not have an α-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction (disproportionation)
reaction on treatment with concentrated alkali. In this reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to
alcohol while another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt.

Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky (HVZ )reaction.

Carboxylic acids having an α-hydrogen are halogenated at the α-position on treatment with chlorine or bromine
in the presence of small amount of red phosphorus to give α-halocarboxylic acids. The reaction is known as
Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction.
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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24

Gabriel phthalimide synthesis

Gabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of pure primary amines.
Phthalimide on treatment with ethanolic potassium hydroxide forms potassium salt of phthalimide which on
heating with alkyl halide followed by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary amine

Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction

An amide with bromine in an aqueous or ethanolic solution of sodium hydroxide gives primary amines.

In this degradation reaction, migration of an alkyl or aryl group takes place from carbonyl carbon of the amide to
the nitrogen atom. The amine so formed contains one carbon less than that present in the amide.

Carbylamine reaction
Aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform and ethanolic potassium hydroxide form
isocyanides or carbylamines which are foul smelling substances. This reaction is known as carbylamines
reaction or isocyanide test.

Hinsberg’s Test
Benzenesulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl), which is also known as Hinsberg’s reagent, reacts with primary and
secondary amines to form sulphonamides.

(a) The reaction of benzenesulphonyl chloride with primary amine yields N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide. The
hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide is strongly acidic due to the presence of strong electron
withdrawing sulphonyl group. Hence, it is soluble in alkali.

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 CLASS -XII CHEMISTRY CAPSULE MODULE 2023-24

Coupling Reactions:
Benzene diazonium chloride reacts with phenol in which the phenol molecule at its para position is
coupled with the diazonium salt to form p-hydroxyazobenzene. This type of reaction is known as coupling
reaction

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 CHEMISTRY PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS CAPSULE 2023-24

BIOMOLECULES

1. What is the difference between Nucleotide and Nucleoside?

Ans.
Nucleotide Nucleoside
The chemical composition of nucleotide consists of A nucleoside has a chemical composition that
a phosphate group, a sugar and a nitrogenous base. consists of a sugar and a base without the phosphate
group.
They are one of the major causes of cancer-causing They are used as agents in medicine that are
agents to this very day. primarily used against viruses and cancer-causing
agents.
Some of the major examples of nucleotides are Some of the key examples of nucleosides are the
adenosine, guanosine etc. same as nucleotides only with the addition of
phosphate groups.
2. What is basic structural difference between glucose and fructose?
Ans. Glucose consists of an aldehyde group while fructose consists of a ketone functional group.

3. Two difference between RNA and DNA?

DNA RNA
It has 2-deoxyribose. It has Ribose.
It is a long polymer. It has a deoxyribose and Is a polymer with a ribose and phosphate backbone
phosphate backbone having four distinct bases: with four varying bases: uracil, cytosine, adenine
thymine, adenine, cytosine and guanine. and guanine.
DNA is a double-stranded molecule that has a Long RNA is a single-stranded molecule which has a
chain of nucleotides. shorter chain of nucleotides.
4.Differentiate the following
AMYLOSE AMYLOPECTIN
It is a straight-chain polymer of D-glucose units It is a branched-chain polymer of D-glucose units
Constitutes 20% of starch Constitutes 80% of starch
It is soluble in water It is insoluble in water
Straight chain structure Branched structure

5.Peptide linkage and Glycosidic linkage

PEPTIDE LINKAGE GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE

We know that a single amino acid has two ends, A glycosidic bond or linkage is a type of covalent
one with a carboxylic acid group and another with bond that joins a carbohydrate or sugar molecule to
an amine group. When either of these groups attach other group, which may or may not be different
with the opposite group of other amino acids an carbohydrate.
amide is formed with loss of water, this amide type
of bond between two amino acids is called peptide
bond.
 CHEMISTRY PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS CAPSULE 2023-24
6.Fibrous protein and Globular proteins
Fibrous protein Globular proteins
It is a fibre-like structure formed by the polypeptide The polypeptide chain in this protein is folded
chain. These proteins are held together by strong around itself, giving rise to a spherical structure.
hydrogen and disulphide bonds.
It is usually insoluble in water. It is usually soluble in water.
Fibrous proteins are usually used for structural All enzymes are globular proteins. Some hormones
purposes. For example, keratin is present in nails such as insulin are also globular proteins.
and hair; collagen in tendons; and myosin in
muscles.

7.α-Glucose and β-Glucose

α-Glucose β-Glucose
Alpha glucose is a cyclic hemiacetal form of Beta glucose is a cyclic hemiacetal form of glucose
glucose where at anomeric carbon, the position of where at anomeric carbon the position of hydroxyl
hydroxyl group is in downward direction. group is in upward direction.
8.Difference between α-helix and β-pleated structure of proteins.

