BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Electricity is the flow of current or electrons in an electric circuit. Substances that allow
electrons to flow freely are called conductors and those that don't are called insulators.

TYPES OF ELECTRICITY
There are two types of electric current these being static electricity and dynamic
electricity.
Static electricity: This is electricity that does not flow, it is static electricity that causes
two bodies to stick together (positively and positively charged bodies). Static electricity
is normally produced by friction and can not be taken from one place to another.
Dynamic electricity: This is the electricity that flows in conductors. In our study will
focus much on dynamic electricity.

MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight or mass. Matter can be divided
into three classes these being solids, liquids and gasses. Matter is made up of
molecules, which can be further divided into small blocks known as atoms.
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element that can take part in a
chemical reaction. An atom consists of the following
Nucleus: this is the central part of an atom that consists of the neutrons (no charge)
and protons which are positively charged.
Electrons: these are negatively charged particles that surround the nucleus.

An atom
Electricity was defined as the flow of electrons; there is a force of attraction that exists
between the nucleus (protons which are positively charged) and the electrons which
are negatively charged. In conductors the force of attraction between electrons and
protons is weak hence electrons can easily move while in insulators the force of
attraction between the electrons and protons is very high hence electrons can not
easily move.

IONISATION
Ionisation is the process by which an atom gains or losses an electron. An atom that
has lost or gained an electron is known as an ion. A positive ion is known as a cation
(it moves towards the positively charged electrode) and a negatively charged ion is
known as an anion (it moves towards a negatively charged electrode).

LAW OF CHARGES
The law of charges states that like charges repel while unlike charges attract each
other.
MAIN EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

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The three main effects of an electric current are

a) Magnetic effect
b) Chemical effect
c) Heating effect

Some of the practical effects of an electric current include

Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, telephones, car
ignition and lifting magnets
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and electroplating
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and
soldering irons.
Other effects of an electric current include gas ionisation effect, special rays effect and
the shock effect.
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
For electric current to flow there has to be an electric circuit which is the path through
which current flows. The following are the components that make or are needed in an
electric circuit.
 Source of supply e.g. generators, cells etc
 Conductors e.g. cables, wires etc
 Safety devices such as fuses, circuit breakers etc
 Controlling devices such as switches, isolators etc
 Consuming devices or load e.g. lamps, cooker, radio etc

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS

Electron current: this is a current that flows from negative to positive in a circuit.
Conventional current: this is the current that flows from positive (live) to negative
(Neutral) in an electric circuit. In our study of power electrical current will always refer
to conventional current unless stated.

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TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Electric circuits can be divided into four classes as given below
i) Closed circuit
ii) Open circuit
iii) Short circuit
iv) Earth or leakage circuit

Closed circuit: this is a complete path through which current flows e.g. when a lamp
or radio comes on the path that current would have taken so that the lamp comes on
is known as a closed circuit.
Open circuit: This is a circuit through which current cannot flow due to an opening in
the circuit that can be caused by a conductor that is cut , the fuse that is blown, or a
switch that is open.
Short circuit: This is the circuit that is formed when the load is bypassed and two
conductors at different potentials come in contact e.g. connecting the live and neutral
together or different phases together.
Earth or Leakage circuit: This is a circuit that is formed when a live conductor
touches the metallic casing of an appliance.

DEFINITION OF ELECTRICAL TERMS

Resistance R: This is the opposition that a conductor offers to the flow of current in an
electric circuit. Resistance is measured in ohms by an instrument known as an
ohmmeter.
Electromotive force emf: this is the force that causes the flow of electrons in a
circuit. It is measured in volts by a voltmeter..
Potential difference p.d: this is the difference in potential between two points in an
electrical circuit. Potential difference is measured in volts by an instrument known as a
voltmeter and is usually less than the emf. A potential difference is caused by a
difference in charge (electrons) between two points.
Voltage V: This is the difference in potential between any two conductors in a circuit
e.g. live and neutral, between phase conductors. Voltage is measured by an
instrument known as a voltmeter and is measured in volts.
Voltage drop: This is the voltage that is developed across a component or conductor
due to the resistance of the component or conductor. Voltage drop is measured in
volts by a voltmeter.
Terminal Voltage VT: This is the voltage at the terminals of the source of supply. It is
measured in volts by a voltmeter.
Conductance G: This is the reciprocal of resistance (G = 1/R) and is measured in
siemens. Conductance can also be defined as the property of a which allows the flow
of current. Conductors have large conductance while insulators have small
conductance.
Electric current I: This is the flow of electrons in a circuit and is measured in amperes
or amps by an instrument known as an ammeter.
Ohm Ω: This is the unit of resistance and is defined as the opposition that is offered to
a current of 1 amp in a circuit which has the potential difference of 1 volt.
Amp A: This is the unit of current and is defined as the current that flows in a circuit of
resistance of 1 ohm and a potential difference of 1 volt.

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Volt V: This is a unit of voltage and is defined as the voltage that causes a current of 1
amp to flow in a circuit of resistance 1 ohm.
OHMS LAW
Ohms law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance provided the temperature is
kept constant.
IαV
Iα1
R

IαV
R
From which we get V = IR

EXAMPLE 1
The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20 V is applied.
Determine the value of the resistance.

SOLUTION
Data
I = 0.8 A
V = 20 V

From ohms law R = V = 20 = 25 Ω

I 0.8

ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY

When a direct current of I amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the voltage
across the circuit is V volts, then
Power in watts P = VI = I2R = V2
R

Electrical energy = power x time

= VIt joules
Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy,
the unit used is the kilowatt hour (KWh) where
1 KWh = 1000 watt hour
= 1000 x 3600 watt second or joules
= 3 600 000 J
QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY
This is the measure of electricity (charge) that passes through a point in a given time.
It is measured in coulombs (C). the quantity of electricity is denoted by the letter Q.

Quantity of electricity, Q = current, I x time in seconds, s

A coulomb is defined as the quantity of electricity which flows past a given point in an
electric circuit when a current of one ampere is maintained for one second.

EXAMPLE 2
If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
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SOLUTION
Data
I=5A
t = 2 min

Quantity of electricity, Q = It coulombs

= 5 x (2 x 60)

= 600 C

EXAMPLE 3
A source of e.m.f 5 V supplies a current of 3 A for 10 minutes. How much energy is
produced in this time?

SOLUTION
Data
V=5V
I=3A
t = 10 min

Electrical energy = V I t = 5 x 3 x (10 x 60) = 9 000 Ws or 9 000 J

EXAMPLE 4
An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 Ω. What current will flow when it is connected
to a 240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle.
SOLUTION
Data
R = 30 Ω
V = 240 V

Current, I = V = 240 = 8 A
R 30

Power = VI = 240 x 8 = 1920 W

Alternatively P = I2R = 82 x 30 = 1920 W or P = V2 = 2402 = 1920 W

R 30

FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESISTANCE

The following are the factors that affect resistance these being
i) The length of a conductor: the resistance of a conductor is directly
proportional to the length (R α L) i.e. the longer the length of a conductor the
higher the resistance and vice versa.
ii) Area of the conductor: Resistance of a material is inversely proportional to
the cross sectional area of a conductor i.e. the larger a conductor the lower
its resistance and vice versa. (R α 1/a)
iii) Type of material: Different materials have different values of resistance e.g.
the resistance of copper is different from that of aluminium.
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iv) Temperature: An increase in temperature increases the resistance of a

conductor and in a few materials like carbon an increase in temperature
reduces its resistance. Substances whose resistance increases with a rise
in temperature have a positive temperature coefficient and those whose
resistance reduces with a rise in temperature have a negative temperature
coefficient.

From the factors i) and ii) above the following formula is obtained that relates area and
the length of a conductor.
Resistance, R = resistivity x length = ρ L
Area a

Where ρ is the resistivity (specific resistance) which is defined as the resistance of a

unit cube of the material measured between opposite faces of the judgement.
Resistivity is measured in ohm metres.

EXAMPLE 5
The resistance of a 5 m length of wire is 600 Ω. Determine a) the resistance of an 8 m
length of the same wire, and b) the length of the same wire when the resistance is 420
Ω.

SOLUTION
Data
L=5m
R = 600 Ω

a) Resistance is directly proportional to length, L i.e. R α L

Hence, 600 α 5 m or 600 = (k)(5), where k is the constant of proportionality.

Hence

k = 600 = 120
5
When the length L is 8 m, then resistance

R = kL = 120 x 8 = 960 Ω

b) When the resistance is 420 Ω, 420 = kL from which

Length L = 420 = 420 = 3.5 m

k 120

EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the resistance of a 2 km length of aluminium overhead power cable if the
cross sectional area of the cable is 100 mm2. Take the resistivity of aluminium to be
0.03 x 10-6 Ωm.

SOLUTION

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Data
L = 2000m
a = 100 mm2 (100 x 10-6 m2)
ρ = 0.03 x 10-6 Ωm

Resistance, R = ρ L = (0.03 x 10-6)(2000) = 0.03 x 2000 = 0.6 Ω

a 100 x 10-6 m2 100

EXERCISE 7
The resistance of 1.5 km of the wire of cross-sectional area 0.17 mm2 is 150 Ω.
Determine the resistivity of the wire.

SOLUTION
Data
R = 150 Ω
a = 0.17 mm2 (0.17 x 10-6)
L = 1 500 m

Resistance R = ρ L
a

Resistivity, ρ = R a = (150 Ω)(0.17 x 10-6m2) = 0.017 x 10-6 Ωm or 0.017µΩm

L (1 500 m)

EXERCISE 8
Determine the resistance of 1200 m of copper cable having a diameter of 12 mm if the
resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 10-8 Ωm

SOLUTION
Data
L= 1200 m
d = 12 mm
ρ = 1.7 x 10-8 Ωm

Cross sectional area, a = πr2 = π x (6)2 = 36π mm2 = 36π x 10-6 m2

Resistance R = ρ L = (1.7 x 10-8 Ωm)(1200m) = 0.180 Ω

a (36π x 10-6m2)

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE (α)

The temperature coefficient of resistance is the rise in resistance of a material per
degree rise in temperature to the original resistance.

Temperature coefficient, αt = 1 .
1+t
αo

where αo is the temperature coefficient of resistance at zero degrees

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t is the temperature at which the temp. coeff. Is to be determined.

Resistance at any temperature is given by Rt = Ro ( 1 + αo t )

Resistance at temperature T1 is given by R1 = Ro ( 1 + αo t1 ) …………(i)

Resistance at temperature T2 is given by R2 = Ro ( 1 + αo t2 ) …………(ii)

Combining relationships (i) and (ii) above gives R2 = Ro ( 1 + αo t2 )

R1 Ro ( 1 + αo t1 )

From which we get R2 = R1 (1 + αo t2)

(1 + αo t1)

R2 can also be given by R2 = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]

EXAMPLE 9
A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 100 Ω when its temperature is 0oC.
Determine its resistance at 70oC. If the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper
at 0oC is 0.0043/oC
SOLUTION
Data
R = 100 Ω
t1 = 0oC
t2 = 70oC
αo = 0.0043/oC

Resistance Rt = Ro(1 + αo t)

Hence resistance at 70oC, R70 = 100[1 + (0.0043)(70)]

= 100[1 + 0.301]

= 100[1.301]

= 130.1 Ω

EXAMPLE 10
An aluminium cable has a resistance of 27 Ω at a temperature of 35oC. Determine its
resistance at 0oC. Take the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0oC to be
0.0038/oC.

SOLUTION
Data
R = 27 Ω
t = 35oC
αo = 0.0038/oC

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Resistance Rt = Ro (1 + αo t)

Hence resistance at Ro = Rt = 27 .
(1 + αo t) [1 + (0.0038)(35)]

= 27 .
1.133

= 23.83 Ω

EXAMPLE 11
A carbon resistor has a resistance of 1 kΩ at 0oC. Determine its resistance at 80oC.
Assume that the temperature coefficient of carbon at 0oC is – 0.0005/oC.

SOLUTION
Data
Resistance Rt = Ro (1 + αo t)

= 1000[1 + (- 0.0005)(80)

= 1000[1 – 0.040]

= 960 Ω
EXAMPLE 12
A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 10 Ω at 20oC. If the temperature coefficient of
resistance of copper at 20oC is 0.004/oC determine the resistance of the coil when the
temperature rises to 100oC

SOLUTION
Data
R = 10 Ω
t1= 20oC
t2 = 100oC
α1 = 0.004/oC

Resistance at 0oC, R = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]

Hence resistance at 100oC, R100 = 10 [1 + 0.004 (100 – 20)]

= 10[1 + (0.004)(80)]

= 10[1 + 0.32]

= 10(1.32)

= 13.2 Ω

EXAMPLE 13
A copper wire has a resistance of 200 Ω at 20oC. A current is passed through the wire
and the temperature rises to 90oC. Determine the resistance of the wire at 90oC,
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correct to the nearest ohm, assuming the temperature coefficient of resistance is

0.004/oC.

SOLUTION
Data
R1 = 200 Ω
t1 = 20oC
t2 = 90oC
αo = 0.004/oC

R2 = Ro (1 + αo t2)
R1 = Ro (1 + αo t1)

From which we get R2 = R1 (1 + αo t2)

(1 + αo t1)

R90 = 200[1 + 0.004(90)]

[1 + 0.004(20)]

= 200[1 + 0.36]
[1 + 0.08]

= 200(1.36)
(1.08)

= 251.85 Ω

Therefore, the resistance at 90oC is 252 Ω

CONNECTION OF RESISTORS
Resistors can be connected in either in series or parallel. They can also have a series
parallel combination.

RESISTORS IN SERIES
The diagram below shows two resistors connected in series and whenever resistors
are connected is series the following should be noted
i) The same current flows though the circuit
ii) The supply voltage is the sum of the individual voltage drops (V = V1 + V2)
iii) The total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances (RT = R1 + R2 )

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RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
The diagram below shows the connection of two resistors in parallel and when
resistors are connected in parallel the following is true

i) The same voltage acts across both resistors

ii) The supply current is the sum of the individual branch currents (I = I1 + I2)
iii) The total resistance is the sum of the reciprocal of the individual

resistances. OR RT = R1 x R2
R1 + R2

EXAMPLE 14
The resistors of 4 and 12 Ω are connected in parallel and they are both connected to a
further resistor of 10 Ω, connected in series, if a dc voltage of 78 V is connected to the
circuit , determine
a) The total current
b) The potential difference across the parallel resistors
c) The branch currents in the parallel circuit
d) The power consumed in the circuit
e) The total energy after a period of 5 hours
f) The cost after 65 hours of use at K 60 per Kwh.

SOLUTION
Data
R1 = 4 Ω
R2 = 12 Ω
R3 = 10 Ω
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V = 78 V

a) Total current, I = V
RT

The total resistance, RT = R1 x R2 + R3

R1 + R2

= 4 x 12 + 10
4 + 12

= 48 +10
16

= 3+10

= 13 Ω

Therefore, total current, I = V = 78 = 6 A

RT 13

b) P.d. across resistors R1 and R2, V = IR = 6 x 3 = 18 V

c) The branch currents in the parallel circuit

I1 = V = 18 = 4.5 A I2 = V = 18 = 1.5 A
R1 4 R2 12

d) The power consumed, P = I2R = 62 x 13

= 468 W

e) Energy used after 5 hours, E = power x time

= 468 x (5 x 60 x 60)

= 8,424 000 J

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f) Cost of energy after 65 hours of use at K 60 per Kwh

Energy consumed in Kwh, E = power x time

= 468 x 65

= 30 420 Kwh

Cost of energy = 30 420 x K 60

= K 1 825 200

KIRCHHOOFS LAWS
Kirchhoffs first law or the current law: states that the currents entering a junction
are equal to the currents leaving the junction or the algebraic sum of currents entering
and leaving a junction are equal to zero.

Kirchhoffs second law or the voltage law: states that the algebraic sum of voltage
drops in closed loop are equal to the supply voltage.

EXAMPLE 15
Use kirchhoffs laws to determine the currents flowing in each branch of the network
shown below.

SOLUTION
1. Use kirchhoff’s current law and label current directions on the original circuit
diagram (if no directions are given). The directions of current chosen are
arbitrary, but it is usual as a starting point to assume the current flowing the
positive of the batteries.
2. Divide the circuit into two loops and apply kirchhoff’s voltage law to each loop.
From loop 1 of the figure and moving in a clockwise direction as indicated (the
direction chosen does not matter), gives

E1 = I1r1 + (I1 + I2) R, i.e. 4 = 2I1 + 4(I1 + I2)

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i.e.6I1 + 4I2 = 4 (1)

From loop 2 in the figure above, moving in an anticlockwise direction as

indicated ( once again the choice of direction does not matter; it does not need
to be in the same direction as that chosen for the first loop), gives

E2 = I2r2 + (I1 + I2) R, i.e. 2 = I2 + 4(I1 + I2)

i.e.4I1 + 5I2 = 2 (2)

Solving equations (1) and (2) for I1 and I2

2 x (1) gives; 12I1 + 8I2 = 8
3 x (2) gives; 12I1 + 5I2 = 6
Subtracting the two equations above gives -7I2 = 2
Hence I2 = -0.286 A
(i.e. I2 is flowing in the opposite direction to that shown in the figure above
From (1) 6I1 + 4(-0.286) = 4
6I1 = 4 + 1.144

Hence I1 = 5.144 = 0.857 A

6
Current flowing through the resistor R is

I1 + I2 = 0.857 + (-0.286) = 0.571 A

EXERCISE
1. From the diagram given below, determine

a) the total current

b) the potential difference across the 5 and 15 Ω resistors
c) the branch currents in the three parallel resistors
d) the power consumed in the circuit
e) the total energy used after a period of 5 hours
f) the cost of electrical energy after 200 hours of use at K150 per Kwh.

2. Explain briefly how the following factors affect resistance of a conductor

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a) cross sectional area

b) temperature
c) length of the conductor
d) type of material

3. a) The resistance of a wire is 60Ω at 25oC and 65Ω at 75oC. Find the
resistance of the wire at 10oC and the value of temperature coefficient at
0oC.
b) A platinum coil has a resistance of 3.2Ω at 40oC and 3.8Ω at 100oC. Find the
resistance at 0oC and the temperature coefficient of resistance at 40oC
c) A coil of a relay is made of copper wire. At a temperature of 20oC, the
resistance of the coil is 400Ω. Calculate the resistance of the coil at 80oC. The
temperature coefficient of copper is 0.0038/oC at 0oC.

4. Determine the total resistance in the circuit below,

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CELLS AND BATTERIES

Cells are the smallest unit of a battery that convert stored chemical energy to electrical
energy OR a cell is device or component/source of emf that consists of a positive and
negative electrode that converts stored chemical energy to electrical energy.

A battery is a combination of two or more cells

FORMATION OF A CELL
A cell is formed by immersing two dissimilar metals in a fluid known as an electrolyte.
When a load or conductor is connected across the two metals chemical action starts
inside the electrolyte and a potential is thus belt up between the two electrodes which
causes current to flow to the external circuit (load). The plate through which current
leaves the cell to the external circuit is called the positive plate or anode and the plate
from which the current enters the cell is known as the negative plate or cathode.
If the plates are of two similar metals say zinc or copper there is no e.m.f. produced
but if two different metals are used then an e.m.f. is produced whose value is
dependant upon the types of metals used.

Electrolysis is the decomposition of a liquid compound by the passage of electric

current through it. For a cell to be able to produce the required energy electrolysis has
to take place.

An electrolyte is a compound which undergoes electrolysis e.g. salt water, copper

sulphate and sulphuric acid.

CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS
Cell can be classified into two these being
1. Primary cells
2. Secondary cells
Primary cells: these are cells that can not be recharged i.e. once the stored chemical
energy is converted into electrical energy the process can not be reversed

Types of primary cells

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1. Simple voltaic cell

2. Daniel cell
3. Leclanche cell – Dry cell
- Wet cell
Secondary cells these are cells that can be recharged i.e. once the stored chemical
energy is converted into electrical energy the process can still be reversed.
Types of Secondary cells
The following are the types of secondary cells
1. Lead acid battery
2. Alkaline batteries – Nickel iron cell or NIFE cell or Edison cell
 Nickel cadmium cell
PRIMARY CELLS

SIMPLE VOLTAIC CELL

A simple cell consists of a glass container in which copper and zinc plates are
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. The zinc electrode acts as the negative electrode
and the copper plate as the positive electrode.

When a load is connected across the zinc and copper electrodes the chemical action
starts taking place first in the zinc electrode which is more active than copper in dilute
sulphuric acid and current starts to flow through the electrolyte. Due to chemical action
sulphuric acid is split up into hydrogen (H+) and sulphate (SO4--) ions. The hydrogen
ions travel in the direction of the flow of current and cling to the surface of the copper
electrode in the form of bubbles, whereas sulphate ions go to the zinc electrode and
form zinc sulphate. The chemical action taking place is expressed in the equation
below.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
The current flows from zinc to copper inside the cell and from copper to zinc outside
the cell. The e.m.f. of the cell is about 1.1 V.

A simple cell suffers from two major drawbacks, namely polarisation and local action.

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Polarisation: This is the process by which hydrogen ions produced due to chemical
action form a thin layer around the positive electrode (copper). The thin layer formed
increases the resistance of the cell resulting in the lowering of the e.m.f. of the cell.

Polarisation in a cell is prevented by using a chemical substance known as a

depolarizer which combines with hydrogen to produce water. Polarisation can also be
prevented in a simple cell by rubbing a positive electrode with a wire brush.

Local action: This is when circulating currents are caused to flow within the zinc
electrode due to the formation of small cells between zinc and the impurities within the
electrode.
Due to local action the e.m.f. (terminal voltage) of the cell is reduced. Local is avoided
in a cell by the zinc electrode is coated with a mercury amalgam in a process is known
as amalgamation.

DANIEL CELL
The Daniel cell is a two fluid cell and is a modification of the simple voltaic cell
because it is similar in chemical action. In a Daniel cell a depolarizer and
amalgamated zinc is used to prevent polarisation and local action respectively.
This cell consists of an outer copper vessel which serves as the positive electrode.
The vessel contains a concentrated solution of copper sulphate (CuSO4) which acts as
a depolarizer. Inside the vessel is the porous pot containing dilute sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) and an amalgamated zinc rod (negative electrode). The copper sulphate
solution is kept concentrated by placing copper sulphate crystals in the solution.

