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Farmers Perception on Pest Management Practices and Profitability Analysis for

Five Winter Vegetable Production

Article in Applied Research in Science and Technology · August 2022

DOI: 10.33292/areste.v2i2.32

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 Indonesia Journal of Open Agriculture 01 (01): 09-21 2022
Contents lists available at openscie.com

Indonesia Journal of Open Agriculture

Journal homepage: http://ijoa.openscie.com/index.php/journal

Farmers Perception on Pest Management Practices and

Profitability Analysis for Five Winter Vegetable Production
Sontosh Chandra Chanda1, Md. Johny Khan2, Subhash Chandra Sarkar3, A.K.M. Golam Sarwar4
1
Seed Certification Agency, Department of Agricultural Extension, Natore, Bangladesh.
2
Department of Agricultural Extension, Sirajganj, Bangladesh.
3
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
4
Department of Crop Botany, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
*Correspondence: E-mail: gsshameem@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article History: The study was carried out to understand the farmers’ perception of
Received 02 August 2022 management practices against insect and disease pests and profitability
Revised 10 August 2022 analysis of five winter vegetables grown in the Sirajganj district of
Accepted 11 August 2022 Bangladesh. Results revealed that the highest occurrences of fungal diseases,
including curd rot of cauliflower and early blight of tomato. Wilt, caused by
both fungus and bacteria, was one of the most damaging diseases of brinjal
Keywords: and tomato. Farmers took appropriate measures to control aphid (40-150
Disease and insect insects m–2 or 20-50 infected shoot m–2), brinjal shoot and fruit borer (10-50
infestation, insects 10m–2 or 20-60 infected shoot or fruit 10m–2), and at the threshold
Benefit-Cost ratio, level of other insects. They used physical, chemical, and Integrated Pest
Winter vegetable Management (IPM) practices to control the disease and insect pests. The
production. largest number of insecticide sprays (35-45 times) were done to control shoot
and fruit borer insects of brinjal. The total cost of production followed the
trend Tomato>Brinjal>Bean>Cauliflower>Bottle gourd. The highest return,
gross margin, and net return (Tk. 987,000.00, 800,572.00, and 763,117.00 ha–
1, respectively; US$ 1 = Bangladesh currency Tk. 85.27 on 24 September
2021) was found from brinjal cultivation. On contrary, the lowest return was
(Tk. 700,000.00 ha–1) from bottle gourd cultivation, and the lowest gross
margin and net return were Tk. 539,152.00 and 507,322.00 from tomato
cultivation. The highest profitability index, benefit-cost ratio (both variable
and total cost basis), and rate of return on investment were also found from
brinjal cultivation and the lowest from tomato cultivation. Rot, blight disease,
shoot and fruit borer, or fruit borer, and aphid were the most recurrent insect
of the winter vegetable in the surveyed area. Finally, we found that brinjal is
the more profitable vegetable compare to others of our study location.