α-helix β-pleated structure

It involves intramolecular hydrogen bonding. It involves intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
It is formed when the size of the R group is large. It is formed when the size of the R group is small to
moderate.

9.Define the following terms

Denaturation of proteins: Thedestruction of the tertiary structure of a protein molecule and the formation of
random polypeptide chains.
(or)
Denaturation of proteins is one of the phenomenons that results in the disturbance of stability and structure
of the protein.
Mutarotation: the change in the specific rotation of a cyclic sugar because of the change in the equilibrium
between isomer and anomer of the sugar in an aqueous solution.
Invert sugar: Invert sugar is a mixture of equal parts of glucose and fructose produced from the hydrolysis
of sugar (sucrose) by the application of heat and an acid “sugar doctor,” such as cream of tartar or citric acid,
affects the sweetness, solubility, and amount of crystallization in candy making.
Anomer: An anomer is a specific type of epimer that occurs in carbohydrates (sugars). They only differ in
3D orientation between each other at the anomeric carbon (usually C1 in chair and Fischer projections).
10.Reactions of Glucose with(i) HI (ii) Br2 water (iii) HNO3 (iv) HCN
(i)Con HI
 CHEMISTRY PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS CAPSULE 2023-24
(ii)Br2(water)

(iii)Con HNO3

(iv) Reaction with HCN

11.What are the products of hydrolysis of (i)Sucrose (ii)Maltose (iii) Lactose

Ans. On hydrolysis, sucrose gives one molecule of ∝-D glucose and one molecule of β- D-fructose.
The hydrolysis of lactose gives β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose.

SucroseH3O+−−−→Glucose + Fructose
MaltoseH3O+−−−→Glucose + Glucose
LactoseH3O+−−−→ Glucose + Galactose
12. α-D- Glycosidic Linkage: The bond from the anomeric carbon of the first monosaccharide unit is
directed downward.
13. Essential amino acids: Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized and hence must come from our diet.
The 9 essential amino acids are – Isoleucine, histidine, lysine, leucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan,
methionine, threonine, and valine.
14. Non essential amino acids: which can be synthesised in the body are known as non-essential amino
acids. e.g, glycine, alanine glutamic acid etc.
15. Enzymes: Enzymes are biocatalysts, which are high molecular weight proteinous compounds. It
enhances the reactions which occur in the body during various life processes.
16. Peptide linkage: A peptide linkage is a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the
carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule, releasing a molecule of
water (H2O).

17. What are three types of RNA molecules which perform different functions?
Ans. mRNA (messenger RNA): it provides the template for protein synthesis during translation
tRNA (transfer RNA): it brings amino acids and reads the genetic code during translation
rRNA (ribosomal RNA): it plays a structural and catalytic role during translation.
18. What are the bases present in RNA and DNA?
Ans. Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) are the four bases found in DNA. Adenine
(A), cytosine (C), uracil (U), and guanine (G) are the four bases found in RNA. The nitrogenous base uracil
is absent from DNA. Uracil is a pyrimidine present in RNA that has the similar structure as thymine in
DNA.
 CHEMISTRY PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS CAPSULE 2023-24

19. Define vitamins. Classification of vitamins and diseases?

Ans. Classification of Vitamins
Vitamins are generally classified as water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins.

1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble. These are stored in adipose tissues and hence are called fat-soluble
vitamins.
2. Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins in B-group and vitamin C are water-soluble and cannot be stored in our bodies as they pass with
the water in urine. These vitamins must be supplied to our bodies with regular diets.

1. Vitamin A – Hardening of the cornea in the eye, night blindness.

2. Vitamin B1 – Deficiency may cause beriberi and dwarfism.
3. Vitamin B2 – Deficiency can cause disorders in the digestive system, skin burning sensations, and
cheilosis.
4. Vitamin B6 – Deficiency of B6 causes convulsions, conjunctivitis, and sometimes neurological
disorders.
5. Vitamin B12 – Its deficiency can cause pernicious anaemia and a decrease in red blood cells in
haemoglobin.
6. Vitamin C – It is a water-soluble vitamin, its deficiency causes bleeding in gums and scurvy.
7. Vitamin D – It is obtained by our body when exposed to sunlight. Its deficiency causes improper
growth of bones, soft bones in kids, and rickets.
8. Vitamin E – Deficiency of vitamin E leads to weakness in muscles and increases the fragility of red
blood cells.
9. Vitamin K – It plays an important role in blood clotting. The deficiency of vitamin K increases the
time taken by the blood to clot. Severe deficiency may cause death due to excessive blood loss in
case of a cut or an injury.
What is primary, secondary & Tertiary Proteins?
Ans. Primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Secondary structure is local interactions between
stretches of a polypeptide chain and includes α-helix and β-pleated sheet structures. Tertiary structure is the
overall the three-dimension folding driven largely by interactions between R groups.