When a load is connected across the cell to form a closed circuit, the zinc inside the
porous pot begins to dissolve in the dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and thus hydrogen
ions are liberated. The hydrogen ions pass through the porous pot, thus forming
H2SO4 and copper ions (Cu++) which are deposited over the copper vessel. The
chemical reaction inside the porous pot can be represented as follows
Zn++ + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + 2H++
The chemical reactions outside the porous pot
2H+ + CuSO4 → H2SO4 + Cu++
In this manner polarisation is prevented. When the cell is not in use the cell must be
dismantled. This is because the copper sulphate solution passes through the porous
pot and is replaced by the zinc with the result that the copper is deposited on the zinc
electrode causing local action.

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The e.m.f. of the cell is about 1.12 V and its internal resistance varies from 2 to 6 Ω. It
is cheap and gives constant voltage and is therefore still used in laboratories for
experiments.

LECLANCHE CELL
There are two types of Leclanche cells these being the dry and wet cell.

The depolarizing agent is used to remove hydrogen bubbles from around the carbon
rod. These bubbles, which are formed during the chemical action, impair the
performance of the cell.

APPLICATION
The dry cell has an obvious advantage over the wet cell because it is portable and so
is commonly used for appliances such as torches, door bells, etc.

EMF OF A CELL
The e.m.f. of a cell is given by E = VT + I r

Where I is the current of the cell in amperes

r is the internal resistance of the cell in ohms
VT is the voltage drop across the terminals of external resistance.

GROUPING OF CELLS
Cell can be group as follows depending on the requirements of the circuit
i) Series combination

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ii) Parallel combination

iii) Series-parallel combination

SERIES COMBINATION OF CELLS

Cells are connected in series so as to have a higher voltage than that provided by a
single cell.

E.M.F. for n cells connected in series is given by

nE = VT + (I x nr)

nE = IR + I nr (VT = IR)

nE = I(R + nr)
The current flowing will be given by

I = nE .
R + nr

n in the number of cells in series

R is the load resistance
r is the internal resistance of the cell
E is the e.m.f. of each cell

EXAMPLE 1
Twenty dry cells of emf 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω are joined in series. If a
5 Ω external resistance is connected across the group. Find the value of the current
flowing.

SOLUTION
Data
E = 1.5 V
r = 0.5 Ω
R=5Ω
n = 20

Current flowing, I = nE . = 20 x 1.5 .

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R + nr 5 + (20 x 0.5)

= 30
15

=2A

PARALLEL CONNECTION OF CELLS

Cells are normally connected in parallel so as to obtain a high current. The total emf
for cells connected in parallel is equal to the emf of each cell. The diagram below
shows cells connected in parallel.

The emf for cells connected in parallel is given by E = VT + I r

n

the relationship can also be rewritten as nE = nVT + I r

nE = nIR + I r

nE = I (nR + r)

I= nE .
(nR + r)

EXAMPLE 2
Ten dry cells each having an emf of 1.5 V and an internal resistance 1Ω are joined in
parallel. If 4.9 Ω resistance is connected across the group, find the value of the current
passing through it.

SOLUTION
Data
E = 1.5 V
r=1Ω
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R = 4.9 Ω
n = 10

The current flowing is given by I = nE .

(nR + r)
I = 10 x 1.5 .
(10 x 4.9) + 1

I = 15
50

I = 0.3 A

SERIES PARALLEL COMBINATION

A group of cells connected in series may be joined in parallel thus making a series
parallel combination of cells. The total emf of such a combination is equal to the total
emf of one of the series group.

If there are m sets of cells in series – parallel combination, each set having n cells in
series and joined to a load of resistance RΩ, then:
Internal resistance of each series group = nr Ω
Internal resistance of m set of battery = nr Ω
m

Emf of the series – parallel combination = nE V

Emf of the series-parallel combination, nE = VT + I nr

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nE = IR + I nr
m
The relationship can also be written as mnE = mIR + I nr

mnE = I (mR + nr)

The current flowing is given by I = mnE .

(mR + nr)

The current in a series parallel combination will be maximum when the total internal
resistance of the battery is equal to the load resistance.

EXAMPLE 3
Thirty cells each having an emf 1.5 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ω are connected ten
in series per row, three rows in parallel. If a 2.5 Ω resistance is connected across the
battery, find the value of the current passing through the external load.

SOLUTION
Data
E = 1.5 V
r = 0.5 Ω
R = 2.5 Ω
n = 10
m=3

The current flowing is given by I = mnE . = 3 x 10 x 1.5 .

(mR + nr) (3 x 2.5) + (10 x 0.5)

= 45
12.5

= 3.6 A

SECONDARY CELLS
Secondary cells are cells that can be recharged i.e. once the stored chemical energy
is converted into electrical energy the process can still be reversed.

Types of Secondary cells

The following are the types of secondary cells
3. Lead acid battery
4. Alkaline batteries – Nickel iron cell or NIFE cell or Edison cell
 Nickel cadmium cell

LEAD ACID CELL OR BATTERY

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This cell consists of a positive and negative plate plates made of lead and an
electrolyte of sulphuric acid; all placed in an acid resistant container.
The electrodes are made of several plates, the positive and negative being insulated
from each other by separators of insulating material such as wood or ebonite.

The construction of plates is of considerable importance and is discussed below.

FORMED PLATES
Larger cells consist of formed plates where the negative plate is spongy lead and the
positive plate is lead peroxide. After repeated charging and discharging of a cell
formed plates are formed i.e. the lead plates are covered with lead compounds.

PASTED PLATES
These plates are manufactured in form of a grid, into which compounds of sulphuric
acid and red lead is pressed; only a small initial charge is needed for the cell to be
ready for use. These plates, however, disintegrate more easily than formed plates.

A combination of formed and plated plates is used in large capacity cells; the positive
plate is formed and the negative plate is pasted.

When current is drawn from the cell the active chemicals on the positive plate expand
and the plates tends to distort, especially under heavy loads. Some measure of
protection against distortion or buckling is achieved by arranging for each positive
plate to be placed adjacent to two negative plates.

ACTION OF LEAD ACID CELL

When an external load is connected to the terminals of the cell, the electrical energy is
delivered to the load. During this discharge period, a chemical reaction between the
plate and the electrolyte takes place and a layer of lead sulphate is deposited on the
plates. However this process successively weakens the electrolyte until the cell is
unable to deliver any more electrical energy.

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If a d.c. supply is then connected to the cell terminals, and a current is passed through
it, the lead sulphate is converted back into sulphuric acid and restores the cell back to
its original position. This process is known as charging.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF LEAD ACID CELLS

Provided the lead acid cell is maintained regularly and is cared for, it should last for an
indefinite period of time. A weekly check on its condition is recommended.

GENERAL MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE

1. When preparing an electrolyte add acid to water, never water to acid
2. Ensure that any maintenance or charging is carried out in a well ventilated
room
3. Do not use any naked flame near the cell
4. Cells that are to be taken out of commission for any time should be fully
charged, the electrolyte left in, and a periodic charge be given to keep the cell
healthy until needed again.
5. Never leave a cell in an uncharged state, as a layer of whitish sulphate will be
formed on plates, which will increase the internal resistance and reduce the
capacity of the cell. This process is known as sulphation of the plates.
6. Terminals should be coated with petroleum jelly to prevent corrosion.

ELECTROLYTE LEVEL
The level of the electrolyte should never be allowed to fall below the tops of the plates.
Any loss of electrolyte due to evaporation may be made up by the adding of distilled
water.

TERMINAL VOLTAGE
After a cell is fully charged it voltage should be measured with a high resistance
voltmeter. The reading obtained should not be below 1.85 V. A fully charged cell
should have a voltage of about 2.2 V

PLATE COLOUR
The colour of the plates indicates the state of charge. In a healthy cell or fully charged
cell the positive plate is chocolate brown and the negative plate is slate grey.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE ELECTROLYTE
As a cell discharges, the electrolyte becomes weaker and its specific gravity falls, until
the cell can no longer deliver energy. The state of a cell can therefore be measured by
its specific gravity of the electrolyte. An instrument known as a hydrometer is used to
determine the specific gravity of the electrolyte.
A hydrometer consists of a glass containing a weighted and graduated float. The
syringe has a rubber nozzle for insertion into the electrolyte, and a rubber bulb at the
upper en for sucking the liquid into the syringe.
The nozzle is inserted in the electrolyte and a sample is drawn up into the syringe by
squeezing the rubber bulb. The level of the liquid in relation to the position of the float
gives a direct reading of the specific gravity of the electrolyte. The higher the float the
higher the specific gravity; the lower the float the lower the specific gravity.

APPLICATION OF LEAD ACID CELL

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The most common use for a lead acid cell is in car batteries. Other applications
include standby supplies, alarm and control circuits. The electrolyte of a lead acid cell
has a negative temperature coefficient and hence a drop in temperature causes a rise
in its resistance, so less current will be delivered. Thus the cause for starting problems
with vehicles in very cold weather.

THE NICKEL ALKALINE CELLS

There are two types of nickel alkaline cells, the nickel – iron and the nickel cadmium.

THE NICKEL IRON CELL

Here the positive plate is made of nickel hydroxide and the negative plate of iron
oxide and the electrolyte is potassium hydroxide.

THE NICKEL CADMIUM CELL

In this cell both the positive plate (nickel hydroxide) and the electrolyte (potassium
hydroxide) are the same as for the nickel-iron cell, however the negative plate is
cadmium mixed with a small amount of iron.

The active chemicals in the plates are enclosed in thin nickel steel grids insulated from
one another by ebonite rods. The whole assembly is housed in a welded steel
container.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF NICKEL – ALKALINE CELL

Unlike the alkaline cells the nickel iron cell needs minimal attention.
The open type only needs periodic topping up to compensate for the electrolyte lost by
evaporation. The totally enclosed type needs no maintenance.

APPLICATION
It has limited use owing to its cost and is mainly used in situations where a robust
construction is needed, that is marine work.

CAPACITY OF A CELL
The capacity of a cell given in ampere hours (Ah), that is the rating of a cell gives
how much current can be delivered in a period of time (hours). If a cell delivers, say,
10 A for a period of 10 h, it is said to have a capacity of 100 ampere hours (Ah) at the
10 h rate; taking any more current than 10 A will discharge the cell in less than 10 h.
EFFICIENCY OF A CELL
The efficiency of any system is the ratio of the output to the input. The efficiency of a
cell is given in two forms; ampere hour efficiency or quantity efficiency and watt
hour efficiency or energy efficiency.

Ampere hour efficiency is the ratio of the ampere hours on discharge to the ampere
hours on charge expressed as a percentage..

The ampere hour efficiency, ηAh = discharge ampere x time x 100

charging amperes x time

= Id x td x 100
Ic x tc

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Watt hour efficiency is the ratio of the watt hours on discharge to the watt hours on
charge expressed as a percentage.

The watt hour efficiency, ηWh = discharge VA x time x 100

charging VA x time

= Vd x Id x td x 100
Vc x I c x t c

EXAMPLE 4
A battery has taken a charging current of 5.2 A for 24 hours at a voltage of 2.25 V,
while discharging it gave a current of 4.5 A for 24 hours at an average voltage of 1.85
V. Calculate the quantity efficiency and the energy efficiency of the battery.

SOLUTION
Data
Ic = 5.2 A
tc = 24 hrs
Vc = 2.25 V
Id = 4.5 A
td = 24 hrs
Vd = 1.85 V

The quantity efficiency, ηAh = discharge ampere x time x 100

charging amperes x time

= Id x td x 100
Ic x tc

= 4.5 x 24 x 100
5.2 x 24

= 86.54 %

The energy efficiency, ηWh = discharge VA x time x 100

charging VA x time

= Vd x Id x td x 100
Vc x I c x t c

= 1.85 x 4.5 x 24 x 100

2.25 x 5.2 x 24

= 71.15 %

EXAMPLE 5
Thirty five lead acid cells each of discharge capacity 120 Ah at 12 hours rate are to be
fully charged at a constant current for 10 hours. The d.c supply is 125 V, the ampere
hour efficiency is 80% and the e.m.f. of each cell at start and at the end of the charge
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is 1.9 V and 2.6 V respectively. Calculate the maximum and minimum values of
external resistance necessary. Neglect internal resistance of the cell.

SOLUTION
Data
Discharge capacity = 120 Ah
td = 12 hrs
tc = 10 hrs
Vc = 125 V
ηAh = 80%
Ampere hour input per cell = discharge per cell = 120 = 150 Ah
ηAh 0.8

Charging current, Ic = input in Ah = 150 = 15 A

tc 10
Combined emf of 35 cells connected in series at the start of charge,

Eb1 = 35 x 1.9 = 66.5 V

Combined emf of 35 cells connected in series at the end of charge,

Eb1 = 35 x 2.6 = 91 V

The resistance necessary to be added in the circuit to maintain charging current

constant at 15 A will be maximum at the start of charge when back emf will be
minimum and will be given by the expression

Rmax = V1 – Eb1 = 125 – 66.5 = 3.9 Ω

Ic 15

The resistance necessary to be added in the circuit to maintain charging current

constant at 15 A will be minimum at the end of the charge when back emf will be
maximum and will be given by

Rmin = V1 – Eb2 = 125 – 91 = 2.267 Ω

Ic 15

EXAMPLE 6
A discharged battery is put to charge at 5 A for 3.5 hours at a mean charging voltage
of 13.5 V. It is then discharged in 6 hours in 6 hours at a constant voltage of 12 V
through a resistance of R ohms. Determine
1. The value of R for an ampere hour of 85 %
2. Watt hour efficiency of the battery.

SOLUTION
Data
Ic = 5 A

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tc = 3.5 hrs
Vc = 13.5 V
td = 6 hrs
Vd = 12 V
ηAh = 85 % = 0.85
ηAh = Id x td x 100
Ic x tc

Discharging current, Id = Ic x tc x ηAh = 5 x 3.5 x 0.85 = 2.48 A

td 6
Discharging resistance, R = Vd = 12 = 4.84 Ω
Id 2.48

Watt hour efficiency, ηWh = ηAh x Vd = 85 x 12 = 75.55 %

Vc 13.5

COMPARISON OF CELL CHARACTERISTIC

Lead- Acid Alkaline

SG charged 1.28 1.2
SG discharged 1.18 1.2
P.d. charge 2.1 V 1.3
P.d. discharge 1.85 V 1.0

Ampere hour capacity

The ampere hour obtained from the alkaline cell is higher is than that of the lead acid
cell. This is because the SG of the electrolyte does not change during discharge.

Advantages Disadvantages
Lead acid cell Inexpensive Fragile
High discharge voltage Self discharges when not in use
Uses plentiful material Requires regular maintenance
Alkaline cell Very robust Very expensive
Retains its charge when not in use Low discharge voltage
Needs little or no maintenance

BATTERY CHARGING
Cells and batteries are charged y connecting them to a controlled d.c. source. This
source may be obtained in several ways:
1. Rectified a.c.
2. Motor generator set
3. Rotary converter
4. D.c. mains supply
The most commonly used method is rectified a.c. and ther are two ways in which this
system is used
1. The constant voltage method
2. The constant current method
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Constant voltage charging

In this method the d.c. charging voltage is kept constant at a value just above that of
the final value of the battery e.m.f. the charging current is initially high, decreases as
the e.m.f. of the battery approaches that of the supply.

Constant - current charging

In constant current charging the charging current is kept constant by varying the d.c.
voltage as the battery e.m.f. increases.

The most popular method, for everyday use, is the constant voltage method.

Cell, batteries and their associated charging equipment are frequently used in
installation work such as indicators and call systems in hospitals and hotels, fire alarm
and burglar alarm systems, and emergency lighting installations.

OTHER METHODS OF BATTERY CHARGING

Other methods of battery charging include trickle charging, boost charging, float
charging
Trickle charging: this is the charging of a battery/cell using a very small current so as
to keep the battery in a good working condition. This method of charging is used to
keep batteries used in standby supplies in a good working condition (when they are
not in use).
Boost charging: this is the method that is used to charge batteries at a high rate
using about twice the normal charging current.

Float charging: this is the kind of charging employed in auto mobiles (vehicles)

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MAGNETISM
Magnetism deals with the study of magnets their effects, properties, construction and
application.
A magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic substance which has the property of attracting
ferrous substances (iron, nickel and cobalt) and when freely suspended points in the
north south direction.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETS
Magnets can be divided into two groups these being
 Natural magnets
 Artificial magnets

Natural magnets: These are magnets that occur naturally in nature and where first
discovered in a province Magnetia a province of Asia.

Artificial magnets: These are magnets made by man and are of two types these
being Permanent magnets and temporary magnets.
 Permanent magnets are magnets that retain their magnetism even after the
magnetising force is removed i.e. they remain magnets. Materials used to make

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permanent magnets are cobalt, steel and tungsten steel. Permanent magnets
are used in moving coil instruments, energy meters (used for braking), loud
speakers, microphones e.t.c.
 Temporary magnets are magnets that retain their magnetism for short periods
of time i.e. once the magnetising force is removed they cease to be magnets
e.g. soft iron and silicon steel. Temporary magnets are known as
electromagnets and are employed in electric bells, electric fans, transformers,
motors and generators e.t.c.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

Materials that are affected by magnets can be classified into three groups these being
 Ferromagnetic substances
 Paramagnetic substances
 Diamagnetic substances

Ferromagnetic substances: These are substances that are strongly attracted by a

magnet e.g. iron, nickle, cobalt, steel and their alloys.

Paramagnetic substances: These are substances that are slightly attracted by a

magnet of common strength e.g. aluminium, manganese, platinum, copper e.t.c.
Diamagnetic substances: These are substances that are slightly repelled by a strong
magnet e.g. bismuth, sulphur, graphite, graphite, glass, paper, wood e.t.c. with wood
being the strongest diamagnetic substance.

MOLECULAR THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The molecular theory of magnetism states that each molecule in a magnet is itself a
magnet. When the molecules in a magnetic substance are arranged in an orderly
manner then the substance becomes a magnet.

METHODS OF MAGNETISING SUBSTANCES

The following are some of the methods that are used to make magnets
 Using the stroke touch method (single touch, double touch, and divided touch)
 Using an electric current
 Using the induction method

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS

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i) Attractive property – a magnetic attracts magnetic substances and it greatest

power of attraction is at the poles.
ii) Directive property – when a magnet is freely suspended it points in the north –
south direction
iii) Induction property – a magnet induces magnetism in a nearby magnetic
substance.
iv) Pole existing property – a single pole can not exist in a magnet even if it is
broken down into molecules.
v) Property of strength – The N and S poles have equal pole strengths.
vi) Saturation property – If a magnet is continued to be magnetised increasing the
magnetising force each time it will reach a point a saturation where increasing
the magnetising force wont increase the strength of the magnet.
vii) Property of attraction and repulsion – Unlike poles attract each other and like
poles repel each other.

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

i) Magnetic field lines move from north to south outside a magnet and from south
to north inside a magnet
ii) Magnetic field lines always complete their magnetic circuits
iii) Magnetic field lines do not cross each other.
iv) Magnetic field lined have a repulsive force between them hence they do not
cross
v) Magnetic lines of force prefer to complete their circuits through magnetic
substances
vi) Magnetic lines of force magnetise magnetic substances in their path
vii) There in no known insulator for magnetic lines of force.
viii) Magnetic field lines behave as elastic bands

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF PERMANENT MAGNETS

i) Do not throw them
ii) They should not be hammered
iii) They should not be heated
iv) Bar magnets should be stored in keepers
v) Bar magnets should not be placed side by side with their ends facing opposite
polarity.
vi) The poles N and S should be kept in the direction of S and N of the earth.

DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC TERMS

Magnetic field: This is the space around a magnet where there are magnetic field
lines

Magnetic flux: These are lines of force that are found in a magnetic field. Magnetic
flux is measured in webers (Wb)

Magnetomotive force, mmf: This is the force that drives magnetic flux through a
magnetic circuit. Magnetomotive force is measured in ampere turns (AT) or amperes
and is given by

Magnetomotive force, mmf = flux, Φ x reluctance, S

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mmf = ΦS

Note: the expression above is the equivalent of ohms law in a magnetic circuit where
mmf = V, Φ = I, S = R

Magnetomotive force mmf = Current, I x Number of turns, N

mmf = IN = HL

Reluctance, S: This is the opposition that a magnetic circuit offers to the build up of
magnetic flux in it. Reluctance is measured in ampere turns per weber (AT/wb).
Reluctance is also known as magnetic resistance.

Reluctance, S = NI = HL = L = L .
Φ BA (B/H) A μ0μrA

Permeance: This is the reciprocal of reluctance and is the property that helps the
easy build up of magnetic flux. Permeance is similar to conductance in an electric
circuit. Permeance is measured in Wb/ampere turns GeHenry and is given by 1/S.

Permeability, μ: this is the easiness with which magnetic flux is able to pass through
a material or it is the conducting power for the lines of force that materials have
compared with air. It can also be defined as the ratio of flux density to the magnetising
force. The harder a substance the less its permeability.

Permeability μ = flux density, B .

Magnetising force, H

Absolute permeability, μ = μ0 μr = B (μ = μ0μr)

H

The permeability of air (free space), μ0 or any non magnetic medium is a constant
which is equal to 4π x 10-7 H/m. This constant is known as the magnetic space
constant.
The relative permeability μr of a vacuum is 1

Where μ0 is the permeability of free space, (4π x 10-7 H/m).

μr is the relative permeability
μ is the absolute permeability

Flux density, B: This is the quantity of magnetic flux lines per square metre of a
magnetic core. Flux density is measured in tesla or webers per metre square (wb/m 2).

Flux density B = Total flux, Φ .

Area of the core, A

Flux density is also equal to B = μ H = μ0 μr H = μ0μr IN

L

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Magnetic field strength, H: This is the quantity of mmf per metre length of a
magnetic circuit. Magnetic field strength is measured in ampere turn per metre (AT/m).

Magnetic field strength, H = magnetomotive force, mmf

Length of coil in metres

= IN (ampere turns)
length in m

= IN
L

Magnetic fringing: This is the outward expansion of magnetic flux as it passes

through the air gap from one pole to another (N to S).

Magnetic screening: This is the space which is void of magnetic field lines due to an
iron ring placed between the poles where magnetic field lines pass. The space which
does not have magnetic flux is said to be magnetically screen and this is what is used
to protect instrument or devices from the magnetic effect.