9
1. Introduction
Agriculture is the single largest producing sector of Bangladesh that contributes about 13.02% to the
total GDP of the country and has been playing a significant role in the growth and stability of the
national economy of the country (BBS, 2021). The agricultural sector viz. crops, fisheries and
livestock, accommodating around 40.6% of the labour force (BBS, 2021), which has also been
emerged as a major source of income and employment opportunities in Bangladesh. Due to high
nutritive value, relatively higher yield, and higher return, vegetables are considered as one of the most
important components of crop agriculture (Sharmin, 2015). Vegetables are commonly low in fat and
calories, Moreover, vegetables supply dietary fibre and are important sources of essential vitamins,
minerals, and trace elements. It also reduces hidden hunger and malnutrition effectively. To ensure
food safety and alleviate malnutrition, the second goal of UN Sustainable Development Goals, in our
country, it is necessary to increase hygienic vegetable production and consumption. Vegetables
provide digestion, combating malnutrition, curing nutritional disorders, and protect against diseases
(Chowdhuri et al., 2014). Besides nutritional importance, labour intensive vegetable production
systems help to create employment opportunities, raise farm income (profit), and reduce poverty in
developing countries (Weinberger and Genova, 2005; Mitra and Yunus, 2018). Vegetables provide
maximum output and more income per unit area of land to small-scale farmers, particularly when
compared to cereals (Chowdhury and Hasan, 2013). Vegetable production experienced tremendous
growth in the last 40 years in Bangladesh, secured the seventh position (16.2 million metric tons)
around the world in vegetable production (https://www.statista.com/statistics/264662/top-producers-of-
fresh-vegetables-worldwide/). In winter season, the largest amount of vegetables are produced and
supplied in the Bangladesh market. The common winter vegetables of Bangladesh are tomato, water
gourd, cauliflower, cabbage, brinjal, pumpkin, radish, bean, green spinach, etc. However, vegetable
farmers, particularly smallholders, confront several constraints in vegetable production. Most
importantly population dynamics and incidence of insect and disease pests attacks on crops, due to
climate change events especially the continuous rise in winter temperature (Deutsch et al., 2018;
Burdon and Zhan, 2020) that inversely affects the winter vegetable production of the Bangladesh and
its adjacent regions. Due to pests attack, 30 to 40% of total vagetables have been reduced every year in
Bangladesh (https://ipmworld.umn.edu/rahman). Therefore, the farmer’s knowledge about the eco-
friendly pest management practices is very important for safe and nutritious vegetable production to
increase in farm income. Both the yield loss and market price depending on the intensity of the pest
severity varied from place to place, the existence of different races, and biotypes or strains of the insect
or pathogens (Sastry and Hegde, 1989; Hossain et al., 2010). Along with several insects, 454 diseases
have been recorded in about 100 cultivated crops in Bangladesh (Anon., 2006). There are numerous
types of pests, including leaf miners, aphids, thrips, cutworms, armyworms, cabbage looper beetles,
earworms and hornworms, green vegetable bugs, spiders, mites, stem borers, and root-knot nematodes
attack and reduces the yield quality of the vegetables in Bangladesh (Fores, 2021). Winter vegetables
are affected by different insects e.g., Epilachna beetle, aphid, shoot and fruit borer, and thrips and
different diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, virus and internal disorders, which are associated with the
environment, nutrition, salinity, and water stress (Rao et al., 2016).
Various insects, diseases, and disorders can affect the growth and yield of vegetables. The farmers’
diseases and insects management practices hamper limits in obtaining eco-friendly crop production and
ensuring our food safety. Farmers of our country generally do not follow the judicious and safety
protocols of pesticides application to control different types of pests. For example, farmers use
chemical pesticides (30-40 times) to control shoot & fruit borer and pumpkin beetle of different
summer vegetables (Chanda et al., 2021). Overdose and frequent use of pesticides is a threat to both
agroecology and agrobiodiversity, which cause death to beneficial insects and microorganisms, ensued
10
human health hazard, and consumers suffer for a long time in different chronic diseases. In addition to
the health and environmental issues, inorganic pesticides increase the costs of production. Moreover,
vegetable diseases and insect pests are becoming resistant to pesticides due to inappropriate doses. As
a result, farmers loose their crop yield, get poor market price, and affected the economy of the country
as a whole. The misuse of chemical pesticides is widespread in Bangladesh and is a large problem in
vegetable production in particular (Gautam et al., 2017). Pesticide misuse exposes consumers and farm
workers to substantial health risks, contributes to unsustainable farming practices, and limits
agricultural exports. Therefore, it necessitates research to determine farmers’ knowledge on pesticide
uses in vegetable cultivation. Hitherto, little is known on farmers’ perceptions about insect and disease
management practices and cost analysis for higher farm income and profitability (Chowdhuri et al.,
2014; Hasan et al., 2014; Sharmin, 2015; Akter et al., 2016; Chanda et al., 2021). The study was,
therefore, undertaken to document the nature of insect and disease infestation in winter vegetables and
their controlling measures taken by the vegetable growers as well as financial analysis of the winter
vegetable cultivation in Sirajganj district of Bangladesh