Magnetic saturation: This is when all the molecules in a magnetic substance are
aligned in the magnetic position such that further magnetisation does not increase the
magnetism in the core i.e. a magnet is said to be saturated when it can not be further
magnetised.

EXAMPLE 1
A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section having dimensions 200 mm by 100
mm. If the total flux emerging from the pole is 150µWb, calculate the flux density.

SOLUTION
Data
Φ = 150 µWb
A = 200 x 100 = 20 000 mm2 = 20 000 x 10-6 m2

Flux density B = Total flux, Φ . = 150 x 10-6

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Area of the core, A 20 000 x 10-6

= 0.0075 T or 7.5 mT

EXAMPLE 2
The maximum working flux density of a lifting electromagnet is 1.8 T and the effective
area of a pole face is circular in cross section. If the total magnetic flux produced is
353 mWb, determine the radius of the pole face.

SOLUTION
Data
B = 1.8 T
Φ = 353 mWb

Since B = Φ, cross sectional area A = Φ = 353 x 10-3 m2

A B 1.8

= 0.1961 m2

The pole face is circular, hence area , where r is the radius

r2 = 0.1961 and radius r = √ (0.1961/3.142) = 0.250 m

π
i.e. the radius of the pole face is 250 mm

EXAMPLE 3
A flux density of 1.2 T is produced in a piece of cast steel by a magnetising force of
1250 A/m. Find the relative permeability of the steel under these conditions.

SOLUTION
Data
B = 1.2 T
H = 1250 A/m

For a magnetic material: B = μ0 μr H

μr = B . = 1.2 = 764
μ0 H 4π x 10-7 (1250)

EXAMPLE 4
Determine the magnetic filed strength and the mmf required to produce a flux density
of 0.25 T in an air gap of length 12 mm.

SOLUTION
Data
B = 0.25 T
L = 12 mm

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For air: B = μ0 H (since μr = 1)

Magnetic field strength H = B = 0.25 = 198 940 A/m

μ0 4π x 10-7

mmf = HL = 198 940 x 12 x 10-3 = 2387 A

EXAMPLE 5
Determine the reluctance of a piece of mumetal of length 150 mm and cross sectional
area 1800 mm2 when the relative permeability is 4000. Find the relative permeability of
the mumetal.

SOLUTION
Data
L = 150 mm
A = 1800 mm2
μ0 = 4π x 10-7
μr = 200

Reluctance S = L .= 150 x 10-3 .

-7 -6
μ0μrA (4π x 10 )(4000)(1800 x 10 )

= 16 580 /H

Absolute permeability, μ = μ0 μr = (4π x 10-7)(4000)

= 5.027 x 10-3 H/m

EXAMPLE 6
A coil of 30 turns is wound uniformly on a ring of non-magnetic material. The ring has
a mean circumference of 40 cm and a uniform cross sectional area of 4 cm2. If the
current in the coil is 5 A, calculate
a) The magnetic field strength
b) The flux density
c) The total magnetic flux in the ring

SOLUTION
Data
N = 30
L = 40cm (40 x 10-2)
A = 4 cm2 (4 x 10-4)
I=5A

a) Magnetic field strength H = NI = 300 x 5 = 3750 A/m.

L 40 x 10-2

b) For a non-magnetic material μr = 1, thus the flux density B = μ0 H

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B = 4π x 10-7 x 3750 = 4.712 mT

c) Flux Φ = BA = (4.712 x 10-3)(4 x 10-4) = 1.885 µWb

EXAMPLE 7
A mild steel ring has a radius of 50 mm and a cross sectional area of 400 mm2. A
current of 0.5 A flows in a coil wound uniformly around the ring and the flux produced
is 0.1 mWb. If the relative permeability at this value of current is 200. Find
a) The reluctance of the mild steel
b) The turns on the coil

SOLUTION
Data
r = 50 mm (50 x 10-3m)
A = 400 mm (400 x 10-6 m2)
I = 0.5 A
Φ = 0.1 x 10-3 Wb
µr = 200
L = 2πr = 2π x 50 x 10-3
2π x 50 x 10-3

a) Reluctance S = L . = 2π x 50 x 10-3 .
-7
μ0μrA (4π x 10 )(200)(4000)

= 3.125 x 106/H

b) S = mmf i.e. mmf = ΦS

Φ
So that NI = SΦ

Hence N = SΦ = 3.125 x 106 x 0.1 x 10-3 = 625 turns

I 0.5

DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CURRENT

CARRYING CONDUCTOR
Whenever a conductor is carrying current there is a magnetic field that is formed
around it whose direction can be determined by the following two rules.
 Cork screw rule
 Right hand thumb rule

When two current carrying conductors in the same directions are brought together
there is a force of attraction between them.
When two current carrying conductors in different directions are brought together there
is a force of repulsion between them.

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When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a

mechanical force which is given by

F = BLI Sin θ

EXAMPLE 8
A conductor carries a current of 20 A and is at right angles to a magnetic field having a
flux density of 0.9 T. If the length of the conductor in the field is 30 cm, calculate the
force acting on the conductor. Determine also the value of the force if the conductor is
inclined at an angle of 30o to the direction of the field.

SOLUTION
Data
B = 0.9 T
I = 20 A
L = 30 cm (0.30 m)

a) In the first instance the conductor is at 90o to the flux

F = BLI Sin θ = (0.9)(20)(0.30)(sin 90o) = 5.4 N

b) When the conductor is inclined at 30o to the field

F = BLI Sin θ = (0.9)(20)(0.30) Sin 30o = 2.7 N

DETERMINING THE POLARITY OF A SOLENOID

Whenever a solenoid is connected to a of supply or when a current flows through it a
magnetic field is formed around it whose polarity can be determined by
 Clock rule
 End rule
 Right hand grip rule

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction is the tendency where a current is caused to flow in a
conductor due to an emf that is induced in it as it is moved in a magnetic field.

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Faraday’s first law states that an emf is induced in a conductor whenever the
conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetic field OR an emf is induced in a conductor
whenever the flux linking the conductor changes.
Faraday’s second law states that the magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to
the rate of change in flux linking the circuit.

Emf can be induced in two main ways in a conductor these being

 Statically induced emf; this is the emf that is induced in a coil that is stationary
while the flux linking the coil is changing or the magnetic flux cuts the stationary
coil. The flux cuts the conductors

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 Dynamically induced emf; this is the emf that is induced in a conductor when
a conductor cuts stationary flux. i.e. the conductor is moving while the flux is
stationary (Not changing). The conductor cuts the flux

LENZ’S LAW
Lenz’s law states that the induced emf opposes that which causes it OR the
magnitude of the induced emf is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing
the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that emf.

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE (GENERATOR RULE)

Fleming’s right hand rule states that when the thumb, the first finger and second finger
of the right hand are placed at 90o to each other the thumb represents motion of the
conductor, the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the second
finger points in the direction of the induced emf.

First finger – Field

ThuMb – Motion
SEcond finger – E.m.f.

The emf induced in the conductor is given by E = Blv

Where B is the flux density, l is the length of the conductor in meters and v is the
velocity of the conductor in meters per second.

If the conductor moves at an angle θ to the magnetic field instead of 90o then the
induced emf is given by
E = Blv Sin θ

EXAMPLE 9
A conductor moves with a velocity of 15m/s at an angle of a) 90o b) 60o and c) 30o to a
magnetic field produced between two square faced poles of side length 2cm. If the flux
leaving a pole face is 5μWb, find the magnitude of the induced emf in each case.

SOLUTION
Data
v = 15m/s
Φ = 5 x 10-6 Wb
θ = 90o, 60o, 30o
l = 2 cm (0.02 m)
A = 0.02 x 0.02 = 4 x 10-4 m2

a) E90 = Blv Sin 90 = θ lv Sin 90 = (5 x 10-6)(0.02)(15)(1)

A (4 x 10-4)

= 3.75 mV

b) E60 = E90 Sin 60 = 3.75 Sin 60 = 3.25 mV

c) E30 = E90 Sin 30 = 3.75 Sin 30 = 1.875 mV

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FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

Fleming’s left hand rule states that when the thumb, first finger and second finger of
the left hand are placed at 90o to each other, the thumb represents motion, the first
finger represents the direction of flux or field and the second finger represents
direction of current.

INDUCTANCE
Inductance is the property that a circuit has that enables an emf to be induced in it due
to a change in flux produced by a change in current. Inductance is measured in henry,
H. Inductance can be divided into two these being
 Self inductance
 Mutual inductance

Self inductance, L; this is when an emf is induced in the same coil due to the change
in flux linking the same coil.

Mutual inductance, M: this is when an emf is induced in a second coil due to the
change in flux in the first coil i.e. flux from coil A links coil B and induces an emf in B.
Emf induced in B is known as mutually induced emf e.g. in transformers coil A being
the primary winding and coil B being the secondary winding.

Induced emf in a coil of N turns is given by

E = - N Change in flux, dΦ = - N dΦ
Change in time, dt dt

The negative (minus) sign reminds us of its direction (Lenz’s law).

EXAMPLE 10
Determine the emf induced in a coil of 200 turns when there is a change of flux of 25
mWb linking with it in 50 ms.

SOLUTION
Data
N = 200
Φ = 25 x 10-3
t = 50 x 10-3

E = - N Change in flux, dΦ = - N dΦ = - 200 x 25 x 10-3

Change in time, dt dt 50 x 10 -3

= - 100 V

EXAMPLE 11
A flux of 400 μWb passing through a 150 turn coil is reversed in 40 ms. Find the
average emf induced.

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SOLUTION
Data
N = 150
Φ = 400 x 10-6
t = 40 x 10-3

Since the flux reverses, the flux changes from +400 μWb to - 400 μWb, a total change
in flux of 800 μWb

E = - N Change in flux, dΦ = - N dΦ = - 150 (800 x 10-6)

Change in time, dt dt 40 x 10 -3

=-3V

Induced emf in a coil of inductance L henrys is given by

E = - L change in current, dI = - L dI
Change in time, dt dt

EXAMPLE 12
Calculate the emf induced in a coil of inductance 12 H by a current changing at the
rate of 4 A/s

SOLUTION
Data
L = 12 H
dI/dt = 4 A/s

E = - L change in current, dI = -L dI = - 12 x 4 = - 48 V
Change in time, dt dt

EXAMPLE 13
An emf of 1.5 KV is induced in a coil when a current of 4 A collapses uniformly to zero
in 8 ms. Determine the inductance of the coil.

SOLUTION
Data
E = 1.5 KV
I=4A
t = 8 x 10-3

E = - L change in current, dI = -L dI = - L (4 – 0)
Change in time, dt dt 8 x 10-3

1500 = - L x 4
8 x 10-3

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Therefore, L = 1500
500

=3H

The inductance of a coil is given by L = NΦ

I

EXAMPLE 14
Calculate the inductance of the coil when a current of 4 A in a coil of 800 turns
produces a flux of 5 mWb linking with the coil.

SOLUTION
Data
N = 800
Φ = 5 x 10-3
I=4A

The inductance of a coil is given by L = NΦ = 800 x (5 x 10-3) = 1 H

I 4

Inductance in a circuit is produced by coil of a wire known as an inductor. When a

current flows through an inductor a magnetic field is formed around it which stores
some energy. The energy stored in the magnetic field of al inductor is given by

Energy stored in an inductor, W = ½ LI2 Joules

EXAMPLE 15
A flux of 25 mWb links with a 1500 turn coil when a current of 3 A passes through the
coil. Calculate the
a) The inductance of the coil
b) The energy stored in the magnetic field
c) The average emf induced if the current falls to zero in 150 ms.

SOLUTION
Data
N = 1500
Φ = 25 x 10-3
I=3A
t = 150 x 10-3

a) Inductance, L = NΦ = 1500 x (25 x 10-3) = 12.5 H

I 3

b) Energy stored, W = ½ LI2 Joules

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= ½ (12.5)(3)2

= 56.25 J

c) Induced emf, E = - L dI = - (12.5)(3 – 0)

dt 150 x 10-3

= - 250 V

Mutually induced emf in the second coil is given by,

E2 = - M change in current, dI
Change in time, dt

EXAMPLE 16
Calculate the mutual inductance between two coils when a current changing at 200A/s
in one coil induces an emf of 1.5 V in the other coil.

SOLUTION
Data
dI/dt = 200 A/s
E = 1.5 V

Mutually induced emf, E2 = - M change in current, dI

Change in time, dt

1.5 = - M (200)

Thus mutual inductance, M = 1.5 = 0.0075 or 7.5 mH

200

COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC QUANTITIES

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

e.m.f. E (V) mmf Fm (A)

Current I (A) Flux Φ (Wb)

Resistance R (Ω) Reluctance S (/H)

I=E Φ = mmf
R S
R = pL S= L .
A μ0μrA

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A.C THEORY
Alternating current is a current that changes periodically in magnitude and direction.

PRODUCTION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

An alternating current is produced whenever a coil (rotor) is rotated in a magnetic field
or when the magnetic field cuts a coil (rotor) an emf is induced in the coil in
accordance with faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction. The emf induced in
the coil is alternating or sinusoidal in shape.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Waveform: A waveform is a complete cycle or oscillation of an alternating quantity or
it is a complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity.
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Frequency: This is the number of cycles completed in a second, it is measured in

cycles per second or Hertz.

Cycle: This is a complete oscillation or a complete set of positive and negative

alternations in a waveform.

Alternation: This is a complete set of positive or negative values of an alternating

quantity.
Periodic time: This is the time taken to complete one cycle.

Periodic time, T = 1/ frequency

Instantaneous value: These are values of alternating current at any particular instant.
Instantaneous values are represented by small letters, i, v, e etc.
Maximum value: This is the maximum displacement or highest value of an alternating
quantity and usually occurs half way through a cycle. Maximum value is also known as
peak value or crest value or amplitude.
Peak to peak value: This is the difference between maximum and minimum values in
a cycle.

Root means square value or effective value: Rms value is the value of alternating
current that causes the same heating effect as an equivalent direct current in the
same time and length of a conductor.

Rms value = 0.707 x maximum value or 1/√2 x maximum value.

Whenever an alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be an rms value e.g. the

domestic mains supply in Zambia is 230 – 240V and is assumed to be 230 – 240 V
rms. Whenever alternating quantities are measured the quantities indicated are rms
value.

Average or mean value: This is the average value of an alternating quantity

measured over half a cycle. (Since over a complete cycle the average value is zero).
The average value is the value of alternating current that transfers the same amount
of charge as that transferred by direct current in the same amount of time and
conductor.

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Average value = 0.637 x maximum value = 2/π x maximum value

Peak Factor: This is the ratio of the maximum value to the rms value

Peak factor = Maximum value = Maximum value = 1 =1.41

Rms value 0.707 x maximum value 0.707

Form factor: This is the ratio of the rms value to the average value.

Form Factor = rms Value = 0.707 x maximum value = 0.707 = 1.11

Average value 0.637 x maximum value 0.637

THE EQUATION OF A SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM

In the figure shown below OA represents a vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise
about 0 at an angular velocity of ω rads/s. A rotating vector is known as a phasor.
After time t seconds the vector OA has turned through an angle ωt. If the line BC is
constructed perpendicular to OA as shown below, then

Sin ωt = BC i.e. BC = OB Sin ωt

OB
Note; OB is equal to the maximum value of an alternating quantity
BC is the instantaneous value
θ = ωt is the angle in radians
Omega (ω) is the angular velocity in rads/s (ω = 2πf)

Thus the equation of a sinusoidal waveform is given by

Instantaneous current i = Imax Sin θ = Imax Sin ωt = Imax Sin 2πft

Instantaneous voltage, v = Vmax Sin θ = Vmax Sin ωt = Vmax Sin 2πft

The general sinusoidal voltage can be given by v = Vmax (Sin ωt ± Φ)

From the general sinusoidal voltage equation the following can be determined

i) Amplitude or peak value (maximum value) = Vmax

ii) Peak to peak value = 2Vmax
iii) Angular velocity = ω rads/s

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iv) Periodic time, T = 2π/ ω seconds

v) Frequency, f = ω/2π Hz ( Since = 2πf )
vi) Φ = angle of lag or lead (compared with v = Vmax Sin ωt)

EXAMPLE 1
An alternating voltage is given by v = 282.8 sin 314t volts. Find
a) the rms voltage
b) the frequency
c) the instantaneous value of voltage when t = 4ms.

SOLUTION
a) From the equation above the peak voltage is 282.8 V

Rms voltage = 0.707 x maximum value of voltage

= 0.707 x 282.8
= 200 V

b) From the equation angular velocity, ω = 314 rads/s i.e. 2πf = 314

Hence frequency, f = 314 = 50 Hz

2π

c) When t = 4ms, v = 282.8 sin (314 x 4 x 10-3)

v = 282.8 sin (1.256)
v = 268.9 V

EXAMPLE 2
An alternating voltage is given by v = 75 sin (200πt – 0.25) volts. Find
a) the Amplitude
b) the peak to peak value
c) the rms value
d) the periodic time
e) the frequency
f) the phase angle in relation to 75 sin 200πt

SOLUTION
a) Amplitude or peak value = 75V

b) Peak to peak value = 2 x 75 = 150V

c) The rms value = 0.707 x maximum value = 0.707 x 75 = 53V

d) Angular velocity, ω = 200π rads/s

Hence periodic time, T = 2π = 2π = 1 = 0.01s or 10ms.

ω 200π 100

e) Frequency, f = 1 = 1 = 100 Hz
T 0.01
f) Phase angle Φ = 0.25 radians lagging 75 sin 200πt
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0.25 rads = (0.25 x 180/π) o = 14.32o = 14o19’

Hence the phase angle is 14o19’ lagging.

PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

This is a circuit that contains resistance only. In this circuit current and voltage are in
phase, the power factor is unity (1).

The current in the circuit is given by IR = Voltage across resistor

Resistance of resistor

Power in a purely resistive circuit is given by, P =VICos θ = VI since Cos θ = 1

PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

A Purely inductive circuit is a circuit that contains inductance only. In a purely inductive
circuit current, IL lags the voltage, VL by 90o (i.e. by π/2) or voltage leads the current by
90o.

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Current in a purely inductive circuit, IL = Voltage across inductor, VL

Inductive reactance, XL

Inductive reactance, XL is the opposition that an inductor offers to the flow of

alternating current in an a.c circuit and is measured in ohms. Inductive reactance is
given by

XL = VL = 2πfL Ω where f is the frequency in hertz and L is inductance in henry.

IL

Power in a purely inductive circuit is zero i.e. P = VICos θ Where Cos θ = 0

PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

This is a circuit that contains capacitance only. In a purely capacitive circuit current
leads the voltage by 90o or the voltage lags the current by 90o.

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Current in a purely capacitive circuit, IC = Voltage across capacitor, VC

Capacitive reactance, XC

Capacitive reactance, XC is the opposition that a capacitor offers to the flow of

alternating current in an a.c circuit and is measured in ohms. Capacitive reactance is
given by

XC = VC = 1 . Ω where f is the frequency in hertz and C is capacitance in

IC 2πfC Farads
.
Power in a purely capacitive circuit is zero i.e. P = VICos θ Where Cos θ = 0

SERIES RL CIRCUIT
This is a circuit that contains resistance and inductance in series.

In a series RL circuit the following should be noted,

Current through the resistors, IR = Voltage across resistor, VR

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Resistance, R

Current through the inductor, IL = Voltage across inductor, VL

Inductive reactance, XL

Supply current is given by, I = Supply Voltage, V

Impedance, Z

Circuit Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + XL2)

Supply voltage, V = √ (VR2 + VL2)

Power factor, Cos θ = Resistance, R

Impedance, Z

The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 XL = Sin -1 XL = Cos -1 R

R Z Z
EXAMPLE 3
A coil has a resistance of 4 Ω and an inductance of 9.55 mH. Calculate
a) the reactance
b) the impedance
c) the current taken from a 240V, 50Hz supply.
d) the phase angle between the supply voltage and current.

SOLUTION
Data
R=4Ω
L = 9.55 mH
F = 50Hz
V = 240V

a) Inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(9.55 x 10-3) = 3 Ω

b) Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + XL2) = √ (42 – 32) = 5 Ω

c) Current, I = V = 240 = 48 A
Z 5
d) The phase angle tan θ = XL
R
θ = tan-1 XL = 3/4 = 36.87o lagging.
R

EXAMPLE 4
A coil takes a current of 2A from a 12V d.c supply. When connected to a 240V, 50Hz
supply the current is 20A. Calculate
a) the resistance
b) the impedance
c) inductive reactance
d) inductance of the coil

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SOLUTION
Data
IDC = 2A
VDC = 12V
IAC = 20A
VAC = 240V
f = 50Hz

a) Resistance, R = d.c voltage = 12 = 6 Ω

d.c current 6

b) Impedance, Z = a.c voltage = 240 = 12 Ω

a.c current 20

c) Since Z = √ (R2 + XL2), inductive reactance, XL = √(Z2 – R2)

= √(122 – 62)

= 10.39 Ω

d) Since, XL = 2πfL, inductance, L = XL = 10.39 = 33.1 mH

2πf 2π x 50

This problem indicates a simple way for finding the inductance of a coil i.e. firstly
measure the current when the coil is connected to a d.c supply of known voltage, and
then repeat the process with an a.c supply.

SERIES RC CIRCUIT
This is a circuit containing resistance and capacitance in series.

In a series RC circuit the following should be noted

Current through the resistors, IR = Voltage across resistor, VR

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Resistance, R

Current through the capacitor, Ic = Voltage across capacitor, Vc

capacitive reactance, Xc

Supply current is given by, I = Supply Voltage, V

Impedance, Z

Circuit Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + Xc2)

Supply voltage, V = √ (VR2 + Vc2)

Power factor, Cos θ = Resistance, R

Impedance, Z

The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 XC = Sin -1 XC = Cos -1 R

R Z Z

EXAMPLE 5
A resistor of 25Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 45μF. Calculate
a) the impedance
b) the current taken from a 240V, 50Hz supply
c) the phase angle between the supply voltage and current,

SOLUTION
Data
R = 25Ω
C = 45μF
V = 240V
F = 50Hz

Capacitive reactance, Xc = 1/2πfC = 1/2π(50)(45 x 10-6) = 70.74 Ω

a) Circuit Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + Xc2) = √ ( 252 x 70.742) = 75.03 Ω

b) Current, I = V = 240 = 3.20 A

Z 75.03

c) Phase angle, θ = tan-1 XC = 70.74 = 70.54o = 70o32’ leading

R 25

EXAMPLE 6
A Capacitor C is connected in series with a 40 Ω resistor across a supply of frequency
60 Hz. A current of 3 A flows and the circuit impedance is 50 Ω. Calculate
a) the value of the capacitance
b) the supply voltage
c) the phase angle between supply voltage and current
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d) the p.d. across the resistor

e) the p.d. across the capacitor.
f) draw the phasor diagram.