2. Methods
Five Upazilas, including Royganj, Ullapara, Kazipur, Kamarkhanda, and Sadar of Sirajganj district
were selected for the study bearing in mind farmers’ cooperation regarding data collection. Winter
vegetable producing time September 2019 to February 2020 was considered for the study to
characterize the insect and disease infestation management practices at farmers level and financial
analysis of five winter vegetables, including bottle gourd, brinjal, tomato, bean, and cauliflower
cultivation. A total of 150 (5 Upazilas × 30 farmers from each) winter vegetables producing farmers
were purposively selected for the present study. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews
and sometimes group discussion methods using a well-developed survey questionnaire. Information
solicited in the questionnaire was on the nature of insect and disease infestation and management
practices and costs and return associated.
The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the “Farm Budgetary Technique” for
financial analysis (Peter et al., 2019). The descriptive statistics were used to describe the management
practices of insect and disease infestation in the winter vegetable production at the farmer’s level in the
study area.
The main analytical tools used in financial analysis are the determination of total cost, total revenue,
gross margin, net income, profitability index, benefit-cost ratio, and return on investment. The
techniques have been widely used in estimating costs, returns, and net income of farm enterprises to
assist in making production decisions based on worthiness. Its usefulness and simplicity help to
demonstrate the relationship between costs and the return of agricultural enterprises. To represent the
results of the study, descriptive statistics, as well as tabular analysis, were done following the
Microsoft Excel® package program. The interest rate was assumed to be 10%. The vegetable season
was considered for six months. As per the objective of the study, the collected data were investigated.
The following equations were used in financial analysis for winter vegetable production.
Total return TR = P×Q
Where, P = Price of the product (Tk.; Bangladesh currency Tk. 85.27 = US$ 1 on 24 September
2021); Q = Yield per hectare (kg)
Total cost TC = TFC + TVC
Where TFC = Total fixed cost (Tk.); TVC = Total variable cost (Tk.)
The Gross Margin is the difference between the Total Revenue (TR) and the Total Variable Cost
(TVC).
GM = TR – TVC

11
 Where GM = Gross margin (Tk. ha-1); TR = Total revenue (Tk. ha-1); TVC = Total variable cost
(Tk. ha-1)
Net return analysis is calculated as the difference between the Total Revenue (TR) and the Total Cost
(TC) incurred in the vegetable production process.
Net return, NR = TR – TC
Where NR = Net return; TR = Total revenue; TC= Total cost
Profitability Index is (PI) analysis calculated as the ratio of the Net Return to Total Variable Cost.
Profitability Index (PI) =NR/TVC
Where NR = Net return; TVC= Total variable cost
Benefit-cost ratio (variable cost basis) = Total return/Total variable cost
Benefit-cost ratio (Total cost basis) = Total return/Total cost

The rate of return on investment (RRI) is obtained as a ratio of Net Return to Total Cost of investment
in vegetable production. It is used to measure how efficiently the vegetable farm utilized its total costs
which covered the investment to produce revenues (Olukosi and Erhabor, 1988).

Rate of Return on Investment (RRI) = NR/TC×100

Where NR = Net return; TC= Total cost

3. Results and Discussion

Nineteen diseases infections were found in the five selected winter vegetables, which are shown in
Table 1. Table 1 also described the disease symptoms and economic threshold level from farmers’
perspective, which means when farmers took necessary measures to control the diseases. Of these
disases, the causal organism of fifteen diseases was identified as fungi, two among fungi, bacteria and
Verticillium, and two as viruses (Table 2). The curd rot of cauliflower and early blight of tomato were
the most frequently observed fungal diseases. The fungal disease incidences caused the maximum loss,
which reduced up to 40% in vegetable yield and production. The seedling blight of cauliflower caused
25-40%, wilt of brinjal caused 18-30%, and root rot of tomato caused 17-30% loss of crop yields,
which were the most detrimental pest among 19 diseases. Disease syndrome appeared on different
parts of vegetables, including seedlings, roots, leaves, plants, fruits, pods, and heads. Root rot diseases
were the most devastating for all crops. Generally, farmers could not predict disease outbreaks.
However, farmers and Sub-Assistant Agriculture Officers collected different disease infested vegetable
parts and shared their neighbour farmers’ knowledge (Abang et al., 2014). Farmers believe that a
disease-resistant variety may help to relieve this problem. The disease early warning system, using
disease epidemiological models, and seasonal forecasts, might be useful for the pre-season planning of
local or national level disease control (Kim and Choi, 2020). This type of forecasting for insects might
also find to be useful. The highest yield losses 25-40% was found in seedling blight and the lowest 0.5-
1.5% in mildew diseases (Table 2). Khan (1999) reported that 30-50% yield loss is incurred due to the
disease infestation, 15-20% in general, and 30-50% in the severe case of fruit rots of brinjal is caused
seriously due to the Phomopsis vexans (Das, 1998). Sastry and Hegde (1989) stated that the amount of
crop fruit losses to a particular disease varied from place to place because of the existence of different
races, biotypes or strains of the pathogen (Hossain et al., 2010). Farmers took different management
actions, both physical and chemical, against different disease infestations (Table 2). They used
different doses of pesticide 2-3 times frequency. Farmers also claimed that Tilth 250EC was the most
commonly used fungicide applied against six diseases.

12
Table 1. Disease symptoms and economic threshold (farmer’s perception) for winter vegetables in Sirajganj
District. * Range and mean value within the bracket.

Vegetable Diseases Symptoms Infected plant parts

Bottle Powdery Mildew White powdery appearance on leaves 7-15 (9) Leaves Plant–
1
Gourd

Downy Mildew White powdery appearance underside of 12-30 (14) Leaves

leaves Plant–1

Root rot Rot on collar zone 10- 20 (13) Seedlings

10m–2

Gummy Stem Reddish gummy substance exudes from 10-15 (14) Leaves
Blight the stem Plant–1

Brinjal Wilt Wilt seedlings 6- 10 (8) Seedlings

10m–2

Root rot Rot on collar zone 20- 60 (23) Seedlings

10m–2

Little Leaf Characterized by small & malformed 20- 30 (22) Leaves

yellowish leaves Plant–1

Phomopsis Blight Pale, sunken lesion on the fruit surface and 30-75 Fruits 10m–2
become depressed

Tomato Early blight Circular or irregular dark spots on the 5-10 Plants 10m–2
lower, more mature leaves

Late Blight Blackish/brown necrotic lesions on leaves 8-20 Plants 10m–2

and stems

Wilt Epinasty the seedlings 10-25 Seedlings 10m–2

Fruit rot Lesions on the fruit surface and become 25-40 Fruit 10m–2
depressed

Root rot Rot on collar zone 10-20 Seedlings 10m–2

Bean Anthracnose Tan to rust coloured lesions with a raised 20-50 Pods Plant–1
black ring & brownish red border on pod

Mosaic Virus Green to bluish-green mottled or mosaic 10-30 Leaves Plant–1

pattern on leaves exhibiting downward
curling

Cauliflower Seedlings blight Damp-off or rot at the soil line eventually 10-30 Seedlings 10m–2
collapse and die.

13
 Leaf blight Circular or concentric rings (target spots) 10-15 Leaves 10m–2
on leaves

Curd rot Water-soaked lesions on flower heads 3-5 Heads 10m–2

Root rot Rot on collar zone 25-40 Plants 10m–2

*Leaves were assessed from top to bottom.

Table 2. Causal agent, yield loss and control measures of different diseases in Sirajganj District.
Vegetable Diseases Causal agent Yield loss Control measure Frequency
(%)
Bottle Gourd Powdery Mildew Fungus 0.5-1.5 1. Removes infected leaves 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Ridomil gold @ 2gm L–1 water

Downy Mildew Fungus 0.5-1.5 1. Removes infected leaves 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Ridomil gold @ 2gm L–1 water

Root rot Fungus 10-25 1. Removes infected seedlings 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Mancozeb @ 2ml L–1 water

Gummy Stem Blight Fungus 5-12 1. Removes infected leaves 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Ridomil gold @ 2gm L–1 water

Brinjal Wilt Multiple 18-30 1. Removes infected seedlings 1 - 2 times

2. Spray Tilth 250 EC @ 1ml L–1 water

Root rot Fungus 15-35 1. Removes infected seedlings 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Mancozeb @ 2ml L–1 water

Little Leaf Virus 5-8 1. Removes infected plants 1 - 2 times

2. Spray Tido @ 1.5ml L–1 water

Phomopsis Blight Fungus 8-20 1. Removes infected fruits 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Tilth 250 EC @ 1ml L–1 water

Tomato Early blight Fungus 5-7 1. Removes infected fruits 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Score 250 EC @ 1ml L–1 water

Late Blight Fungus 15-20 1. Removes infected fruits 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Score 250 EC @ 1ml L–1 water

Wilt Multiple 15-25 1. Removes infected seedlings 1 - 2 times

2. Spray Tilth 250 EC @ 1ml L–1 water

Fruit rot Fungus 5-15 1. Removes infected fruits 2 - 3 times

14
 2. Spray Tilth 250 EC @ 1ml L–1 water

Root rot Fungus 17-30 1. Removes infected seedlings 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Companion @ 2gm L–1 water