SOLUTION
Data
R = 40 Ω
F = 60 Hz
I=3A
Z = 50 Ω

a) Impedance, Z = √ (R2 + Xc2)

Hence, Xc = √ (Z2 - R2) =√ (502 - 40c2) = 30 Ω

XC = 1 hence, C = 1 = 1 F
2πfC 2πfXC 2π(60)(30)

= 88.42 μF

b) Since Z = V then V = IZ = (3)(50) = 150 V

I

c) Phase angle, θ = tan-1 XC = 30 = 36.87o = 36o52’ leading

R 40

d) p.d. across resistor VR = IR = 3 x 40 = 120 V

e) p.d. across capacitor, Vc = IXC = 3 x 30 = 90 V

f) the phasor diagram is as below

SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

This is a circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance connected in
series.

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In a series RLC circuit the following is true

Current through the resistors, IR = Voltage across resistor, VR

Resistance, R
Current through the inductor, IL = Voltage across inductor, VL
Inductive reactance, XL

Current through the capacitor, Ic = Voltage across capacitor, Vc

Capacitive reactance, Xc

Supply current is given by, I = Supply Voltage, V

Impedance, Z

Circuit Impedance, Z = √ [R2 + (XL - Xc)2]

Supply voltage, V = √ [VR2 + (VL - Vc)2]

Power factor, Cos θ = Resistance, R

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Impedance, Z

EXAMPLE 7
A coil of resistance 5 Ω and inductance 120 mH in series with a 100 μF capacitor is
connected to a 300V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate
a) the current flowing
b) the phase difference between supply voltage and current
c) the voltage across the coil
d) the voltage across the capacitor

SOLUTION
Data
The circuit diagram is shown below

XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(120 x 10-3) = 37.70 Ω

XC = 1 = 1 = 31.87 Ω
2πfC 2π(50)(100 x 10-6)
Since XL is greater than XC the circuit is inductive. XL – XC =31.87 – 31.87
= 5.87 Ω
Impedance, Z = √ [R2 + (XL - Xc)2] = √ [52 + (5.87)2] = 7.71 Ω

a) Current, I = V = 300 = 38.91 A

Z 7.71

b) Phase angle, θ = tan-1 XL - XC = tan-1 5.87 = 49.58o

R 5

c) Impedance of coil Zcoil = √ (R2 + XL2) = √ (52 + 37.702)

= 38.03 Ω

Voltage across coil Vcoil = IZcoil = (38.91)(38.03) = 1480 V

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Phase angle of coil, θ = tan-1 XL = tan-1 37.70 = 82.45o lagging.

R 5

d) Voltage across capacitor = VC = IXC = (38.91)(31.83) = 1239 V

SERIES RESONANCE
In a series RLC circuit a circuit is at resonance when capacitive reactance is equal to
inductive reactance (XC – XL). At resonance the following is true
a) Current and voltage are in phase i.e. the power factor is unity
b) Impedance is minimum at resonance (Z = R)
c) Current is maximum at resonance
d) Voltage across the capacitor equals to the voltage across the inductor VC = VL
e) Since XL = Xc, then 2πfL = 1/2πfC the resonant frequency

fr = 1 .
2π√(LC)

PARALLEL RL CIRCUIT
This is a circuit containing resistance and inductance connected in parallel.

From the phasor diagram:

Supply current, I = √(I2R + I2L) , (by Pythagoras theorem)

Current through the resistors, IR = Supply Voltage , V

Resistance, R

Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V

Inductive reactance, XL

Supply current is given by, I = Supply Voltage, V

Impedance, Z

Circuit impedance, Z = Supply voltage, V

Supply current, I

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The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 IL = Sin -1 IL = Cos -1 IR

IR I I

Power factor, Cos θ = IR

I

EXAMPLE 8
A 20 Ω resistor is connected in parallel with an inductance of 2.387 mH across a 60 V,
1 KHz supply. Calculate
a) the current in each branch
b) the supply current
c) the circuit phase angle
d) the circuit impedance
e) the power consumed

SOLUTION
Data
R = 20 Ω
L = 2.387 mH
V = 60 V
F = 1000 Hz

a) Current flowing in the resistor, IR = Supply Voltage , V = 60 = 3 A

Resistance, R 20

Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V = V .

Inductive reactance, XL 2πfL

= 60 .
2π(1000)(2.387 x 10-3)

=4A

b) Supply current, I = √(I2R + I2L)

I = √(32 + 42)

=5A

c) Circuit phase angle, θ = tan-1 IL = 4 = 53.13o = 53o8’ lagging

IR 3

d) Circuit impedance, Z = V = 60 = 12 Ω
I 5

e) Power consumed, P = VICos θ = (60)(5)(Cos 53o8’) = 180 W

Alternatively, P = IR2R = (3)2(20) = 180 W

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PARALLEL RC CIRCUIT
This is a circuit containing resistance and capacitance connected in parallel.

From the phasor diagram:

Supply current, I = √(I2R + I2C) , (by Pythagoras theorem)

Current through the resistors, IR = Supply Voltage , V

Resistance, R

Current through the capacitor, IC = Supply voltage, V

Capacitive reactance, XC

Supply current is given by, I = Supply Voltage, V

Impedance, Z

Circuit impedance, Z = Supply voltage, V

Supply current, I

The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 IC = Sin -1 IC = Cos -1 IR

IR I I

Power factor, Cos θ = IR

I

EXAMPLE 9
A 30μF capacitor is connected in parallel with an 80 Ω resistor across a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate
a) the current in each branch
b) the supply current
c) the circuit phase angle
d) the circuit impedance
e) the power dissipated
f) the apparent power

SOLUTION
Data
C = 30 μF

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R = 80 Ω
V = 240 V
F = 50 Hz

a) Current flowing in the resistor, IR = Supply Voltage , V = 240 = 3 A

Resistance, R 80

Current in capacitor , IC = Supply voltage, V = V .

Capacitive reactance, XC (1/2πfC)

= 2πfCV

= 2π(50)(30 x 10-6)(240)

= 2.262 A

b) Supply current, I = √(I2R + I2C) = √(32 + 2.2622)

= 3.757 A

c) Circuit phase angle θ = tan-1 IC = tan-1 2.262

IR 3

= 37o1’ leading

d) Circuit impedance, Z = V = 240 = 63.88 Ω

I 3.757

e) True or active power developed, P = VICos θ

= 240 x 3.757 x Cos 37o1’

= 720 W
Alternatively, P = IR2R = (3)2(80) = 720 W

f) Apparent power, S = VI = 240 x 3.757 = 901.7 VA

PARALLEL LC CIRCUIT
This is a circuit that contains inductance and capacitance in parallel. In the figure
below IL lags V by 90o and IC leads V by 90o. Theoretically there are three possible
phasor diagrams each dependent on the relative values of IL and IC.

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The following should be noted in an LC circuit

i) When IL > IC ( giving a supply current, I = IL – IC lagging V by 90o)
ii) When IC > IL ( giving a supply current, I = IC – IL leading V by 90o)
iii) When IL = IC ( giving a supply current, I = 0)

Supply current, I = phasor difference between IL and IC

Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V

Inductive reactance, XL

Current through the capacitor, IC = Supply voltage, V

Capacitive reactance, XC

Circuit impedance, Z = Supply voltage, V

Supply current, I

EXAMPLE 10
A pure inductance of 120 mH is connected in parallel with a 25μF capacitor and the
network is connected to a 100 V, 50Hz supply. Determine
a) the branch current
b) the supply current and its phase angle
c) the circuit impedance
d) the power consumed
SOLUTION
Data
L = 120 mH
C = 25μF
V = 100 V
f = 50 Hz

a) inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(120 x 10-3)

= 37.70 Ω

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Capacitive reactance, XC = 1 = 1 = 127.3 Ω

2πfC 2π(50)(25 x 10-6)

Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V = 100 = 2.653 A

Inductive reactance, XL 37.70

Current through the capacitor, IC = Supply voltage, V = 100 = 0.786 A

Capacitive reactance, XC 127.3

b) IL and IC are in anti phase, hence supply current

I = IL - IC = 2.653 – 0.786 = 1.867 A and the current lags the supply voltage by 90o.

c) Circuit impedance, Z = V = 100 = 53.56 Ω

I 1.867

d) Power consumed, P = VICos θ = (100)(1.867)(Cos 90)

=0W

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT

This is a circuit containing resistance, inductance, and capacitance connected in
parallel.

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From the phasor diagram:

Supply current, I = √[I2R + (IL - IC)2] , (by Pythagoras theorem)

Current through the resistors, IR = Supply Voltage , V

Resistance, R

Current through the capacitor, IC = Supply voltage, V

Capacitive reactance, XC

Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V

Inductive reactance, XL

Supply current is given by, I = Supply Voltage, V

Impedance, Z

Circuit impedance, Z = Supply voltage, V

Supply current, I

The angle θ can be found by θ = tan-1 IL - IC = Sin -1 IL - IC = Cos -1 IR

IR I I

Power factor, Cos θ = IR

I
EXAMPLE 11
A resistance of 10 Ω, an inductive reactance of 8 Ω and a capacitive reactance 15 Ω
are each connected in parallel across a 120V, 60 Hz supply.
a) Show the respective currents vectorically

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b) Determine from the vector diagram the total current

c) Determine the power factor of the circuit
SOLUTION
Data
R = 10 Ω
XL = 8 Ω
XC = 15 Ω
V = 120 V
f = 60 Hz.

a) Showing the respective currents vectorically

Current through the resistors, IR = Supply Voltage, V

Resistance, R

= 120
10

= 12 A which is in phase with the voltage

Current through the capacitor, IC = Supply voltage, V

Capacitive reactance, XC

= 120
8

= 15 A which lags behind the voltage by 90o

Current through the inductor, IL = Supply voltage, V

Inductive reactance, XL
= 120
15
= 8 A which leads the supply voltage by 90o

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b) Supply current, I = √[I2R + (IL - IC)2]

= √[102 + (15 - 8)2]

= 12.21 A

c) The power factor, Cos θ = IR = 10 = 0.82 lagging.

I 12.21

PARALLEL RESONANCE
Resonance in parallel occurs when the quadrature component of current ILR is equal to
IC, (ILR Sin θ = IC). At this condition the supply current, I is in phase with the supply
voltage, V. This is in a circuit where capacitance is in parallel with resistance and
inductance in series.

In parallel at resonance current is minimum and resistance is maximum.

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

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Power factor is the cosine of an angle between current and voltage in an a.c circuit. It
can also be defined as the ratio of the active power to the apparent power or the ratio
of resistance to impedance (which is true in a series circuits only)

CAUSES OF A LOWER POWER FACTOR

A lower power factor is caused by
1. Induction motors running at no load or light loads have a low p.f. of about 0.2 – 0.3.
This may rise to 0.8 or 0.9 on full load.
2. Electric discharge lamps, arc lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at a low
lagging power factor.
3 The variation of load on the power system, being high in the morning and evening
and low at other times. During low loads, supply voltage is increased which
increases the magnetising current which results in decreased power factor.

DISADVANTAGES OF A LOWER POWER FACTOR

1. FROM THE SUPPLIERS POINT OF VIEW
a) At a lower power factor the KVA rating of equipment needed is higher,
hence the sizes of machines like transformers, alternators should be
increased in order to deliver the same amount of power thus the
suppliers spends more on the acquisition of larger machines.

Apparent power, KVA = Active power, KW

Power factor, Cos θ

b) More money is spent on the acquisition of larger size of transmission

and distribution cables, since at a lower power factor the current flowing
increases hence the need for larger conductors.

Line current, IL = Power, P

√3VL Cos θ

c) There is an increase in the percentage line drops i.e. the copper losses
and voltage drops increases at a lower power factor.
d) There will be poor voltage regulation i.e. since a higher current flows at a
lower power factor the voltage drops in alternators, transformers,
transmission and distribution lines increases which results in decreased
voltage available at the supply end thus impairing the performance of
utilisation devices.
e) A lower power factor leads to a reduced handling capacity off all the
elements of the supply which is because the reactive component of the
current prevents the full utilisation of the installed capacity.

2. CONSUMERS POINT OF VIEW

a) The consumer pays more on his demand for electrical energy and
especially industrial and other big consumers pay more for their demand
in KVA.
b) Consumers at the end of the supply system receive a reduced voltage
due to poor voltage regulation, caused by voltage drops.

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c) The power efficiency of the supply system due to large copper losses at
a low power factor may subsequently impact negatively on the consumer
as the supply company may not effectively supply power continuously.

METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENTS

Since a lower power factor is undesirable to both the consumer and supplier, the
following methods are employed to improve the power factor;
1. Static capacitors
2. Synchronous condenser
3. phase advancer

STATIC CAPACITORS
When the capacitor is connected in parallel with the load whose power factor is to be
improved it draws a leading current that partly or completely neutralises the reactive
component of the load current thereby improving the power factor. Static capacitors
can be used to improve the power factor of individual loads or overall system.
ADVANTAGES
i) they have low losses
ii) they require little maintenance, as they are no rotating parts
iii) they can be easily installed as they are light requiring no foundation
iv) they can work under ordinary atmospheric

DISADVANTAGES
i) they have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years
ii) they are easily damaged if voltage exceeds the rated value
iii) once the capacitors are damaged their repair is uneconomical.

SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER
A synchronous condenser in an overexcited synchronous motor running at no load.
The motor behaves as a capacitor when connected in parallel with the supply it draws
a leading current that neutralises the lagging reactive component current thereby
improving the power factor. A synchronous condenser can be used to improve the
power factor for individual loads or overall systems.
ADVANTAGES
i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor
can be changed by any amount. This helps in achieving stepless control of
power factor.
ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents
iii) The faults can be removed easily

DISADVANTAGES
i) there are considerable losses in the motor
ii) the maintenance cost is high
iii) it produces noise
iv) Except in sizes above 500 KVA, the cost is greater than that of static
capacitors of the same rating.
v) As a synchronous motor has no self starting torque therefore auxiliary
equipment has to be provided for this purpose.

PHASE ADVANCER
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Phase advancers are used to improve the power factor of induction motors (individual
loads). A phase advancer is simply an a.c exciter. The phase advancer is mounted on
the same shaft as the main motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. It
provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip frequency. By providing more
ampere turns than required, the induction motor can be made to operate on leading
power factor like an overexcited synchronous motor.
Phase advancers have two principle advantages; firstly, as exciting ampere turns are
provided at slip frequency, therefore, lagging KVA drawn by the motor is considerably
reduced.
Secondly phase advancers can be conveniently used where the use of the
synchronous motor is inadmissible. However, the major disadvantage of the phase
advancer is that they are not economical for motors below 200 Hp.

POWER TRIANGLE
Power factor correction can also be illustrated on a power triangle. A power triangle
shows the relationships between the active power, reactive power and the apparent
power. Thus referring to the figure below, the power triangle OAB is for the power
factor Cos θ1 whereas the power triangle OAC is for the improved power factor Cos θ2.
It may be seen that the active power OS does not change with power Factor
improvement.
However, the lagging KVA of the load is reduced by the power factor correction
equipment, thus improving the power factor to Cos θ2.

The following may be noted from the power triangle

i) The apparent power in an a.c circuit has two components, the active and the
reactive power at right angles to each other.

OB2 = OA2 + AB2

(Apparent power)2 = (Active power)2 x (Reactive power)2

(KVA)2 = (KW)2 + (KVAr)2

ii) Power factor, Cos θ = OA = Active power = KW

OB Apparent power KVA

iii) The lagging reactive power is responsible for a lower power factor. It is clear
from the power triangle that the smaller the reactive power of the component
the higher the power factor of the circuit.

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KVAr = KVA Sin θ = KW Sin θ = KW tan θ

Cos θ

Leading KVAr supplied by the power factor correction equipment (BC)

BC = AB – AC

KVAr = KVAr1 – KVAr2

= OA (tan θ1 – tan θ2)

= KW (tan θ1 – tan θ2)

Knowing the leading KVAr supplied by the power factor correction equipment, the
desired results can be obtained.

CALCULATIONS ON POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Consider an inductive load taking a lagging current at a power factor Cos θ1
In order to improve the power factor a capacitor is connected in parallel with the
inductive load. The capacitor draws a current IC that leads the supply voltage by 90o.
The current IC partly neutralises the lagging reactive component of the load current as
shown in the vector diagram. The resultant circuit current becomes I2 and its angle of
lag θ2 and is more than the previous power factor Cos θ1.
From the vector diagram, it is clear that after power factor correction, the lagging
reactive component of the load is reduced to I2 and its angle of lag θ2

Capacitor current, IC = I1 Sin θ1 – I2 Sin θ2

Where IC is the capacitor current

I1 is the current before power factor improvement
θ1 is the angle before power factor improvement

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I2 is the current after power factor improvement

θ2 is the angle after power factor improvement

The capacitance of the capacitor needed to improve the power factor from Cos θ 1 to
Cos θ2 is given by

Capacitance, C = Capacitor current, IC = I1 Sin θ1 – I2 Sin θ2

2πfV 2πfV

Note: Voltage across the capacitor is given by

V = capacitor current, IC x capacitive reactance, XC.

V = IC x 1 . (Since XC= 1/ 2πfC)

2πfC

V= IC . = I1 Sin θ1 – I2 Sin θ2
2πfC 2πfC

EXAMPLE 12
A factory draws 8.3A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. When connected to a 230V,
50Hz supply. Two similar capacitors are connected in parallel with each other to form
a capacitance bank. The capacitance bank is now connected in parallel with the motor
to raise the power factor to unit. Determine the capacitance of each capacitor.

SOLUTION
Data
Current before p.f improvement, I1 = 8.3A
P.f before p.f improvement, Cos θ1 = 0.8 lagging (θ = 36.87o)
p.f after p.f improvement, Cos θ2 = 1 (θ = 0o)
Supply voltage, V = 230V
Frequency, f = 50Hz

For capacitance to be found the new supply current I2 after power factor improvement
has to be found

New supply current I2 = Active power, P

V Cos θ2
= VI1 Cos θ1
V Cos θ2

= 240 x 8.3 x 0.8

240 x 1

= 1527.2
240

= 6.36 A

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Capacitance, C = Capacitor current, IC = I1 Sin θ1 – I2 Sin θ2

2πfV 2πfV

= 8.3 x sin 36.87 – 6.36 x sin 0

2 x 3.142 x 50 x 230

= 8.3 x 0.6 – 6.36 x 0

72 266

= 4.98
72 266

= 68.91μF

Therefore the capacitance of each capacitor = 68.91/2 = 34.46μF

EXAMPLE 13
a) A load of 25 KW is connected across a 230V, 50 Hz single phase supply and
operates at a power factor of 0.65 lagging. Calculate the current taken by the load.
b) The supply current taken by the load in a) is reduced to 140A by means of a
capacitor connected in parallel with the load. Calculate the
i) KVAr rating of the capacitor.
ii) Capacitance of the capacitor.

SOLUTION
Data
P = 25 000
V = 230V
f = 50 Hz
Cos θ = 0.65 lagging (49.46o)
I2 = 140 A
a) Power taken by load, P = VICos θ, hence, Current, I1 = P .
V Cos θ

= 25 000 .
230 x 0.65

= 167.22 A

b) i) Cos θ2 = P .
V I2

= 25 000
230 x 140

= 25 000
32 200

= 0.78 lagging (39.07o)

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KVAr = KW (tan θ1 – tan θ2)

= 25 (tan 49.46 – tan 39.07)

= 25 (1.169 – 0.812)

= 25 x 0.357

= 8.925 KVAr

Therefore the KVAr rating of the capacitor is 8.925

ii) Capacitance of the capacitor, C = Capacitor current, IC = I1 Sin θ1 – I2 Sin θ2

2πfV 2πfV

= 167.22 x sin 49.46 – 140 x sin 39.07

2 x 3.142 x 50 x 230

= 167.22 x 0.76 – 140 x 0.63

72 266

= 127.09 – 88.2
72 266

= 540 μF

TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a static a.c machine that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another at the same frequency through a magnetic circuit by the principle of
electromagnetic induction or it is a static a.c machine that transforms the values of
currents and voltages by the principle of electromagnetic induction (mutual
inductance).

CONSTRUCTION
A transformer principally consists of two main parts, these being
i) the core made of silicon steel or soft iron

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ii) the insulated windings

POWER TRANSFORMER
Power transformers are transformers that are used in transmission and distribution
lines.
To make the transformer more efficient other auxiliary equipment and devices are
normally added to power transformers due to the high voltages and currents they
operate with. A power transformer consists of the following devices transformer tank,
transformer core, windings, terminal bushings, conservator tank, buchholz relay,
temperature gauge, oil gauge, breather, explosion vent and tap changers e.t.c.

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A power transformer consists of a magnetic circuit linking with two windings known as
primary and secondary windings. Besides it consists of a suitable container for the
assembled transformer core and windings known as a transformer tank. It also
consists of insulating oil for insulating the core and windings from the transformer tank.

PARTS OF A POWER TRANSFORMER

Primary winding: This is a winding that is connected to the supply and if it operates
on high voltage it is known as a high tension winding (HT) and if it operates on low
voltage it is called a low tension (LT) winding. The porcelain bushings connected to
the HT side are known as HT terminal bushings.
Secondary windings: This is a winding where the load is connected, it can also be a
LT or HT winding depending on the operating voltage.
Transformer tank: This is a metallic container in which transformer oil (mineral oil) is
filled for cooling the windings. The oil after taking the heat from the winding gives it to
the surface of the tank for cooling. For better cooling the surface area of the tank is
increased by either providing corrugated sheets in case of small transformers around
the tank or by providing round pipes or elliptical tubes on the sides of the tank for large
transformer.