Bean Anthracnose Fungus 5-7 1. Removes infected fruits 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Secure @ 2ml L–1 water

Mosaic Virus Virus 3-10 1. Removes infected fruits 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Admire @ 1ml L–1 water

Cauliflower Seedlings blight Fungus 25-40 1. Removes infected leaves 1 - 2 times

2. Spray Tilth 250EC @ 1ml L–1 water

Leaf blight Fungus 2-5 1. Removes infected leaves 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Tilth 250EC @ 1ml L–1 water

Curd rot Fungus 5-8 Chemical treatments are not available;

control relies on cultural practices

Root rot Fungus 10-17 1. Removes infected seedlings 2 - 3 times

2. Spray Companion @ 2gm L–1 water

In the survey area, 11 insect species were found in five winter vegetables, which were shown in
Table 3; although the number of insect pests were relatively higher during the summer season (Chanda
et al., 2021). Farmers took necessary management strategies to control the different type of insect
populations or infested plant parts of winter vegetables below the threshold level. Farmers decided to
control aphid (40-150 insect population m–2 or 20-50 infected shoot m–2) and brinjal shoot and fruit
borer (10-50 insect population 10m–2 or 20-60 infected shoot or fruits 10m–2) and threshold level of
other insects population or infected plant parts to be found in Table 3. Cutworm was the most common
insect pest that affected three winter vegetables, which include brinjal, tomato and cauliflower.
Farmers claimed that Dursban along with other compounds was applied to control cutworm (Table 4).
However, shoot and fruit borer or fruit borer and aphid were the most recurrent insect over other
insects in winter vegetables (Praveen and Dhandapani, 2002; Kekeunou et al., 2006).
Table 3. Symptom and economic threshold (farmer’s perception) due to insect infestation for winter
vegetable cultivation in Sirajganj District. * Range and mean value within the bracket.

Vegetable Insects Indicator of chemical control Symptoms (Farmer’s Perspective)

Insects* Infected plants (%)
Bottle Gourd Red pumpkin 4-12 (8) 8-20 (13) Leaves Plant–1 Several beetles are found feeding together
beetle on the leaf
Epilachna beetle 10-15 (13) 10-20 (17) Leaves Plant–1 Feed on leaves making irregular holes
Fruit fly 5-25 (15) 10-30 (18) Fruits 5Plant–1 Distorted, malformed fruits and Premature
dropping of fruits
Brinjal Shoot Fruit Borer 10-50 (30) 20-60 (35) Shoots or fruits Wilting tender shoots and affected
10m–2 fruits plugged with excreta
White fly 5- 10 (6) 12-25 (14) Leaves 2Plant–1 Found of leaves feeding on leaves
secreting honeydew that attract ants
Jassid 5-15 (10) 10-26 (16) Leaves 2Plant–1 Red colour develops at the leaves edges

15
 Vegetable Insects Indicator of chemical control Symptoms (Farmer’s Perspective)
due to sucks sap from the leaves
Cutworm 10-50 (26) 8-25 (14) Leaves 10m–2 Caterpillars cut the plants just above the
ground level and buried them in the soil.
Tomato Fruit borer 15-45 (29) 10-30 (16) Fruits 10m–2 Boring fruits & affected fruits plugged
with excreta making distinct holes
White fly 10-15 (14) 15-20 (17) Leaves 10m–2 Whiteflies feeding underside of leaves &
secreting honeydew that attract ants
Cutworm 5-10 (7) 5-10 (8) Seedlings 10m–2 Caterpillars cut the plants just above the
ground level and buried them in the soil.
Mites 5-9 (7) 10-20 (14) Leaves Plant–1 Affected leaves become mottled, turn
brown and curling.
Country Bean Aphid 40-150 (57) 20-50 (32) Shoots or plant Shoots appear dark in colour due to aphid
m–2 colony
Fruit borer 12-30 (13) 15-50 (31) Fruits 10m–2 Boring fruits & affected fruits plugged
with excreta making distinct holes
Cauli-flower Cutworm 16-60 (17) 15-65 (43) Seedlings 10m–2 Caterpillars cut the plants just above the
ground level and buried them in the soil.
Flee beetle 6-8 (7) 11-17 (13) Leaves 10m–2 Tiny round pits or holes found on leaves
creating a shot hole pattern.
Caterpillar 12-30 (12) 16-40 (24) Leaves 10m–2 Caterpillars eating holes in the outer and
inner leaves
*Leaves were assessed from top to bottom.

Table 4. Yield loss and control measures of different insect pests in Sirajganj District.
Vegetable Insect Yield Control measure Frequency
loss (%)
Bottle Gourd Red pumpkin 3-7 1. Removes infected leaves, 2. Dusting ash, 3. Picking insects 2- 3 times
beetle through hand net, 4. Spray Sunmectin @ 2gm L–1 water, 5. IPM
practices
Epilachna 3-8 1. Removes infected leaves, 2. Dusting ash, 3. Picking insects 2- 3 times
beetle through hand net, 4. Spray Sunmectin @ 2gm L–1 water, 5. IPM
practices
Fruit fly 8-17 1. Removes infected fruits, 2. Use Pheromone trap, 3. Use -
insecticide mixed pumpkin/potato paste in pots at different
places, 5. IPM practices
Brinjal Shoot Fruit 40-50 1. Remove infected Shoots/fruits, 2. Use Pheromone trap, 35-45 times
Borer 3. Spray Sobicron @ 2gm L–1 water, 4. IPM practices
Whitefly 2-3 1. Removes infected leaves, 2. Spray Cartaf @ 2gm L–1 water, 1- 2 times
3. IPM practices, 4. Yellow Sticky trap
Jassid 3-5 1. Removes infected leaves, 2. Spray Tido @ 2gm L–1 water, 1- 2 times
3. Yellow Sticky trap
Cutworm 15-20 1. Makes furrow around seedlings, 2. Apply a mixture of 1- 2 times
Dursban+ Molasses+ Rice burns at dusk, 3. Irrigation
Tomato Fruit borer 15-30 1. Removes infected Shoots/fruits, 2. Use Pheromone trap, 3- 5 times
3. Spray Abamectin @ 2gm L–1 water
Whitefly 2-3 1. Removes infected leaves, 2. Spray Cartaf @ 2gm L–1 water, 1- 2 times
3. Yellow Sticky trap
Cutworm 15-20 1. Makes furrow around seedlings, 2. Apply a mixture of 1- 2 times
Dursban+ Molasses+ Rice burns at dusk, 3. Irrigation
Mites 8-12 1. Removes infected leaves, 2. Spray Vertimec @ 2gm L–1 water 2- 3 times
Country Bean Aphid 30-40 1. Remove infected shoots, 2. Spray soapy water, 3. Spray 2- 3 times
Malathion @ 1.5ml L–1water, 4. Yellow sticky trap
Fruit borer 15-20 1. Removes infected Shoots/fruits, 2. Use pheromone trap, 3- 5 times

16
 3. Spray Abamectin @ 2gm L–1 water
Cauliflower Cutworm 15-25 1. Makes furrow around seedlings, 2. Apply a mixture of 1- 2 times
Dursban+ Molasses+ Rice burns at dusk, 3. Irrigation
Flea beetle 3-5 1. Removes infected Shoots, 2. Spray soapy water, 3. Spray 1- 2 times
Malathion @ 1.5ml L–1water
Caterpillar 5-10 1. Removes infected Shoots, 2. Spray soapy water 1- 2 times
3. Spray Carate @ 1.5ml L–1 water