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The insulating oil has three functions, it provides additional insulation, it is also used
for cooling and protects the paper insulation from dirt and moisture.
The oil used in transformers should have the following properties
 High dielectric strength
 Free from inorganic acid, alkalis and corrosive sulphur to prevent injury to the
conductor or insulation.
 Low viscosity to provide good heat transfer
 Free from sludging under normal operating conditions

Expansion tank or conservator: This is a small tank that is mounted above the
transformer and is connected to the main tank by a pipe. Its main function is to keep
the transformer tank full of oil despite expansion or contraction of oil due to
temperature changes and also to provide space for the expansion of the oil when the
temperature rises. It also prevents the transformer oil from moisture when it breathes
in. The expansion tank is usually mounted on the low voltage side of the transformer.
Temperature gauge: It is a small temperature indicating device which is used to
indicate the temperature of the transformer oil and is fitted on the side of the
transformer tank.
Insulation: Paper (impregnated paper) insulation or melinex is used as an insulator
around the conductor or windings
Oil gauge: This is provided to indicate the level of oil and may be provided with an
alarm contacts which give an alarm to the switch board when oil level has dropped
beyond permissible limits due to oil leak or damage of the cooler.
Transformer bushings: These are used for insulating and bringing out terminals of
the windings from the container to the external circuit.
Breather: The function of the breather is to prevent the entry of moisture or moist air
in the transformer tank after it breathes out. The breather is a cylindrical tube
containing oil, silica gel or calcium chloride in different chambers. When the pressure
inside the tank due to breathing out, as it also allows the entry of air from the
surrounding it absorb any moisture and prevents its entry into the conservator. The
entering air first passes through the oil which filters the moisture and then through the
silica gel which further dries the air.
Silica gel is blue in colour when dry and when it absorbs moisture it becomes some
what whitish or pink in colour. Silica gel in the breather is replaced at certain intervals
of time.
Buchholz Relay: This is a protection relay of the transformer. It signals the fault as
soon as it occurs and cuts the transformer out of the circuit immediately.
The buchholz relay works on the excessive formation of the oil vapours or gas inside
the transformer tank due to any internal fault of the transformer. It is used in power
transformers above 500 KVA and is connected in between the pipe connecting the
tank and the conservator.
Tap changer: A tap changer is a device operated either manually or automatically
(through a motor) and is used for keeping the output voltage of a transformer constant.
When the load on the transformer increases, the output voltage falls. To keep the
terminal voltage constant a tap changer is connected to the secondary side of the
transformer. Different tappings from the secondary windings are brought to in. With
the help of a tap changer, the secondary turns can be either increased or decreased
and thus the secondary voltage can be increased or decreased as desired.

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Explosion vent: The explosion vent is safety device of the transformer and is also
known as an emergency pressure release valve. It is a projected pipe one end is fitted
to the top of the tank and the other left open to the atmosphere through a diaphragm.
When excessive high pressure is developed inside the tank due to internal faults the
pressure breaks the diaphragm and oil goes out through the broken diaphragm.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER CORES

There are three types of transformer cores these being
i) core type
ii) shell type
iii) Berry type

PRICIPLE OF OPERATION
When the primary of the transformer is connected to an a.c supply while the
secondary is open circuited, a small current flow which sets up a magnetic flux in the
core (if the secondary is loaded a high current flows). This alternating flux in the core
links both the primary and secondary windings inducing e.m.f.s. E1 and E2 in them by
mutual inductance.
The induced e.m.f. in the secondary and primary windings is dependent on the
number of turns.

EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

The emf induced in the primary and secondary windings is given by

EMF induced in the primary, E1 = 4.44fN1Φmax

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EMF induced in the secondary, E2 = 4.44fN2Φmax

The magnitude of the emf induced in the windings depends on the number of turns.
The higher the number of turns the higher the induced emf.

In a step down transformer N1 is greater than N2 while in a step up transformer N2 is

greater than N1.

TRANSFORMATION RATIO (K)

The transformation ratio is the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary voltage.
The transformation ratio can also be expressed in terms of current and the number of
turns as shown below.

The transformation ratio K = V2 = N2 = I1 = E2

V1 N 1 I 2 E 1

A TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD
A transformer on no load is a transformer whose primary is connected to the supply
while on the secondary part there is no load connected.

VECTOR DIAGRAM OF A TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD

The relationship between the no load current, Io, magnetising current, Im and the
energy component, Iw can be represented on a vector diagram as shown below.

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It will be noted that

i. The induced emf in the primary and secondary windings, E1 and E2 lag behind
the main flux Φ by π/2, so these emfs (E1 and E2) are in phase with each other
as shown vectorically.
ii. Applied voltage to the primary winding leads the main flux by π/2 and is in
phase opposition to the induced emf, in the primary winding.
iii. Secondary voltage V2 = E2 as there is no voltage drop in the secondary.
iv. The magnetising component Im is in phase with the flux Φ, so lags the applied
voltage V1 by π/2
v. The energy component Iw is in phase with the applied voltage V1

As Io is very small, the no load primary copper loss is negligibly small which means
that the no load primary input is practically equal to the iron loss in the transformer.
The no load input power is given by

Wo = V1IoCos θ where V1 is the primary voltage

Io is the no load current
Cos θ is the no load power factor

No load current, Io =√ (Im2 + Iw2)

The energy component of the no load current Iw = Io Cos θ

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The magnetising component of the no load current Im = Io Sin θ

EXAMPLE 1
The no load current of a transformer is 5A at 0.2 power factor lagging when supplied
at 240V, 50Hz. The number of turns on the primary winding is 250. Determine the core
loss and the magnetising current.

SOLUTION
Data
V1 = 240 V
Io = 5A
f = 50Hz
Cos θ = 0.2
N1 = 250

The core loss = V1IoCos θ

= 240 x 5 x 0.2

= 240 W

The energy component of the no load current Iw = Io Cos θ

= 5 x 0.2

=1A

No load current, Io =√ (Im2 + Iw2)

Magnetising current, Im =√ (Io2 - Iw2)

= √ (52 – 12)

= 4.899 A

EXAMPLE 2
A transformer takes a current of 0.8A when its primary is connected to 200V, 50Hz
supply. The secondary is open circuited, the power absorbed from the supply is 60W.
Determine the iron loss current and the magnetising current.

SOLUTION
Data
V1 = 200 V
Io = 0.8 A
f = 50Hz
Iron loss = 60 W

Iron loss current Iw = Io Cos θ = V1IoCos θ = 60 = 0.3 A

V1 200
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Magnetising current, Im =√ (Io2 - Iw2)

= √ (0.82 – 0.32)

= 0.74 A

EXAMPLE 3
The no load current of a single phase transformer is 5A at 0.65 pf lagging and is
supplied from a 220V , 50 Hz supply. If the primary winding has 400 turns, calculate
i) the maximum flux in the core
ii) the core loss
iii) the magnetising current

SOLUTION
Data
Io = 5A
Cos θ = 0.65 lag. (49.46o)
F = 50Hz
N1 = 400 turns

i) EMF induced in the primary, E1 = 4.44fN1Φmax

Maximum flux Φmax = E1 .

4.44fN1

= 220 .
4.44 x 50 x 400

= 220 .
88 800

= 2.48 x 10 -3 Wb

= 0.00248 mWb.

ii) Core losses are the same as copper losses

Core loss, Pi = V1IoCos θ

= 220 x 5 x 0.65

= 715 W

iii) magnetising current Im = Io Sin θ

= 5 x Sin 49.46
= 5 x 0.76
= 3.8 A
TRANSFORMER LOSSES
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There are two major losses that occur in transformers these being Copper losses and
Iron losses.
Copper losses: These are losses that occur in the windings of the transformer due to
the resistance that the windings have to the flow of current which results in the
generation of heat. Copper losses are given by I2R.
Iron losses are losses that occur in the core of the transformer and are of two types
these being Eddy current and Hysteresis loss.

RATING OF TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are rated in Kilovolt amperes, KVA or in Megavolt amperes, MVA.
Transformers are normally rated in KVA because the power factor of the load to which
the transformer is to be connected is not known (transformers supply loads operating
at different power factors) and also because the losses that occur in transformers are
depended on the losses i.e. Copper losses are dependent on current while the iron
losses are dependent on voltage.

TRANSFORMER TESTS
The two transformer tests that will be considered are
i) the open circuit test or the no load test
ii) short circuit test or the impedance test

The tests above are normally carried out to help in determining the efficiency of a
transformer and also the equivalent resistance and reactance of a transformer without
actually loading the transformer..

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST OR NO LOAD TEST

This is a test that is carried out when the low or high voltage winding of the
transformer is open circuited.

Purpose; the purpose of carrying out the open circuit test is to determine the iron
losses and also the no load resistance and reactance.

Procedure; connect the wattmeter, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the diagram
below

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In this test the secondary winding (usually high voltage winding) is left open circuited,
while the rated voltage and frequency is applied to the primary winding of the
transformer under test as shown in the figure above.
Since the transformer is open circuited the wattmeter reading gives the Iron or the
core losses, the ammeter gives the no load current, Io and the voltmeter gives the
rated voltage (Voc).

Wattmeter reading, Poc = VocIoCos θo

No load power factor, Cos θo = Wattmeter reading, Poc

VocIo

No load energy component, Iw = Io Cos θ = Wattmeter reading, Poc

Voc

No load magnetising component, Im =√ (Io2 - Iw2)

No load resistance, Ro = Voc = Voc2

Iw Poc

No load reactance, Xo = Voc = Voc .

Im √ (Io2 - Iw2)

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OR IMPEDANCE TEST

A short circuit test is a test that is carried out when one side of the transformer is short
circuited.

Purpose: The purpose of a short circuit test is to determine the copper losses and the
equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the metering side.

Procedure: Connect the ammeter, voltmeter and a wattmeter as shown in the figure
below.

In this test the secondary is short circuited while a gradually increasing voltage is
applied to the primary until the rated current flows at that instant take note of the
reading of the wattmeter and voltmeter.

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The wattmeter reading gives the total copper losses, the voltmeter gives the short
circuit voltage and the ammeter gives the rated current. The other parameters are
found as follows

The copper losses are given by PCU = ISC2R01 = wattmeter reading

Equivalent impedance referred to the primary Z01 = Short circuit voltage, Vsc
Short circuit current, Isc

Equivalent Resistance referred to the primary, R01 = Wattmeter reading, Psc

Short circuit current, Isc2

Equivalent reactance referred to the primary, X01 = √ (Z012 – R012)

TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the
ratio of the power output to the power input expressed as a percentage.

Efficiency η = Power output x 100

Power input

=. power output . x 100

power output + losses

=. Power output . x 100

Power output + copper loss + Iron loss

=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100

2
V2I2 Cos θ + x Pcu + Pi

=. KVA Cos θ . x 100

2
KVA Cos θ + x Pcu + Pi

Where X is the load condition at full load X = 1

At 50% of full load or half full load X = ½
At 25% of full load or quarter full load, X = ¼

Commercial efficiency: this is the ratio of the power output to the power input in
kilowatts.
All day efficiency: This is the ratio of the power output in KWh to the power input in
Kwh over a period of 24 hours (the whole day).

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIECY

A transformer operates at maximum efficiency when the copper losses are equal to
the iron losses. (copper losses = iron losses)

EXAMPLE 4
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A 11/0.24V single phase transformer has iron losses of 300W and copper loss of
500W. If the secondary supplies a load of 20A at 0.85 power factor lagging. Calculate
a) the full load efficiency of a transformer
b) the reactive power of the transformer

SOLUTION
V1 = 11KV
V2 = 0.24KV
I2 = 20A
Cos θ = 0.85 lagging (31.79o)
Iron losses (Pi) = 300W
Copper losses (Pcu) = 500W

a) Efficiency η = Power output x 100

Power input

=. power output . x 100

power output + losses

=. Power output . x 100

Power output + copper loss + Iron loss

=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100

2
V2I2 Cos θ + x Pcu + Pi

= 240 x 20 x 0.85 . x 100

240 x 20 x 0.85 + (12) 500 + 300

= 4080 x 100
4880

= 83.6%

Where X is the load condition at full load X = 1

b) Reactive power, Q = V2I2Sin θ

= 240 x 20 x Sin 31.79

= 4800 x 0.53

= 2544 KVar

EXAMPLE 5
When tests where made on a 50KVA, 230/50V single phase transformer, the following
results were recorded
Open circuit test: Primary current 4.5A
Primary voltage 230V
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Power factor 0.28 lagging

Short circuit test: Primary voltage 20V

Secondary current – full load
Input power 600W

Calculate the efficiency of the transformer at

a) Full load unity power factor
b) 50% of full load 0.8 power factor lagging
c) 25% of full load 0.6 power factor lagging

SOLUTION
Data
S = 50KVA
V1 = 230V
V2 = 50V

DURING O.C.T
I1 = 4.5A
V1 = 230V
Cos θ = 0.28 lagging

DURING S.CT
V1 = 20V
I2 = FULL LOAD
PCU = 600W

Iron losses are obtained from the open circuit test

Iron losses, Pi = V1I1Cos θ

= 230 x 4.5 x 0.28

= 289.8W

i) AT FULL LOAD UNITY POWER FACTOR

Efficiency η = Power output x 100

Power input

=. power output . x 100

power output + losses

=. Power output . x 100

Power output + copper loss + Iron loss

=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100

V2I2 Cos θ + x2 Pcu + Pi

=. KVA Cos θ . x 100

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KVA Cos θ + x2 Pcu + Pi

= 50 000 x 1 . x 100
2
50 000 x1 + (1 ) 600 + 289.8

= 50 000 x 100
50 889.8

= 98.25%

ii) AT 50% (HALF) FULL LOAD 0.8 PF LAGGING

Apparent power at half load, S = ½ x 50 000 = 25 000

Efficiency η = Power output x 100

Power input

=. power output . x 100

power output + losses

=. Power output . x 100

Power output + copper loss + Iron loss

=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100

V2I2 Cos θ + x2 Pcu + Pi

=. KVA Cos θ . x 100

2
KVA Cos θ + x Pcu + Pi

= 25 000 x 0.8 . x 100

25 000 x 0.8 + (1/2)2 600 + 289.8

= 20 000 x 100
20 439.8

= 97.89%

iii) AT 25% (1/4) OF FULL LOAD 0.6 PF LAGGING

Apparent power at half load, S = 1/4 x 50 000 = 12 500 VA

Efficiency η = Power output x 100

Power input

=. power output . x 100

power output + losses

=. Power output . x 100

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Power output + copper loss + Iron loss

=. V2I2 Cos θ . x 100

2
V2I2 Cos θ + x Pcu + Pi

=. KVA Cos θ . x 100

KVA Cos θ + x2 Pcu + Pi

= 12 500 x 0.6 . x 100

2
12 500 x 0.6 + (1/4) 600 + 289.8

= 7500 . x 100
7827.3

= 95.82%

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Voltage regulation is the change in the secondary terminal voltage from no load to full
load expressed as a percentage of the secondary no load voltage. i.e. when the
transformer is loaded its terminal voltage falls from no load to full load.

% V.regulation = Terminal voltage on no load – terminal voltage on load x 100

Terminal voltage on no load

= Voltage drop in transformer on load x 100

No load voltage (secondary)

= E2 - V2 x 100
E2

EXAMPLE 6
A 5 KVA, 200/400 V, single phase transformer has a secondary voltage of 387.6 V
when loaded. Determine the voltage regulation of the transformer.

SOLUTION
Data
S = 5 KVA
E1 = 200 V
E2 = 400 V
V2 = 387.6 V

% Voltage regulation = E2 - V2 x 100

E2

= 400 – 387.6 x 100

400

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= 3.1 %

AUTO TRANSFORMERS
An auto transformer is a transformer with only one winding that is common to both the
primary and secondary circuits.
The principle of operation of an auto transformer is similar to that of a double wound
transformer.

A STEP UP AUTO TRANSFORMER

I1 and I2 are primary and secondary currents respectively

V1 and V2 are primary and secondary voltages respectively

From the figure above the following parameters can be calculated

The transformation ratio K = V2 = N2 = I1

V1 N 1 I 2

Primary current, I1 = KI2

Power delivered to the load, PL = V2I2Cos θ

Power in the winding AC = (V2 – V1) I2

Current in common winding BC, IC = I1 – I2

Power in winding BC = V1IC = V1 (I1 – I2)

A STEP DOWN AUTO TRANSFORMER

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Power delivered to the load, PL = V2I2Cos θ

Power in the winding AC = (V1 – V2) I1

Current in common winding BC, IC = I2 – I1

Power in winding BC = V2IC = V2 (I2 – I1)

EXAMPLE 7
A step up auto transformer has its output connected across its full winding of 800
turns, while the 240V is connected across the lower 160 turns. If the secondary
produces an output of 20KVA, calculate the
a) output voltage
b) output current
c) input current
d) current in the common section of the winding

SOLUTION
Data
N2 = 800
V1 = 240V
S2 = 20 KVA

a) Output voltage, V2

V2 = N2
V1 N 1

V2 = 800 x 240 V
160

= 192 000
160

= 1200

b) Output current, I2

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S = V2I2

I2 = S = 20 000 = 16.67A
V2 1200

c) Input current, I1

V2 = I 1
V1 I 2

I1 = 1200 x 16.67 V
240
= 20 004
240

= 83.35A

d) Current in the common section, IC = I1 – I2

= 83.35 – 16.67

= 66.68 A

ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTO TRANSFORMER

1. It has a better voltage regulation
2. It has a better efficiency
3. Because of one winding it uses less copper hence it is cheaper
4. A continuously varying voltage can be obtained
DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTO TRANSFORMER
1. If the winding that is common to both the primary and secondary should
accidentally open, the full primary voltage will appear across the secondary
terminals.
2. The primary and secondary are conductively connected
3. Since in distribution transformers, the transformation ratio is low and auto
transformers loose much of their advantage when the transformation ratio is
low, hence it is not advantageous to use auto transformers than distribution
transformers.

USES OF AUTO TRANSFORMERS

1. It is used for starting induction motors in auto transformer starters.
2. It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable to correct for voltage
drops
3. It is used as a furnace transformer for getting a convenient supply to suit the
furnace winding from a 230V supply.
4. It is used as an interconnecting transformer in 132/330 KV system.
5. It is used in control equipment for single phase and three phase electrical
locomotives
6. It is used as a balancer coil.
7. It is used for voltage control (auto transformer tap changing).

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INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
There are two types of instrument transformers; these are normally used for metering
and protection. The two types of instrument transformers that will be considered are
 Voltage transformers, VT
 Current transformers, CT

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VT)

Voltage transformers are used for protection and metering and are designed for high
accuracy to produce a true representation of the measured voltage. Voltage
transformers are used in very high voltage applications e.g. 220KV; so insulation
design is a challenge. Typical output voltages are 69V or 110V.
The construction of a voltage transformer is similar to the power transformer i.e. it has
the primary and secondary windings wound on a magnetic core. Voltage transformers
are normally operated as step down transformers, the secondary voltage being
standardised at 110 V. A large number of turns are wound on the primary and a few
turns on the secondary since

VP = NP
VS N S
The voltmeter reading must be multiplied by the turns ratio to determine the load
voltage.

EXAMPLE 8
A voltmeter is connected to 50 turns on the secondary winding of a VT. The primary
winding of 250 turns is connected to the main supply. Calculate the supply voltage if
the voltmeter reading is 83V.

Primary voltage, Vp = Np x Vs
Ns

Vp = 250T x 83 V
50T

Vp = 415V

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As an alternative solution we could say the turns ratio is 250 : 50, that is 5:1, and
therefore the supply voltage is 5 x 83 = 415V.

EXAMPLE 9
An electrical contractor wishes to monitor a 660 V supply with a standard 110V
voltmeter. Determine the turns ratio of this bus to determine the turns ratio of the VT to
perform that task.

VP = NP
VS N S

660 V = Np =6
110V Ns 1

The turns ratio is 6:1. This means that the number of turns of the primary side must be
six times greater than the number of turns on the secondary, which is connected to the
110V voltmeter.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)

A CT is used for the protection of power networks as well as metering. They are
designed for high accuracy to produce a true representation of the measured currents.
The operation of a CT is different to power transformer although the transformer
principle remains rte same.
The secondary of the CT consists of a large number of turns connected to the
ammeter or to the current coil of the wattmeter. The ammeter is usually standardised
at 1A, 5A or 10A.
The transformation ratio chosen so that 1A or 5A flows when the main circuit carries
full load current is calculated from the transformer turns ratio

VP = I S
VS I P

The primary winding is wound with only a few turns and when heavy currents are
being measured one turn ion the secondary may be sufficient. In this case the
conductor carrying the main current or the main busbar is passed through the centre
of the CT as shown below. The CT used is Known as a primary bar CT.
EXAMPLE 10
An ammeter having a full scale deflection of 5A is used to measure a line current of
200A. If the primary is wound with two turns calculate the number of secondary turns
required to give full scale deflection.

NP = IS
NS IP

NS = NP x IP
IS

NS = 2T x 200 = 80 turns
5A
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With a power transformer a secondary load is necessary to cause a primary current to

flow which maintains the magnetic flux in the core at a constant value. With a CT the
primary current is the main circuit current and will flow whether the secondary is
connected or not.
However, the secondary current through the ammeter is necessary to stabilise the
magnetic flux in the core, and if the ammeter is removed the voltage across the
secondary terminals could reach a dangerously high value and cause the insulation to
break down or cause excessive heating of the core. The CT must never be operated
with the secondary open circuited and overload protection should not be provided in
the secondary circuit. If the ammeter must be removed from the CT then the terminals
must first be short circuited. This will not damage the CT and will prevent a dangerous
situation to arise. The rating of an instrument transformer is measured in volt amperes
(VA) and is called the burden. To reduce errors, the ammeter or voltmeter connected
to the CT or VT should be operated at the rated burden.

THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

A three phase transformer is a transformer that operates by being fed with a three
phase supply and is wound for a three phase system.
A three phase transformer has three separate windings, housed in a common
enclosure, like a single phase transformer, three [phase transformers are of also of a
core or shell type. The transformers of high output rating are usually core type.

TYPES OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

There are four main methods of connecting transformer windings, these being
 Primary star secondary star (star - star transformer)
 Primary star secondary delta (star - delta transformer)
 Primary delta secondary delta (delta - delta transformer)
 Primary delta secondary star (delta - star transformer)

Y–Y TRANSFORMER
This is a transformer whose primary and secondary windings are star connected.
Since the primary is star connected

Primary line voltage, VLP = √3 x primary phase voltage, VPP

Therefore, primary phase voltage VPP = VLP

√3

If K is the transformation ratio, the secondary phase voltage VPS = VLP x K

√3

The secondary line voltage VLS = Primary line voltage, VLP x K

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Δ–Δ TRANSFORMER
This is a transformer whose primary and secondary windings are delta connected

Since the primary is delta connected

Primary phase voltage = Primary line voltage, VLP

Secondary phase voltage = Primary line voltage, VLP x K

As the secondary is delta connected,

Therefore, Secondary line voltage VLS = VLP x K

Y–Δ TRANSFORMER

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A star delta transformer is a transformer where the primary winding is star connected
while the secondary winding is delta connected.

Since the primary is star connected

Primary line voltage, VLP = √3 x primary phase voltage, VPP

Therefore, primary phase voltage VPP = VLP

√3

Since the secondary is delta connected VPS = VLS

The secondary phase voltage VPS = VLP x K

√3

The secondary line voltage VLS = VLP x K

√3

Δ–Y TRANSFORMER
This is a transformer where the primary winding is delta connected and the secondary
winding is star connected.

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Since the primary is delta connected

Primary phase voltage = Primary line voltage, VLP

Secondary phase voltage = Primary line voltage, VLP x K

As the secondary is star connected

Secondary line voltage, VLS = √3 VLP x K

The advantages of star connection especially on the high voltage side are that the
insulation has to bear the stress for only 1/√3 (57.7%) of the line voltage. It also
facilitates in providing a three phase four wire system of connection.

The advantage of delta connection is that if one phase is opened due to some fault,
supply to all the three phases of the load can be continued up to 57.7% of the full
output. This gives a ‘V’ or open delta.

EXAMPLE 11
A three phase 11 000/440 V, 330 KVA star connected transformer has 55 turns on the
secondary side. Find
a) The number of primary turns
b) The primary line and secondary line and phase currents

SOLUTION
Data
VLP = 11 000 V
VLS = 440 V
S = 330 KVA

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N2 = 55

a) Number of primary turns, NP = Ns x VP = 55 x 11 000 = 1375 turns

VS 440

b) Apparent power S = √3VLIL = power in KVA

1000

Therefore, secondary line current

ILS = Apparent power, S x 1000

√3 VL

= 330 000 .
1.732 x 440

= 433 A

As the secondary is star connected

Therefore secondary line current = phase current = 433 A

Primary phase current, IP = VS x IS = 440 x 433 = 17.32 A

VP 11 000

EXAMPLE 12
An 11 000/440 V, 100 KVA step down three phase, 50 Hz delta star connected
transformer. Calculate the ratio between the number of turns of the primary and
secondary. Also calculate the value of line and phase currents in both the windings.

SOLUTION
Data
VLP = 11 000 V
VLS = 440 V
S = 100 KVA
f = 50 Hz

As the primary is delta connected, line voltage = phase voltage = 11 000 V

Since the secondary is star connected

Secondary line voltage, VLS = √3 x secondary phase voltage, VPS

Therefore, secondary phase voltage VPS = VLS = 440 . = 254.04 V

√3 1.732

Transformation ratio, K = 11 000 = 43.3

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254.04

K = 43.3 : 1

Apparent power S = √3VLIL = power in KVA

1000

Therefore, secondary line current

ILS = Apparent power, S x 1000

√3 VL

= 100 000 .
1.732 x 440

= 131.2 A

In star connection line current = phase current = 131.2 A

Primary phase current, IP = VS x IS = 440 x 131.2 = 3.03 A

VP 11 000

Primary line current in delta connection, IL = √3 x IP = 3.03 x 1.732 = 5.25 A

EXAMPLE 13
Three single phase transformers with a transformation ratio of 29:1 are connected to a
11 000V, 3 phase supply as a step down transformer. Calculate the secondary line
voltage if the transformer is connected in
a) Star – star
b) Star – delta
c) Delta – delta
d) Delta – star

SOLUTION
Data
V1 = 11 000 V
N1 = 29
N2 = 1

a) Star – star connected transformer

Since the primary is star connected

Primary line voltage, VLP = √3 x primary phase voltage, VPP

Therefore, primary phase voltage VPP = VLP

√3

= 11 000
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1.732

= 6 351 V

If K is the transformation ratio, the secondary phase voltage VPS = VLP x K

√3

= 6351 x 1
29

= 219 V

Secondary line voltage = √3 x VPS = 1.732 x 219 = 379.3 V

ALTERNATIVELY

The secondary line voltage VLS = Primary line voltage, VLP x K

= 11 000 x 1
29

= 379.3 V

b) In a star – delta transformer

The secondary line voltage VLS = VLP x K

√3

= 11 000 x 1 .
1.732 29

= 219 V

c) In a delta – delta transformer

Secondary line voltage VLS = VLP x K

= 11 000 x 1
29

= 379.3 V

d) In a delta – star transformer

Secondary line voltage, VLS = √3 VLP x K

= 1.732 x 11 000 x 1
29

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= 656.98 V

TRANSFORMER TYPES AND APPLICATION

Connectio Application Comment

n
Y–Y Small, high voltage transformers Insulation requirements minimal.
With unbalanced loads, neutral
shift makes phase voltages
unequal. Linking start point to
generator star point can stabilise.
Δ–Δ Large, low voltage transformer Unbalanced loading has little
effect. Can work as open delta in
case of a fault.
Y–Δ Useful at substation end of the The phase shift means that the
transmission line where voltage transformer cannot be paralleled
is to be stepped down. with Y–Y or Δ–Δ banks
Δ–Y Useful in step up mode at the Allows a 4 wire system, from a 3
beginning of a transmission wire system.
system. Also in distribution
system where both 3 phase and
single phases are required.

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D.C MACHINES
A d.c. machine is a machine that uses or produces direct current. A machine that
uses direct current is known as a motor while that which produces direct current
is known as a generator.

A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

while a motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.

CONSTRUCTION OF A D.C MACHINE

The basic parts of any d.c machine are shown and comprise;

a) A stationary part called the stator having,

i. A steel ring called the yoke, to which are attached
ii. The magnetic poles, around which are the
iii. Field windings, i.e. many turns of a conductor wound round the pole
core; current passing through this conductor creates an electromagnet.
b) A rotating part called the armature mounted in bearings housed in the stator
and having
i. A laminated cylinder of iron or steel called the core, on which teeth are
cut to house the
ii. Armature winding i.e. a single or multi loop conductor system.
iii. The commutator

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D.C GENERATORS
A D.C. generator is a machine that generates or produces direct current i.e. it converts
the mechanical energy into electrical energy which is direct current.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A D.C GENERATOR

The principle of operation of a generator is based on the fact that whenever a
conductor cuts or is cut by a magnetic flux emf is induced in it.

When the armature of a d.c. generator is supplied with mechanical energy (starts
being rotated) it will cut the weak flux due to residual magnetism as a result a small
emf is induced in the armature conductors which causes armature current to flow; part
of the armature current is supplied to the poles where the magnetism is strengthened
and the other part is supplied to the load; the increase in the flux causes an increase
in the induced emf which further increases the field current and so flux per pole. The
above process will continue until the generator builds up the rated voltage which is
given by
Eg = ΦZN x P
60 A
Where Φ is the flux in webers
Z in the number of conductors
N is the speed in rev/min or rpm
P is the number of poles
A is the number of parallel paths (lap machine A = P, wave machine A = 2)

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Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the wires are
joined to the commutator. These are called wave and lap windings.
a) In wave windings they are two parallel paths irrespective of the number of
poles, each path supplying half the current. Wave wound generators produce
high voltage, low current outputs.
b) In lap windings there are as many paths in parallel as the machine has poles
(A=P). the total current divides equally through them. Lap wound generators
produce high current, low voltage outputs.

Note: For a generator to build up voltage there should be residual magnetism in the
poles acting in the proper direction.

EXAMPLE 1
An 8 pole, wave wound armature has 600 conductors and is driven at 625 rev/min. if
the flux per pole is 20mWb. Determine the generated emf

SOLUTION
Data
Z = 600
A=2
P=8
N = 625 rpm
Φ = 20 x 10-3 Wb

Eg = ΦZN x P = (20 x10-3)(600)(625)(8)

60 A 60 x 2

= 500 V

EXAMPLE 2
A 4 pole generator has a lap wound armature with 50 slots with 6 conductors per slot.
The useful flux per pole is 30 mWb. Determine the speed at which the machine has to
driven to generate an emf of 240V.

SOLUTION
Data
P=4
Z = 50 x 6 = 800
Φ = 30 x 10-3 Wb
Eg = 240V
A=P=4

Eg = ΦZN x P
60 A

Rearranging gives speed as,

N = 60 A Eg = 60 x 4 x 240 . = 600 rev/min or 10 rev/s

ΦZP 30 x 10-3 x 800 x 4

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EXAMPLE 3
An 8 pole lap connected armature driven at 300 rpm is required to generate 240V. the
useful flux per pole is 25mWb if the armature has 120 slots, calculate the number of
conductors per slot.

SOLUTION
Data
P=8
N = 300 rpm
Eg = 240V
Φ = 25 mWb
Slots = 120
A=P=8

Eg = ΦZN x P
60 A

Rearranging making Z the subject

Z = Eg 60 A = 240 x 60 x 8 . = 1920 conductors

Φ N P 25 x 10-3 x 300 x 8

Number of conductors per slot = 1960/120 = 16 conductors per slot.

TYPES OF D.C GENERATORS

D.C. generators can be classified into two groups these being a self excited
generator and a separately excited generator

Excitation is the process of supplying current to the poles of the machine so as to

magnetise them or it is the process that is used to magnetise the poles of a generator.

SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATOR

This is a generator whose field winding is supplied with current from a different source
other than that which is generated by the generator, i.e. the current generated is only
supplied to the load via the armature.

The following relationships can be obtained from a separately excited generator

Armature current, Ia = IL
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Generated emf, Eg = V + IaRa

Power output, P = VIL
Power generated Pg = EgIa

EXAMPLE 4
A generator is connected to a 60 Ω load and a current of 8 A flows. If the armature
resistance is 1 Ω determine a) the terminal voltage b) the generated emf

SOLUTION
Data
RL = 60Ω
Ia = 8 A
Ra = 1 Ω

a) Terminal voltage, V = IaRL = 8 x 60 = 480 V

b) Generated emf Eg = V + IaRa

= 480 + (8 x 1)

= 488 V

SELF EXCITED GENERATOR

This is a generator whose field windings are excited by the current supplied by the
generator itself. The field coils are normally connected in series or parallel with the
armature conductors.
For a self excited generator to build up voltage there has to be residual magnetism in
the poles, when the armature is rotated it cuts the weak flux due to residual
magnetism, thus a small emf is induced in the armature some of which is supplied to
the poles and the other part is supplied to the poles to strengthen the magnetism. The
above process is repeated until the generator builds up the rated voltage.
Self excited generators may be classified as
a) Series generator
b) Shunt generator
c) Compound generator

CONDITION FOR SELF EXCITATION

The conditions necessary for self excitation are
1. There must be some residual magnetism in the field system
2. The residual magnetism must be in the proper direction
3. For a series generator the resistance of the external circuit should be less than
the critical resistance

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4. For a shunt wound generator, resistance in the field must be less than the
critical resistance for the field circuit and resistance in the load must be greater
than critical resistance for the load circuit.

CAUSES OF FAILURE TO BUILD UP VOLTAGE

There may be one or more of the following reasons due to which a self excited
generator may fail to build up voltage.
1. No residual magnetism; if there is no residual magnetism due to inactivity or
jarring in shipment, no voltage will be induced that can produce field current.
2. Reversal of field connections; reversal of connections of the field winding
destroys the residual magnetism which causes the generator fail to build ip
voltage.

REMEDY
In case the generator is started up the first time, it may be that no voltage will be built
up either because the poles have no residual magnetism or the poles have retained
some residual magnetism but the windings connection are reversed so that the
magnetism developed by the field winding on start has destroyed the residual
magnetism and the machine can not build up. In both cases, the field coils must be
connected to a d.c source (a storage battery) for a short while to magnetise the poles.
The application of external source of direct current to the field is called flashing of the
field.

SERIES GENERATOR
A series generator is a generator where the field winding is connected in series with
the armature. The series field winding is made of a thick wire of a few turns. The
connection diagram of a series generator is given below.

SHUNT GENERATOR
A shunt generator is a generator whose field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature. The shunt windings are made of many turns of a small wire. (shunt means
parallel).

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EXAMPLE 6
A shunt generator supplies a 20 KW load at 200 V through cables of R = 100 mΩ. if
the field resistance is 50 Ω and the armature resistance is 40 mΩ, determine a) the
terminal voltage b) the emf generated in the armature.

SOLUTION
Data
PL = 20 KW
V = 200 V
R = 100 mΩ
Rsh = 50 Ω
Ra = 40 mΩ

a) The circuit is as shown below

Load current, I = 20 000 = 100 A

200

Voltage drop in the cable to the load V = IR = 100 x 100 x 10-3

= 10 V

Hence the terminal voltage, V = 200 + 10 = 210 V

b) Armature current, Ia = Ish + IL

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Shunt current, Ish = V . = 210 = 4.2 A

Rsh 50

Armature current, Ia = Ish + IL = 4.2 + 100 = 104.2 A

Generated emf E = V + IaRa

= 210 + (104.2)(40 x 10-3)

= 210 + 4.168

= 214.17 V

COMPOUND GENERATOR
A compound generator is a generator which contains both the series and the shunt
windings in the same machine.
There are two types of compound generators these being
1. Short shunt generator
2. Long shunt generator

The two types of generators above can either be cumulatively or differentially

compounded.

Cumulatively compounded generator: this is a compound generator where the

series field winding assists the shunt field winding i.e. the two fluxes produced are
additive.

Differentially compounded generator: this is a generator where the series field

opposes the shunt field i.e. the two fluxes are subtractive; the resultant flux is given by
the difference of the two fluxes.

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EXAMPLE 7
A short shunt compound generator supplies 80 A at 200 V. if the shunt field resistance
is 40 Ω, the series field resistance is 0.02 Ω and the armature resistance is 0.04 Ω,
determine the emf generated.

SOLUTION
Data
IL = Ise = 80 A
V = 200 V
Rsh = 40 Ω
Rse = 0.02 Ω
Ra = 0.04 Ω

Ia = Ish + IL

Ish = V + IseRse = 200 + (80 x 0.02) = 5.04 A

Rsh 40

Ia = Ish + IL = 5.04 + 80 = 85.04 A

Eg = V + IaRa + IseRse = 200 + (85.04 x 0.04) + (80 x 0.02)

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= 205 V

D.C MOTORS

A D.C. motor is a machine that converts electrical energy (in the form of direct current)
to mechanical energy.

CONSTRUCTION

The construction of a d.c. motor is similar to that of a d.c. generator

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The principle of operation of a d.c. motor is based on the fact that whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a mechanical force.
When a d.c. motor is supplied with direct current part of the current goes to the field
windings which magnetises the poles and the other part goes to the armature. The
current that flows to the armature causes a magnetic field to be produced around the
armature conductors which interacts with the flux under the poles resulting in the
rotation of the armature.
When the armature begins to rotate it cuts the magnetic field produced by the poles
resulting in an emf being induced in the armature in accordance with faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction. The emf induced in the armature conductors opposes the
applied voltage hence it is known as back emf or counter emf and is given by
Eb = ΦZN x P
60 A

Where Φ is the flux in webers

Z in the number of conductors
N is the speed in rev/min or rpm
P is the number of poles
A is the number of parallel paths (lap machine A = P, wave machine A = 2)

TYPES OF DC MOTORS
Direct current motors are named according to the way the field winding are connected
with the armature. The following are the types of D.C. motors
a) Separately excited d.c motor
b) Series motor
c) Shunt motor
d) Compound motor – short shunt and long shunt d.c motors

Separately excited motor

This is a motor where the field winding and the armature windings are supplied with
current from different sources.

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The following relationships can be obtained from a separately excited motor

Armature current, Ia = supply current, Is

Back emf, Eb = V - IaRa
Power input, P = VIs
Mechanical Power delivered P = EbIa

EXAMPLE 8
A d.c motor operates from a 240 V supply. The armature resistance is 0.2 Ω.
Determine the back emf when the armature current is 50 A.

SOLUTION
Data
V = 240 V
Ra = 0.2 Ω
Ia = 50 A

Back emf, Eb = V - IaRa = 240 – (50 x 0.2)

= 230 V

EXAMPLE 9
The armature of a d.c machine has a resistance of 0.25 Ω and is connected to a 300 V
supply. Calculate the emf generated when it is running
a) As a generator giving 100 A and b) as a motor taking 80 A

SOLUTION
Data
Ra = 0.25 Ω
V = 300 V

a) As a generator, generated emf

Eg = V + IaRa = 300 + (100)(0.25)

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= 325 V

b) As a motor, generated emf (or back emf)

Eb = V – IaRa = 300 – (80 x 0.25)

= 280 V

Series motor
This is a motor where the field windings are connected in series with the armature
windings.

The following relationships can be obtained from a series motor

Supply current, Is = series current, Ise = armature current, Ia
Back emf, Eb = V – (IaRa + IseRse)
Power input, P = VIs
Mechanical Power delivered P = Eb Ia

Shunt motor
This is a motor where the field windings are connected in parallel with the armature
windings.

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The following relationships can be obtained from a shunt motor

Supply current, Is = Ish + Ia
Shunt current, Ish = V .
Rsh
Back emf, Eb = V – IaRa
Power input, P = VIs
Mechanical Power delivered P = EbIa

Compound motor
This is a motor having both shunt and series field windings in the same machine. It
can either be a short shunt or long shunt compound motor and can either be
cumulatively or differentially compounded.

TORQUE OF A D.C. MOTOR

Torque is the twisting or turning moment of a force about a point or axis. Torque
brings about the rotation of the shaft of a motor. Torque is measured in Newton
metres.
Torque in d.c. machines is given by T = Mechanical power
2πN/60

= 60 x Eb Ia
2πN

= 9.55 Eb Ia
N

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Where N is the speed of the motor in rev/min

Torque can also be given by torque, T = Eb Ia
2πn

Eb = ΦZn x P
A

Hence, 2πnT = Eb Ia = ΦZn x P x Ia

A

ΦZn x P x Ia
T =. A .
2πn

T = ΦZPIa
2πA
For a given machine, Z, A and p are constants

Hence torque T α Φ Ia

EXAMPLE 10
Determine the torque developed by a 350 V d.c motor having an armature resistance
of 0.5 Ω and running at 15 rev/s. the armature current is 60 A.

SOLUTION
Data
V = 350 V
Ra = 0.5 Ω
n = 15 rev/s
Ia = 60 A

Back emf, Eb = V - IaRa = 350 – (60 x 0.5)

= 320 V

Torque, T = EbIa . = 320 x 60 = 203.7 Nm

2πn 2π(15)

EXAMPLE 11
An 8 pole d.c motor has a wave wound armature with 900 conductors. The useful flux
per pole is 25 mWb. Determine the torque exerted when a current of 30A flows in
each armature conductor.

SOLUTION

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Data
P=8
A=2
Z = 25 mWb
Ia = 30 A

Torque is given by, T = ΦZPIa = (25 x 10-3)(900)(8)(30)

2πA 2 x 3.142 x 2

= 429.7 Nm

EXAMPLE 12
A six pole lap wound motor is connected to a 250 V d.c supply. The armature has 500
conductors and a resistance of 1Ω. The flux per pole is 20 mWb. Calculate
a) the speed and b) the torque developed when the armature current developed is
40A.

SOLUTION
Data
V = 250 V
Z = 500
Ra = 1Ω
Φ = 20 x 10-3 Wb
Ia = 40 A
A=6
P=6

Back emf, Eb = V - IaRa = 250 – (40)(1)

= 210 V

Back emf is also given by Eb = ΦZn x P

A

n = Eb A .
ΦZP

= 210 x 6 .
-3
(20 x 10 )(500)(6)

= 21 rev/sec or (21 x 60) = 1260 rev/min

Torque, T = Eb Ia = (210)(40) = 63.66 Nm
2πn 2π(21)

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EXAMPLE 13
The shaft torque of a diesel motor driving a 100 V d.c shunt generator is 25 Nm. The
armature current of the generator is 16A at this value of torque. If the shunt field
regulator is adjusted so that the flux is reduced by 15%, the torque increases to 35
Nm. Determine the armature current at this new value of torque

SOLUTION
Data
V = 100 V
T1 = 25 Nm
Ia1 = 16 A
Φ1 = 1 or 100%
Φ2 = 85% of Φ1 (0.85Φ1)
T2 = 35 Nm

The shaft torque of a generator is proportional to ΦIa. Thus T = kΦIa where k is a

constant.
Torque at flux Φ1 and armature current, Ia1 is T1 = kΦ1Ia1

Similarly, T2 = kΦ2Ia2

By division T1 = kΦ1Ia1 = Φ1Ia1

T2 = kΦ2Ia2 Φ2Ia2

Hence 25 = Φ1 x 16 .
35 0.85Φ1 x Ia2

Ia2 = 16 x 35 = 26.35 A
0.85 x 25
The armature current at the new value of torque is 26.35 A

SPEED OF A DC MACHINE
The emf equation of a d.c. machine is given by
Eb = ΦZN x P
60 A

Solving for N gives

N = 60A E
PZ Φ
N=E.
KΦ

Where k = PZ .
60A

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The equation shows that the speed of a d.c. machine is directly proportional to the emf
of rotation E and inversely proportional to the flux per pole Φ.
Since the expression for emf of rotation applies equally to motors and generators.
If the suffixes 1 and 2 denote the initial and final values

N1 = E1 .
KΦ1

N2 = E2 .
KΦ2

N2 = E2 x Φ1
N1 E1 Φ2

EXAMPLE 14
A series motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 Ω and a series field resistance of 0.3
Ω. It is connected to a 240 V supply and at a particular load runs at 24 rev/s when
drawing 15 A from the supply.
a) Determine the generated emf at this load
b) Calculate the speed of the motor when the load is changed such that the
current is increased to 30 A. Assume that this causes the doubling of the flux.

SOLUTION
Data
Ra = 0.2 Ω
Rse = 0.3 Ω
V = 230 V
n = 24 rev/s
Ia = 15 A

a) The generated emf at the initial load Eb1 = V – Ia1(Ra + Rse)

= 230 – 15(0.2 + 0.3)

= 232.5 V

b) When the current is increased to 30 A, the generated emf is given by

Eb2 = V – Ia2(Ra + Rse) = 230 – 30(0.2 +0.3)

= 225 V
Now emf, E α Φn

Thus, Eb1 = Φ1 n1
Eb2 Φ2 n2

232.5 = Φ1 (24) since Φ2 = 2Φ1

225 (2Φ1)(n2)

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Hence the speed of the motor, n2 = (24)(225) = 11.6 rev/s

(232.5)(2)

As the current has been increased from 15 A to 30 A, the speed has decreased from
24 rev/s to 11.6 rev/s.