Several feeding types are appeared in different winter vegetables (Table 3). The highest yield loss,
which was 40-50% occurred due to shoot and fruit borer compare to other insects pest infestation
(Table 4). Kapoor (1993) also reported that brinjal shoot and fruit borer is the most devastating pest in
many parts of the world, which may cause more than 60% loss of yield. Initially, farmers were
practising physical and mechanical control methods, including removes infested plants or plant parts,
use a sweeping net, handpicking, pheromone trap, and yellow sticky trap. However, sometimes these
methods were found to be unsuitable management practices to control disease and insect pests
(Missanga and Rubanza, 2018). In addition, weeding could be an effective method of controlling insect
and disease pests, as weeds act as vectors and (or) an alternate host of the same (AVRDC, 1998). Most
insect pests are vectors of disease organisms and insects disseminate virus, blight and bacterial disease
as well (Meyer, 2016). Farmers use inorganic pesticides to increase vegetable production and they do
have not enough knowledge about the residual effect of pesticides. In the case of borer insects, farmers
use insecticide 35-45 times in a single growing season (Table 4). Although, the farmers of the
Sirajgang area applied a higher amount of insecticides than the recommended dose and frequency
(Chowdhuri and Hasan, 2013). The farmers of the Jessore area used even more insecticides and
pesticides than any other parts of Bangladesh (Rashid et al., 2018). Farmers use chemical pesticides
30-40 times to control shoot & fruit borer and pumpkin beetle insects of different summer vegetables
(Chanda et al., 2021).
With poor management skills and a lack of appropriate knowledge on chemical insecticide usages,
farmers use more insecticides for insect management. The incorrect pesticide use, which includes
overuse, unsafe use, and use of obsolete products caused environmental and human health risks much
higher because a large section of the population is engaged in farm work and therefore, directly
exposed to pesticides. Hence, there is a wide scope to reduce the cost of pesticides (both material and
application) through judicious pest management with the help of extension personnel for eco-friendly
crop cultivation and farm profit maximisation. Canico et al. (2013) reported that farmers applying
insecticide in vegetables at different rates and different frequencies. However, Obopile et al. (2008)
stated that many farmers are applying insecticides in a vegetable three times in a week. Integrated Pest
Management training of vegetable farmers in Bangladesh increased farmers’ knowledge of insect
pests, reduced the spraying frequency, and contributed to safer handling of pesticides (Gautam et al.,
2017).
The results in Tables 5 and 6 demonstrate the relationships between costs incurred in vegetable
production and the returns accrued by winter vegetables producing farmers in the study region. The
relationships help in the determination of the profitability earned by winter vegetables farming
households per hectare. In this study, costs are measured in terms of variable and fixed cost basis.
Variable costs include the cost of seed, ploughing, fertilizer, bamboo, irrigation, weeding, pesticide,
harvesting & marketing, and interest on operating capital. Land use cost and family labour cost are
considered as fixed costs. Furthermore, returns were calculated based on the average price that farmers
received per kg of vegetable production. The total variable costs varied from 80.72% to 89.12% of the
total cost of production (Table 5). The result shows the average total variable cost (Tk. ha–1) were
estimated to be 141,166.00, 186,428.00, 260,848.00, 184,128.00 and 182,401.00, respectively for
17
cultivating bottle gourd, brinjal, tomato, bean and cauliflower (Table 5). Family labour and land rent
cost were considered as fixed costs. Total fixed cost (Tk. ha–1) incurred by farmers 33,705.00 for bottle
gourd, 37,455.00 for brinjal, 31,830.00 for tomato, 35,580.00 for bean and 29,955.00 for cauliflower
cultivation. The highest production cost (Tk. ha–1) was required for tomato cultivation (292,678.00)
and the lowest (174,871.00) in bottle gourd cultivation.
Table 5. Cost analysis for winter vegetable production in Sirajganj District (Tk. ha-1)
Name of vegetables
Particulars
Bottle gourd Brinjal Tomato Bean Cauliflower
a. Variable cost
Seed 3742 4491 14970 5988 7485
Plough 8982 8982 8982 5988 8982
Fertilizer 22455 56136 44909 33682 61937
Bamboo 41167 0 22455 44909 0
Irrigation 7485 7485 5988 2994 8982
Weeding 22455 44909 59879 14970 26945
Pesticide 8982 29939 44909 33682 29939
Harvesting & Marketing 22455 29939 52394 37424 33682
Interest on operating capital 3443 4547 6362 4491 4449
Total variable cost (A) 141,166 186,428 260,848 184,128 182,401
b. Fixed cost
Land Rent cost for six month 22455 22455 22455 22455 22455
Family labour 11250 15000 9375 13125 7500
Total Fixed cost (B) 33,705 37,455 31,830 35,580 29,955
Total Cost (A+B) 174,871 223,883 292,678 219,708 212,356

Land rent per annum Tk. 25,000 ha–1; interest @ 10% per annum. 1 US$ = 85.27 Tk. on 24 September
2021 <https://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=USD&To=BDT>