SPEED REGULATION
The speed regulation is defined as the change in speed from no load to full load
expressed as a fraction or percentage of the full load speed.

Per unit speed regulation = Nnl – Nfl

Nfl

Percentage speed regulation = Nnl – Nfl x 100

Nfl

Where Nnl = no load speed

Nfl = full load speed

A motor which has a nearly constant speed is said to have a good speed regulation.

SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. MOTORS

The speed of a d.c. Motor is given by the relationship
N = V – IaRa
KΦ
The equation shows that the speed is dependant upon the supply voltage V, the
armature circuit resistance Ra, and the field flux, Φ, which is produced by the field
current. In practice, the variation of these three factors is used for speed control. Thus,
there are three general methods of speed control of d.c. motors.
1. Variation of resistance in the armature circuit. This method is called armature
resistance control or rheostat control.
2. Variation of field flux Φ. This method is called field flux control
3. Variation of applied voltage. (armature voltage control)

POWER STAGES OF A D.C MACHINE

The power supplied to a d.c machine is used and divided as follows
Power input = power output + losses
The losses that occur in d.c machines can be divided as follows.
 Electrical or copper losses:- which can further be divided into armature and field
copper losses
 Rotational losses:- which can further be divided into mechanical and iron losses

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Therefore, the three major losses occurring in d.c machines are copper losses, iron
losses and mechanical losses.

Constant losses; this is the sum of rotational losses (iron, mechanical losses) and
shunt field copper losses i.e. these are losses that remain the same regardless of the
changes in load.

Variable losses: this is the sum of armature copper losses and series copper losses
i.e. they vary with the variation in load.

EFFICIENCY OF A D.C. MOTOR

Efficiency is the ratio of the power output to the power input expressed as a
percentage.
Efficiency = power output x 100
Power input

= power output x 100

Power output + losses

= power output x 100

Power output + variable losses + constant losses

= power output x 100

Power output + Ia2Ra +If2Rf + C

Note; Total losses = Ia2Ra +If2Rf + C where C is the sum of the iron and mechanical
losses (friction and windage losses).

For a motor, the input power = VI

And the power output = VI – losses

= VI – (Ia2Ra +If2Rf + C)

Hence for a motor, efficiency, η = Power output x 100

Power input

= power input – losses x 100

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Power input

= VI - (Ia2Ra +If2Rf + C) x 100

VI

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

A d.c machine will operate at maximum efficiency when the variable losses are equal
to the constant losses.

EXAMPLE 15
A 320 V shunt motor takes a total current of 80 A and runs at 1000 rev/min. if the iron,
friction and windage losses amount to 1.5 kW, the shunt field resistance is 40 Ω and
the armature resistance is 0.2 Ω, determine the overall efficiency of the motor.

SOLUTION
Data
V = 320 V
Is = 80 A
N = 1000 rpm
Constant losses, C = 1500 W
Rsh = 40 Ω
Ra = 0.2 Ω

Shunt field current, Ish = V = 320 = 8 A

Rsh 40

Armature current, Ia = Is – Ish = 80 – 8 = 72 A

Hence for a motor, efficiency, η = Power output x 100

Power input

= power input – losses x 100

Power input

= VI - (Ia2Ra +If2Rf + C) x 100

VI

= (320)(80)–[(72)2(0.2)+(8)2(40) +1500] x 100

(320)(80)

= 25 600 – (1036.8 + 2560 + 1500) x 100

25 600
= 20 503.2 x 100
25 600

= 80.1%

EXAMPLE 16

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A 250 V series motor draws a current of 40 A. the armature resistance is 0.15 Ω and
the field resistance is 0.05 Ω. Determine the maximum efficiency of the motor.

SOLUTION
Data
V = 250 V
I = 40 A
Ra = 0.15 Ω
Rsh = 0.05 Ω

Hence for a motor, efficiency, η = Power output x 100

Power input

= power input – losses x 100

Power input

= VI - (Ia2Ra +If2Rf + C) x 100

VI

For maximum efficiency Ia2(Ra + Rf) = C

Hence efficiency, = VI - 2Ia2 (Ra +Rf) x 100

VI

= 250(40) – 2(40)2(0.15 + 0.05) x 100

250 x 40

= 10 000 – 640 x 100

10 000

= 9360 x 100
10 000

= 93.6 %

ARMATURE REACTION AND COMMUTATION

Armature reaction is the distortion of the main flux by the flux set up by the armature
conductors or it is the effect that the armature flux has on the distribution of flux under
the main poles.

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EFFECTS OF ARMATURE REACTION

1. Distortion of the main flux
2. Reduces in the generated emf
3. Reduces the torque of a motor
4. The magnetic neutral plane, MNP shifts
5. Results in sparking at the brushe

COMMUTATION
Commutation is the reversal in the direction of armature current as it passes in a coil
beneath a brush.

CAUSES OF POOR COMMUTATION

Poor commutation results in sparking at the brushes and damage to the commutator
segments this is brought about by electrical or mechanical conditions, these being
1. Uneven commutator segments
2. Non uniform brush pressure
3. Vibration of the brushes in the holders
4. Increase in voltage between the commutator segments
5. Increase in current at the trailing edge of the brush
6. Armature reaction

METHODS OF IMPROVING COMMUTATION

The following are the methods of improving commutation i.e. making the current in the
short circuited coil attain its full value in the reverse direction by the end of the short
circuit period. The methods are
1. By using high resistance brushes
2. By shifting brushes to the new MNP
3. By using interpoles or commutating poles.

STARTING D.C. MOTORS

A starter is a device used to start and accelerate a motor. A controller is a device
used to start, control speed, reverse, stop and protect the motor.

NEED FOR STARTERS

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When a d.c motor is connected to a d.c. supply it draws a very high current at the
instant of starting because the back emf which limits the current when the motor is
running is zero at the instant of starting. The high inrush current at the instant of
starting would result in
I. Heavy sparking at the commutator even flash-overs.
II. Damage to the armature windings, either by the heat developed in the
windings, or by the mechanical forces set up by electro-magnetic action
III. Damage to the rotating parts of the motor and load due to development of large
starting torque and quick acceleration.
IV. Large drop in the supply voltage.

Hence for the protection of the motor against the flow of excessive current during the
starting period (say 5 to 10 seconds). It is necessary that a high resistance be
connected in series with the armature of the motor at the instant of starting and
gradually cut in steps as the motor gains speed and develops back emf and ultimately
when the motor attains its normal speed, this additional resistance is totally
disconnected. If this resistance was to be left in the armature circuit it wound cause a
reduction in the operating efficiency and speed of the motor because of increased
energy losses.
However, a very small motor (fractional kw motor) may be started simply by closing
the switch which connects to the supply mains. This is made possible because
1. The resistance and inductance of the armature winding in the case of small
motors are generally sufficiently large enough to limit the initial inrush current
to values that are not particularly serious.
2. The inertia of a small armature is generally so low that it comes up to speed
very quickly, thereby minimizing the detrimental effects that might be otherwise
result from the excessive sustained current.

TYPES OF FACE PLATE STARTERS

1. Two point face plate starters – used to start series d.c motors only
2. Three point face plate starters – Used to start shunt or compound d.c motors
3. Four point face plate starters – Used to start shunt or compound d.c motors

BRAKING OF D.C MOTORS

To bring motors to a stand still after they have been running can be achieved by any
of the two methods
 Mechanical (or friction) braking
 Electric ( or electro-dynamic braking) braking

Mechanical braking: the stored energy of the rotating parts is dissipated in the form
of heat by a brake shoe or band rubbing on a wheel or a brake drum
Electric braking: the stored energy of rotating parts is converted into electric energy
and dissipated in the resistance in the form of heat or returned to the supply.
The braking of the motor becomes necessary for the motor and its driven machine be
stopped quickly (in machine tools, cranes hoists etc) because if the load is removed
from an electric motor and the supply disconnected it will continue to run for some
time due to its inertia.

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Based on the purpose of for which the braking is employed, it is of two types, viz,
braking while bringing the drive to rest and braking while lowering the loads.

METHODS OF ELECTRIC BRAKING

There are three types of electric braking, these being
1. Plugging (or counter current braking)
2. Dynamic (or rheostatic braking)
3. Regenerative braking

Plugging or counter current braking: in this method of braking the motor terminals are
reconnected during the braking process so that the motor tends to rotate in the
opposite direction

PRESENT DAY USES OF D.C MACHINES

At present bulk electrical energy is generated in the form of alternating current. Hence
the use of d.c. generators is very limited. They are mainly used in supplying excitation
of small and medium range alternators. For industrial applications of d.c. like
electrolytic processes, welding processes and variable speed motor drives, the
present trend is to generate a.c. and then convert it to d.c by the use of rectifiers.
Thus, d.c generators have generally been superseded by rectified ac supplies for
many applications.
Direct current motors are very commonly used as variable-speed drives and
applications where severe torque variations occur.
Series motors: these motors are used where high starting torque is required and
speed can vary, for example traction, cranes etc.
Shunt motor: These motors are used where constant speed is required and starting
conditions are not severe, for example lathes, centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers,
conveyors, lifts etc.
Compound motors: these motors are used where high starting torque and fairly
constant speed is required, for example presses, shears, conveyors, elevators, rolling
mills, heavy planers etc.
Small d.c machines (in fractional kilowatt rating) are used primarily as control devices
such as techogenerators for speed sensing and servomotors for positioning and
tracking.

AC MACHINES
A.C. machines are machines that generate (produce) or use alternating current. A.C.
machines can be classified in accordance to
a) Principle of operation – synchronous motors and asynchronous motors
b) The type of current – single phase and three phases
c) Their speed – constant speed, variable speed and adjustable speed

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d) Their structural features – open, closed, semi enclosed, ventilated, pipe ventilated
and riveted frame eye etc.

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

These are machines that work by the principle of electromagnetic induction and are
supplied with a three phase supply. An induction motor is sometimes known as a
rotating transformer.
CONSTRUCTION
An induction motor consists of two main parts these being;
a. The stationary part – known as a stator
b. The rotating part known as a rotor. The two types of rotors used in induction
motors are squirrel cage rotor and a wound rotor.

SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR

Nearly 90% of all induction motors used in industry are of a squirrel cage type, this is
because it has the simplest and most rugged construction and is almost indestructible.
The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying rotor
conductor. The rotor conductors used are heavy bars of copper, aluminium or an alloy,
which are short circuited at both ends using end rings.

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WOUND ROTOR
The wound rotor consists of a slotted armature. Insulated conductors are put in the
slots and are connected to form a three phase double layer distributed winding similar
to the stator winding. The rotor winding are connected in star. The open ends of the
star circuit are brought outside the rotor and connected to three insulated slip rings.
The slip rings are mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them. The brushes are
connected to three variable resistors connected in star. The purpose of the slip rings
and brushes is to provide a means for connecting external resistors in the rotor circuit.
The resistors enable the variation of each rotor phase resistance to serve two
purposes.
a) To increase the starting torque and decrease the starting current from the
supply.
b) To control the speed of the motor

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

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When the stator of a three phase induction motor is connected to a three phase supply
it produces a revolving flux (rotating at synchronous speed), which cuts the rotor
conductors thereby inducing emf in them. The induced emf in the rotor conductors
causes rotor currents to flow which in turn produce a magnetic flux around the rotor
conductors; the flux around the rotor conductors interacts with the revolving flux
resulting in the rotation of the rotor.
The rotor tries to catch up with the speed of the rotating flux but does not. The
difference in speed between the revolving flux or synchronous speed and the rotor
speed is known as slip speed.
Synchronous speed, Ns is the speed at which the magnetic flux rotates and is given
by
Synchronous speed, Ns = 120f
P
Where f is the supply frequency and P is the number of poles

Rotor speed; this is the speed at which the rotor rotates. It is also known as the motor
speed and is given by

Rotor speed, Nr = Ns (1 – S)

Note: rotor speed and synchronous speed are measured in rev/s or rev/min.

Slip speed; this is the difference in speed between the synchronous speed and the
rotor speed.

Slip speed = synchronous speed – rotor speed

Slip; this is the ratio of the slip speed and the synchronous speed.

Slip = slip speed = Ns – Nr

Synchronous speed Ns

If slip is expressed as a percentage it is known as percentage slip, if it is not

expressed as a percentage it is known as per unit slip.

Note: in an induction motor the speed of the rotor is normally lower than the speed of
the revolving flux.
When the rotor is at standstill the slip is unity, 1 or 100%
When the rotor starts rotating the slip is less than 1 or 100%
If the synchronous speed and the rotor speed where to be equal (Ns = Nr) the slip
would be zero, 0 and the induction motor would come to a standstill.

Rotor current frequency; this is the frequency of the emf induced in the rotor
conductors or it is the frequency of the rotor currents. Rotor current frequency is given
by

Rotor current frequency, fr = slip, s x supply frequency, f

EXAMPLE 1
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A three phase 6 pole induction motor supplied from a 50Hz system has a rated load
speed of 870 rpm. Calculate
a) Synchronous speed
b) Percent slip at the rated load
c) Rotor frequency at the instant of start up
d) Rotor frequency at the rated load speed

SOLUTION
Data
P = 6 poles
f = 50Hz
Nr = 870 rpm

a) Synchronous speed, Ns = 120f = 120 x 50 = 1000 rpm

P 6

b) Percentage slip = Ns – Nr x 100 = 1000 – 870 x 100 = 13 %

Ns 1000

c) Rotor frequency at start up = supply frequency = 50Hz

d) Rotor frequency at rated speed, fr = sf = 0.13 x 50 = 6.5Hz

EXAMPLE 2
A 10Hp, 230V, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 6 pole squirrel cage induction motor operates at full
load slip of 4% when rated voltage and rated frequency are applied. Calculate
a) The speed of the rotating flux
b) The full load speed
c) The frequency of the rotor current under these condition
d) The full load torque

SOLUTION
Data
Power = 10Hp (7460W)
V = 230V
F = 50Hz
P=6
S = 4% (0.04)

a) The speed of the rotating flux (synchronous speed), Ns = 120f = 120 x 50

P 6

= 1000 rpm

b) Full load speed (motor speed), Nr = Ns (1 – S) = 1000 (1 – 0.04)

= 960 rpm

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c) Rotor current frequency, fr = sf = 0.04 x 50 = 2 Hz

d) Full load torque, T = 9.55 Power output = 9.55 x 7460 = 74.2 Nm

Rotor speed 960

EXAMPLE 3
A 380V, 50Hz, 4 pole, three phase induction motor operates with a slip of 0.04 per
unit. Calculate
a) The rotor frequency
b) The rotor speed
c) The per unit slip when the motor speed is 1410 rev/min

SOLUTION
Data
V = 380 V
F = 50 Hz
P=4
S = 0.04
Nr = 1410 rpm

a) The rotor frequency, fr = sf = 0.04 x 50 = 2 Hz

b) The rotor speed, Nr = Ns (1 – S) = 120f (1 – S) = 120 x 50 (1 – 0.04)

P 4

= 1500 (0.96)

= 1440 rpm

c) Per unit slip at 1410 rpm = Ns – Nr = 1500 – 1410 = 0.06

Ns 1500

EXAMPLE 4
A three phase induction motor has 6 poles and is supplied from a 60 Hz supply.
Calculate
a) The synchronous speed
b) The rotor speed when the slip is 5 %.
c) The rotor frequency when the rotor speed is 750 rpm
d) The rotor current frequency at standstill

SOLUTION
Data
P=6
F = 60 Hz

a) The synchronous speed, Ns = 120 f = 120 x 60 = 1200 rpm

P 6

b) The rotor speed at 5% slip, Nr = Ns(1 – S) = 1200 (1 – 0.05) = 1140 rpm

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c) The rotor frequency when the rotor speed is 750rpm, fr = sf = (Ns – Nr) f
Ns

= (1200 – 750) 60
1200

= 0.375 x 60

= 22.5 Hz

d) The rotor current frequency at standstill = supply frequency = 60 Hz

EXAMPLE 5
Compare a three phase squirrel cage induction motor (SCIM) with a three phase
wound rotor induction motor (WRIM) with reference to
a) Starting torque
b) Speed control
c) Speed regulation
d) Starting current
e) Efficiency
f) Initial cost
g) Maintenance cost/repair

SOLUTION

SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR WOUND ROTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

1. Low starting torque 1. High starting torque
2. Speed can be changed by changing 2. Speed can be changed to some
the number of poles of the stator extent by inserting resistance in the
winding rotor circuit
3. Speed is nearly constant (good speed 3. Speed regulation is not very good
regulation)
4. High starting current 4. Low starting current
5. High efficiency 5. Low efficiency
6. Low initial cost 6. High initial cost
7. Low maintenance cost 7. High maintenance cost
8. High power factor on full load 8. Low power factor
9. Low rotor resistance 9. High rotor resistance
10. High starting current 10. Low starting current

THE POWER STAGES OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

The power stages of an induction motor are shown below

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Note: in an induction motor rotational losses refer to friction and windage losses.

The following information can be derived from the table above

Stator power input – stator losses = rotor power input

Rotor input – rotor losses = mechanical power

Mechanical power – rotational power = power output

Power output + rotational losses = mechanical power

Mechanical power + rotor copper losses = rotor power input

Rotor input + stator copper losses = stator power input

THE EFFICIENCY OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

This is the ratio of the power output to the power input expressed as a percentage.

Efficiency, η = Power output x 100

Power input

OTHER FORMULAS HELPFUL IN PERFORMING CALCULATIONS ON

INDUCTION MACHINES

Rotor copper loss = Slip, s x rotor input, P2

Mechanical power, Pm = Rotor input, P2 (1 – S)

Rotor input, P2 = Mechanical power, Pm

(1 – S)

Shaft torque, Tsh = 9.55 Power output, Po

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Rotor speed, Nr

Gross torque, Tg = 9.55 Mechanical power, Pm

Rotor speed, Nr

Gross torque can also be given by, Tg = 9.55 Rotor input, P2

Synchronous speed, Ns

EXAMPLE 6
A three phase four pole, 50Hz induction motor has an output of 25Kw at an efficiency
of 86%. The motor speed is 1440rpm and the rotational losses are 800W.
Calculate the
a) Per unit slip
b) Rotor copper loss
c) Stator copper loss

SOLUTION
Data
F = 50Hz
P. output = 25 Kw
P=4
η = 86%
Nr = 1440 rpm
Rot. Losses = 800W

a) Per unit slip, S = Ns – Nr Ns = 120f = 120 x 50 = 1500 rpm

Ns P 4

= 1500 – 1440
1500

= 0.04

b) Rotor copper loss = slip x rotor input = slip x Mech. Power, Pm

(1 – S)

= slip x P. output + rot. Loss

(1 – S)

= 0.04 x 25 000 + 800

(1 – 0.04)

= 0.04 x 25 800
0.96

= 0.04 x 26 875

= 1075 W

c) Stator copper loss = stator power input – rotor power input

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Stator power input = Power output x 100

η

= 25 000 x 100
86

= 29 069.77 W

Stator copper loss = stator input – rotor input

= 29 069.77 – 26 875

= 2194.77 W

EXAMPLE 7
A 415V, 50 Hz, 3 phase induction motor on full load takes a current of 90A at a power
factor of 0.75 lagging and runs with a slip of 4%. The stator losses are 1.5 Kw and the
rotational losses are 0.82 Kw. Calculate the
a) Input power
b) Rotor copper loss
c) Total mechanical power developed
d) Output power
e) Efficiency
f) Rotor current frequency

SOLUTION
Data
VL = 415 V
F = 50 Hz
IL = 90 A
Cos θ = 0.75 lag.
S = 4% (0.04)
Stator loss = 1500W
Rot. Losses = 820 W

a) Input power, P = √3VLILCos θ = 1.732 x 415 x 90 x 0.75

= 48 517.65 W

b) The rotor copper loss = slip x rotor power input

= slip x stator input – stator loss

= 0.04 x (48 517.65 – 1500)

= 0.04 x 47 017.65

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= 1 880.71 W

c) Total mech. Power, Pm = rotor input, P2 (1 – S)

= 47 017.65 (1 – 0.04)

= 45 136.94 W

d) Output power = Mech. Power, Pm – rotational losses

= 45 136.65 – 820

= 44 316.65 W

e) Efficiency, η = Power output x 100

Power input

= 44 316.65 x 100
48 517.65

= 91.34 %

f) Rotor current frequency, fr = sf = 0.04 x 50 = 2 Hz

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
These are motors that work using a single phase supply and they work using the
principle of electromagnetic induction.

The single phase induction motors are usually classified according to the auxiliary
means used to start the motor. The following types of single phase induction motors
will be considered
i. Split phase motor or Resistance start induction motor.
ii. Capacitor start induction motor
iii. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor (or two value capacitor motor)
iv. Permanent slit capacitor (PSC) motor (or single value capacitor motor)
v. Shaded pole motor

CONSTRUCTION
The construction of a single phase induction motor is quite similar to that of a three
phase induction motor with slight modifications. It consists of a single phase winding
mounted on the stator and a cage winding on the rotor.

Single phase induction consists of a stationary part known as stator and a rotating part
known as a rotor.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
When a single phase supply is connected to the stator winding a pulsating magnetic
field is produced. By pulsating it means that the field builds up in one direction, falls to
zero, and then builds up in the opposite direction. Under these conditions, the rotor

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does not rotate due to its inertia. Therefore, a single phase motor is inherently not self
starting and requires some special starting means. If however, the single phase stator
winding is excited and the rotor of the motor is started by an auxiliary means, and the
starting device is then removed, the motor continues in the direction in which it is
started.
To make a single phase motor self starting an auxiliary winding or start winding is
connected at 90o with the main winding so that it behaves as a two phase supply
motor at the instant of starting which is able to produce a revolving flux, which is
necessary for the production of a rotating magnetic field needed for the operation of
an induction motor.
The resultant of the field produced by the start and main winding is a rotating field.
This rotating field react with the cage rotor to provide the starting torque.

SPLIT PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

A split phase induction motor consists of s squirrel cage rotor and its stator has two
windings – the main winding and a starting (auxiliary) winding which are displaced in
space by 90o. The main winding has very low resistance and high inductive reactance
while the start winding has high resistance and low reactance since it has a resistor
connected in series with it.