Table 6. Return analysis for winter vegetable production in Sirajganj District (Tk. ha–1)
Particulars Name of vegetables
Bottle gourd Brinjal Tomato Bean Cauliflower
Yield (kg ha–1) 35,000 32,900 32,000 22,000 33,000
Price (Tk. kg–1) 20 30 25 40 25
Total Return (Tk. ha–1) 700,000 987,000 800,000 880,000 825,000
Gross Margin 558,834 800,572 539,152 695,872 642,599
Net Return 525,129 763,117 507,322 660,292 612,644
Profitability Index (PI) 3.72 4.09 1.94 3.59 3.36
Benefit Cost Ratio (Variable cost basis) 4.96 5.29 3.07 4.78 4.52
Benefit Cost Ratio (Total cost basis) 4.00 4.41 2.73 4.01 3.88
Rate of Return on Investment (RRI) 300.30 340.86 173.34 300.53 288.50

The results also revealed that the total return generated (Tk. ha–1) for cultivating bottle gourd,
brinjal, tomato, bean, and cauliflower were estimated 700,000.00, 987,000.00, 800,000.00, 880,000.00
and 825,000.00, respectively (Table 6). The highest return (Tk. ha–1) was calculated 987,000.00 from
brinjal cultivation and the lowest 700,000.00 from bottle gourd cultivation. The highest gross margin
and net return (Tk. ha–1) were found 800,572.00 and 763,117.00, respectively from brinjal cultivation
and the lowest 539,152.00 and 507,322.00 from tomato cultivation. The highest profitability index
(PI), benefit-cost ratio (BCR; variable cost basis), BCR (total cost basis), and rate of return on
investment (RRI) were found 4.09, 5.29, 4.41 and 340.86, respectively from brinjal cultivation and the

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lowest from tomato cultivation. Hasan et al. (2014) stated that the BCR considering variable costs
were estimated at 2.83, 4.88, and 4.57 for bottle gourd, brinjal, and cucumber cultivation, respectively.
Based on total cost, the highest BCR was found (3.72) for brinjal and the lowest (2.40) for bottle gourd
cultivation. The results of the present study support the results of the study of Hasan et al. (2014). The
BCR of a crop might also depend on various (external) factors e.g., season, location, farm size, etc. For
example, Mitra and Sharmin (2019) calculated the BCR value 2.31 for tomato production in the
Mymensingh area. Karim et al. (2009) found that the BCR for small, medium and large farmers was
4.22, 4.16 and 4.19, respectively for summer tomato cultivation. Moreover, it is also well-known that
the price of vegetables is extra-ordinarily higher during the early part of the respective cropping
season; which might be reflected in higher BCR values.

4. Conclusion
A total of 19 disease infections and 11 insect species were found in the five selected winter
vegetables in the Sirajganj district of Bangladesh. Of these diseases, the causal organisms of fifteen
was identified as fungi, two as fungi, bacteria, and Verticillium, and two as viruses. The highest
incidence of fungal diseases caused loss of a high amount of vegetable production; Tilth 250EC was
the most commonly used fungicide to control these with the rate 1 ml per litre water. Among insects,
shoot and fruit borer causes the highest yield loss to compare to other insects pest infestation. Initially,
farmers were practising physical and mechanical control methods, including remove infested plants or
plant limbs, use sweeping net, handpicking, pheromone trap, and yellow sticky trap. Farmers also used
inorganic pesticides to manage insect infestation, yet they have enough knowledge about the residual
effect of pesticides. With poor management skills and a lack of proper knowledge on the use of
chemical insecticide, farmers use more insecticide for insect management. Wilt and blight are the most
deadly diseases found in the study area. On the contrary, borer and aphid are the most serious insects to
the vegetable. The highest gross margin and net return were found in brinjal cultivation and the lowest
in tomato cultivation. The highest PI, BCR (variable and total cost bases), and RRI were found also in
brinjal cultivation and lowest from tomato cultivation. The results revealed that brinjal production is
the more profitable compare to the other four vegetables in the Sirajganj area. Therefore, farmers
should be encouraged to produce brinjal with integrated pest management technology and judicious
application of pesticides for eco-friendly crop cultivation and farm profit maximisation.

5. Acknowledgement
We would also like to express our sincere appreciation to Dr. Subroto Kuri for his invaluable
suggestions for lingusitic improvement, which improved the text considerably.

6. Authors Note
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.
Authors confirmed that the paper was free of plagiarism.

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