Centrifugal
switch (or relay)
I

IM
Main winding

RM
1- phase V Rotor
supply
XM

IA
RA XA

Starting or auxiliary
winding
When a split phase induction motor is connected to a single phase supply, the start
and main winding produce a rotating magnetic flux which later results in the operation
of the rotor, once the rotor reaches 70 to 80 % of the synchronous speed the start or
auxiliary winding is automatically disconnected by a relay or a centrifugal switch.

REVERSAL OF DIRECTION OF ROTATION

The direction of rotation of a resistance start induction motor can be reversed by
reversing the line connections of either the main or start winding. The reversal of
rotation should be made only when the motor is at standstill but not while running.

MOTOR CHARACTERISTIC

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The starting torque of a resistance start induction motor is about 1.5 times full load
torque. The maximum or pull out torque is about 2.5 times full load torque at about
75% of synchronous speed. The split phase motor has a high starting current which is
usually 7 to 8 times the full load value.

APPLICATION
Split phase motors are cheap and they are most suitable for easily started loads
where the frequency of starting is limited. The common application are washing
machines, air conditioning fans, food mixers, grinders, floor polishers, blowers,
centrifugal pumps, small drills, lathes, office machinery, diary machines etc. because
of low starting torque, they are seldom used for drives requiring more than more than
1 KW.

CAPACITOR MOTORS
Capacitor motors are single phase induction motors that employ a capacitor in the
auxiliary winding circuit to produce a greater phase difference (necessary to produce a
revolving flux) between the current in the main and auxiliary windings. There are three
types of capacitor motors.

CAPACITOR – START MOTOR

A capacitor start motor has a cage rotor and it has two windings namely, the main
winding and the auxiliary winding (starting winding). The two windings are displaced in
space by 90o. A capacitor Cs is connected in series with the starting winding. A
centrifugal switch Sc is also connected as shown below.

By choosing a capacitor of the proper rating the current IM in the main winding may be
made to lag the current IA in the auxiliary winding by 90o resulting in the production of a
rotating magnetic field. Thus, a single phase supply is split into two phases to be
applied to the stator windings.
As the motor approaches its rated speed the auxiliary winding and the starting
capacitor Cs are disconnected automatically by the centrifugal switch Sc mounted on

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the shaft. The motor is so named because it uses the capacitor only for the purpose of
starting.

MOTOR CHARACTERISTIC
The capacitor start motor develops a much higher starting torque (3 to 4.5 times the
full load torque) than does an equally rated resistance start motor. The value of the
starting capacitor must be large and the starting winding must have low resistance so
as to obtain a high starting torque. Because of the high VAr rating of the capacitor
required, electrolytic capacitors of the order 250µF are used. The capacitor Cs is a
short time rated capacitor.
Capacitor start motors are more costly than a split phase motor because of the
additional cost of the capacitor.

REVERSAL OF THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION

The capacitor start motor is reversed by reversing the connection of either the start or
run winding and not both. The motor must first be brought to rest for this purpose.

APPLICATION
Capacitor start motors are used for loads of higher inertia where frequent starts are
required. These motors are most suitable for pumps and compressors, and therefore
are widely used in refrigerators and air conditioner compressors. They are also used
for conveyors and machine tools.

CAPACITOR START CAPACITOR RUN OR A TWO VALUE CAPACITOR MOTOR

A capacitor start capacitor run motor has a cage rotor and its starter has two windings
namely the main winding and the auxiliary winding necessary for the production of a
rotating flux. The two windings are displaced in space by 90o. The motor uses two
capacitors CS and CR. The two capacitors are connected in parallel.

The capacitor CS is called the starting capacitor and has high capacitance, low
capacitive reactance i.e. it allows a high current to flow resulting in a high starting
torque. The capacitor CS is short time rated and is almost electrolytic.

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The capacitor CR has a small capacitance meaning it has a high inductive reactance, it
is known as a run capacitor it is long time rated for continuous running and is usually
of oil filled paper construction. Since one capacitor CS is used for starting and the
other capacitor CR is used for continuous running, this motor is known as a capacitor
start capacitor run motor.

Capacitor start capacitor run motors are quiet and smooth running, they have a higher
efficiency than motors that run on the main winding alone.

APPLICATION
Two value capacitor motors are used for loads of higher inertia requiring frequent
starts where maximum pull out torque and efficiency required are higher. They are
used in pumping equipment, refrigeration, air compressors etc.

PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR (PSC) MOTOR

A permanent split capacitor motor (PSC) motor has a cage rotor and its stator has two
windings, namely the main winding and the auxiliary winding. This single phase
induction motor has only one capacitor C which is connected in series with the starting
winding. The capacitor C is permanently connected in the circuit both at starting and
running conditions. A permanent split capacitor motor is also known as a single value
capacitor motor. Since the capacitor C is always in the circuit, this type of motor has
no starting switch. The auxiliary winding is always in the circuit, and therefore this
motor operates in the same way as a balanced two phase motor. Consequently, it
produces a uniform torque. The motor is therefore less noisy during operation.

ADVANTAGES
A single value capacitor motor possesses the following advantages
1. No centrifugal switch is required
2. It has higher efficiency
3. It has higher power factor because of a permanently connected capacitor
4. It has a higher pull out torque

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LIMITATIONS
1. Electrolytic capacitors cannot be used for continuous running. Therefore paper
spaced oil filled type capacitors are used. Paper capacitors of equivalent rating
are larger in size and more costly
2. A single value capacitor has a low starting torque usually less than the full load
torque.

APPLICATION
Permanent split capacitor motors are used for fans and blowers in heaters and air
conditioners and to drive refrigerator compressors. They are also used to drive
office machinery.

SHADED POLE MOTOR

A shaded pole motor is a simple type of a self starting single phase induction
motor. It consists of a stator and a cage rotor. The stator is made of salient poles.
Each pole is slotted on one side and a copper ring is fitted on the smaller part a as
shown below. This part is called the shaded pole. The ring is usually a single turn
coil and is known as shading coil.

When alternating current flows in the field winding, an alternating flux is produced
in the field core. A portion of this flux links with the shading coil, which behaves as

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a short circuited secondary of a transformer. A voltage is induced in the shading

coil, and this voltage circulates a voltage in it. The induced current produces a flux
called the induced flux which opposes the main core flux. The shading coil, thus,
causes the flux in the shaded portion a to lag behind the flux in the unshaded
portion b of the pole. At the same time, the flux and the shaded pole flux are
displaced in space. This space displacement is less than 90o. Because of the
displacement a rotating magnetic flux is produced which in turn causes the rotation
of the rotor. The direction of rotation of the flux is from the unshaded to the shaded
portion of the pole.

In a shaded pole motor reversing the direction of rotation in the motor is

impossible.

APPLICATION
Shaded pole motors are very cheap; the starting torque developed by a shaded
pole motor is very low. The losses are high and the power factor is low,
consequently the efficiency is also very low. For this reason, the shaded pole
motor is built in small sizes of power rating of the order 40W or less. They are used
to drive devices which require low starting torque they are suitable for small
devices like relays, fans of all kinds etc. because of their low initial cost and easy
starting. The most common applications are table fans, exhaust fans, hair driers,
fans for refrigeration and air conditioning equipments, electronic equipment,
cooling fans etc. they are also used in record players, tape recorders, slide
projectors, photocopying machines, in starting electric clocks and other
synchronous timing motors.
.
COMPARISON BETWEEN SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE MOTORS
Most single phase induction motors are constructed in fractional kilowatt capacity
and are used in places where three phase supply is not readily available. Singles
phase motors when compared with 3 phase induction motors have the following
disadvantages
i. Single phase motors develop about 50% of the output of that of 3 phase
motors for the same size and temperature rise.
ii. Single phase motors have lower power factor
iii. The starting torque is low in single phase motors
iv. Single phase motors have lower efficiency
v. Single phase motors are costlier than 3 phase motors of the same rating

SINGLE PHASE SERIES (UNIVERSAL MOTOR)

The single phase series motor is a commutator type motor that works with a d.c or an
a.c supply.

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The universal motor is simple and cheap. It is used for ratings usually not greater than
750W.

The characteristics of universal motors are very much similar to those of a series d.c
motor, but the series motor develops less torque when operating from an a.c. supply
than when working from an equivalent d.c. supply.
The direction of rotation can be changed by interchanging connection to the field with
respect to the armature as in a d.c. series motor.

The speed control of universal motors is best obtained by solid state devices. Since
the speed of these motors is not limited by the supply frequency and may be as high
as 20,000 rpm. (Greater than the maximum synchronous speed of 3000 rpm at 50Hz),
they are most suitable for applications requiring high speeds.

There are numerous applications where universal motors are used, such as portable
drills, hair dryers, grinders, table fans, blowers, polishers, kitchen appliances etc. they
are used for many other purposes where speed control and high values of speed are
necessary. Universal motors of the same horse power rating are significantly smaller
than other kinds of a.c. motors operating at the same frequency.

ALTERNATORS
An alternator is a machine that generates alternating current, it is also known as an
a.c generator or synchronous generator. Rotating machines that rotate at a speed
fixed by the supply frequency and the number of poles are called synchronous
machines.

CONSTRUCTION
An alternator consists of the following main parts
Stationary part – stator; which carries the armature windings in which emf is
generated
The rotating part – rotor – salient pole rotor and a cylindrical rotor
An exciter – d.c. generator or any source of direct current

SPEED AND FREQUENCY

The frequency of the generated voltage depends upon the number of field poles and
on the speed at which the field poles are rotated.

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The frequency of the generated emf is given by f = PN .

120
Where P is the number of field poles
N is the speed of the field poles in rpm

The synchronous speed is given by Ns = 120f

P

RATING OF AN ALTERNATOR
An alternator is rated in accordance to three basic factor
1. Frequency
2. Voltage
3. Current

The first (frequency) fixes the speed at which the alternator must be driven; the
second states the designed output voltage; and the third is full load current output.
The last two factors help establish the volt-ampere rating usually expressed in KVA or
MVA.
The rating of an alternator is usually given in KVA or MVA because the load operating
power factor is unknown. The power factor of any load placed on the alternator is
beyond the control of the manufacturer and because it could vary considerably, the
alternator rating cannot be given in KW.

GENERATED EMF
The emf generated by an alternator per phase is given by Eg/phase = 4.44ΦfK dKpT
Where Φ is the flux
F is the frequency
T is the number of turns or coils per phase
Kd is the distribution factor
Kp is the pitch factor

The generated emf/phase can also be given by Ep = 4.44fΦT with the following
assumption
a) Coils have got full pitch
b) All the conductors are concentrated in one stator slot

SYNCHRONISING OF ALTERNATORS
This is the connection of alternators in parallel and the following are the conditions
needed to connect alternators in parallel.
a) The frequency of the incoming alternator must be the same as that of the
running alternator or the bus bar
b) The voltage of the incoming alternator must be the same as that of the running
alternator or that of the bus bar
c) The phase sequence of the incoming alternator must be the same as that of the
bus bar or running alternator.

REASONS FOR SYNCHRONISING ALTERNATORS

1. Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator

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2. During periods of lighter loads, one or more alternators may be shut down, and
those remaining operate at or near full load and thus more efficiently
3. When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance and
inspection, the remaining machines maintain the continuity of supply.
4. If there is a breakdown of a generator there is no interruption of power supply.
5. In order to meet the increasing future demand of load more machines can be
added without disturbing the original installation.
6. The operating cost and the cost of energy generated are reduced when several
generators operate in parallel.
Thus, parallel operation of alternators ensures greater security of supply and enables
overall economic generation.

METHODS OF SYNCHRONISING ALTERNATORS

a) Using synchronising lamps – the dark lamp method and the bright lamp method
b) Using a synchroscope
c) Automatic synchronisation using microprocessors

SYNCHRONISING ALTERNATORS USING SYNCHRONISING LAMPS

DARK LAMP METHOD

In this method the synchronising switch is closed in the middle of the dark period when
all the three lamps are off if all the conditions necessary for synchronising alternators
have been satisfied i.e. the voltage is checked using a voltmeter which is connected
as shown in the diagram below. The requirement of frequency is satisfied when all the
three lamps are coming on and off at the same time after some time (slower rate).
When all the lamps are coming on and off at a faster rate then there is a bigger
difference in frequency between the running and incoming alternator as a result the
excitation to the poles and the speed of the prime mover are adjusted until the lamps
come on for some time and off for some time then the requirement of frequency is
satisfied.
The requirement of phase sequence is satisfied when all the lamps are coming on and
off at the same time, if the three lamps are coming on at different times then the phase
sequence is different as a result any two phases are swapped until all the three lamps
come on and off at the same time.

TWO BRIGHT AND ONE DARK LAMP METHOD

In this method the synchronising switch is closed when two lamps are ON and one
lamp is OFF provided all the conditions for parallel operation have been satisfied.

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SYNCHRONISING ALTERNATORS USING A SYNCHROSCOPE

A synchroscope is an instrument that indicates both phase relationship and the
relative speed of an incoming alternator. There are variations between manufactures
in the operating principle, but in general a synchroscope consists of a two phase stator
connected to an incoming alternator, with the rotor wound with a polarising coil and
connected to the supply source. Some models use rotating vanes with no electrical
connection to the rotor.
When a synchroscope is connected it compares voltage from one phase of the
incoming machine with that of the corresponding three phase of the bus bar. The
position of the pointer of the synchroscope indicates the phase difference between the
voltages of the incoming machine and the infinite bus bar. When the frequencies are
equal the pointer is stationary. When the frequencies are different the pointer rotates
in one direction or the other. The direction of rotation of the pointer indicates whether
the incoming machine is too fast or too slow, that is whether the frequency of the
incoming machine is higher or lower than that of the infinite bus bar. The speed of
rotation of the pointer is equal to the difference between the frequency of the incoming
machine and the frequency of the infinite bus bar. The frequency and phase positions
are controlled by adjustment of the prime mover input to the incoming machine. When
the indicator (pointer) moves very slowly (that is frequencies are almost the same) and
passes through the zero phase point ( the vertical up position) the circuit breaker is
closed and the incoming alternator is connected to the bus. It is to be noted that a

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synchroscope checks the relationship only on one phase. It gives no information about
phase sequence.

MACHINE FLOATING ON THE BUSBAR

When synchronised, the generated emf of the incoming machine is just equal to the
busbar voltage. The incoming machine is said to be floating on the busbar. At this
instant it will receive nor deliver any power. The mover driving the incoming machine
will be supplying the no load losses only.

INFINITE BUS
An infinite bus is a large power system that has a constant voltage and frequency
regardless of how much real power and reactive power is drawn from it.
An infinite bus would have different generators (connected in parallel) from power
stations or the same power station connected to a common bus thus, the system
behaves like a large generator having virtually zero internal impedance and infinite
rotational inertia. Such a system of constant voltage and frequency regardless of the
load is called infinite busbar system or simply infinite bus.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
This is a synchronous motor is a machine that converts ac electric power to
mechanical power at a constant speed called synchronous speed. A synchronous
motor is a doubly exited motor. Its rotor poles are excited with direct current (dc) and

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its stator windings are connected to the a.c. supply. The air gap flux is, therefore, the
resultant of the fluxes due to rotor current ant stator current.

CONSTRUCTION
The construction of a 3 phase synchronous motor is essentially the same as that of a
synchronous generator. It consists of the following parts
1. The stator (stationary part) which houses the three phase armature winding and
is wound for the same number of poles as the stator and is supplied with
alternating current.
2. The rotor (rotating part); the two types of rotors used in synchronous motors are
– salient pole rotor (used for low speed) and a cylindrical rotor (used for high
speed).
An additional set of windings, called the damper winding, is mounted on the
rotor. This winding is placed is placed in slots located in the pole faces and
parallel to the shaft. The ends of the copper bars are short circuited in the same
manner as the cage rotor of an induction motor. Damper windings provide a
means of starting the synchronous motor. They also serve to increase the
stability of the motor during load transients.

A synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine; its armature winding is energised

from an a.c source and its field winding from a d.c. source.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Consider a two pole synchronous motor shown in the figure below. When a three
phase voltage is applied to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field is produced in
the air gap. The stator field rotates at synchronous speed. With the rotor stationary,
when a pair of rotating stator poles sweeps across the stationary rotor poles, the stator
poles will tend to rotate the rotor in one direction and then in the other. However,
because of the rotor inertia, the stator field slides by so fast so that the rotor can not
follow it. Consequently, the rotor does not move, hence the starting torque is zero. In
other words a synchronous motor is not self starting.

When the synchronous motor is started using an external prime mover or damper
windings, the rotor speed is brought near synchronous speed, at that instant the rotor
poles are excited by supplying them with direct current. Once the rotor has been
excited it is pulled into synchronism (the rotor poles and the revolving flux interlock),
resulting in the rotor running at synchronous speed.

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MAIN FEATURES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Some characteristic features of synchronous motors are as follows:
1. It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all. That is, while running it
maintains a constant speed. The speed is independent of the load.
2. It is not inherently self starting. It has to be run up to synchronous speed by
some means before it can be synchronised to the supply.
3. It can be operated under a wide range of power factor both lagging and
leading.
4. It will stall if while running, the counter torque is increased beyond the
maximum torque that the machine can develop.

STARTING OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Since a synchronous motor is not self starting, it can be started by the following two
ways.
1. Starting with the help of an external prime mover
2. Starting with the help of damper windings

STARTING BY MEANS OF AN EXTERNAL PRIME MOVER OR PONY MOTOR

In this method an external prime mover (pony motor-induction motor) drives the
synchronous motor and brings it to synchronous or near synchronous speed and then
synchronise it.
A small induction motor called pony motor (auxiliary motor) is mounted on the same
shaft or coupled to the synchronous motor as shown below. The auxiliary motor
should have the same number of poles as the synchronous motor or preferably one
pole pair less so that it can rotate the motor nearly at synchronous speed. Firstly the
supply is given the pony motor which rotates the rotor of the synchronous motor near
to the synchronous speed, then the main switch and d.c switch of the synchronous
motor are closed. The rotor poles are pulled into synchronism with the rotating field
(poles) of the stator (armature). The supply to the auxiliary motor is disconnected and
it acts as a load on the main motor.

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At present most large synchronous motors are provided with brushless excitation
systems mounted on their shafts. These exciters are used in starting motors

STARTING WITH THE HELP OF DAMPER WINDINGS

This is the most common method of starting synchronous motors. In this method the
motor is first started as an induction motor by providing a special winding on the rotor
poles known as damper windings or a squirrel cage winding. Damper winding consists
of heavy copper bars inserted in slots of the pole face. These bars are short circuited
by end rings at both ends of the rotor.
When a three phase supply is connected to the stator, the synchronous motor with
damper windings will start as a three phase induction motor. As the motor attains
about 95% of synchronous speed, the rotor winding is excited by supplying d.c and
the rotor field is magnetically locked with the stator rotating field and the motor starts
operating as a synchronous motor.

HUNTING OR PHASE SWINGING

Hunting is the oscillation of the rotor about its final equilibrium position due to sudden
changes in load. The term hunting is used to signify that after sudden application in
load, the rotor attempts to search for or hunt for its equilibrium new space position.
A steady state operation of a synchronous motor is a state of equilibrium in which the
electromagnetic torque is equal and opposite to the load torque. If the is a sudden
change in load, the equilibrium is disturbed, and this changes the speed of the motor.
i.e. when the load suddenly increases the rotor lags slightly and when the load
reduces the rotor leads slightly (out of equilibrium) for a short period and it later gets
back in equilibrium.
Hunting occurs not only in the synchronous motors but also in the synchronous
generators upon abrupt changes in load.

CUASES OF HIUNTING
1. Sudden changes in load
2. Faults occurring in the system which the generator supplies
3. Sudden changes in the field current
4. Cyclic variation of the load torque

EFFECTS OF HUNTING
1. It can lead to loss of synchronism
2. It can cause variations of the supply voltage producing undesirable lamp flicker
3. It increases the possibility of resonance. If the frequency of the torque
component becomes equal to that of the transient oscillations of the
synchronous machine, resonance may take place.
4. Large mechanical stresses may developed in the rotor shaft
5. The machine losses increase and the temperature of the machine rises.
Of these effects, the first is the most important phenomenon to be avoided.

REDUCTION OF HUNTING
The following are some of the techniques used to reduce hunting:
1. Damper winding
2. Use of flywheels

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The prime mover is provided with a large and heavy flywheel. This increases
the inertia of the prime mover and helps in maintaining the rotor speed
constant.
3. By designing synchronous machine with suitable synchronising power
coefficients.

SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER)

A synchronous compensator is an over excited synchronous motor that draws a
leading current, under such conditions it behaves like a capacitor hence it is called a
synchronous capacitor. It is also kwon as a synchronous compensator or synchronous
phase modifier.
When the motor power factor is unity, the d.c excitation is said to be normal. Over
excitation causes the motor to operate at a leading power factor. Under excitation
causes it to operate at a lagging power factor. When a synchronous motor is running
at no load and is over excited it draws a leading current.

APPLICATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Synchronous motors are mainly used in constant speed applications. The
development of semiconductor variable frequency sources, such as inverters and
cycloconverters, has allowed their use in variable speed applications such as high
power and high speed compressors, blowers, induced and forced draft fans, mainline
traction, servo drives etc.
Since a synchronous motor condenser behaves like a variable inductor or variable
capacitor, it is used in power transmission lines to regulate line voltage. Synchronous
motors are used for power factor improvement in plants to compensate for the lagging
current drawn by induction motors.
The applications can be summarised as follows
i) They are used for power factor improvement in large industries and substations
ii) They are used are used to control the voltage at the end of the transmission
line by varying their excitation
iii) They are used in textile mills, cement factories, mining industries and rubber for
power applications. The motors are mostly used to drive continuously operated
and constant speed equipment such ads centrifugal pumps, centrifugal fans, air
compressors, motor generator sets.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS AND INDUCTION

MOTORS

Synchronous motor Induction motor

1. A synchronous motor is a doubly An induction motor is a singly excited
excited machine. Its armature is machine. Its stator winding is excited
energised from an a.c source and its from a dc source.
field winding from a d.c source

2. It always runs at synchronous speed. It speed falls with the increase in load
The speed is independent of load and is always less than the
synchronous speed

3. It is not self starting. It has to run up An induction motor has got self starting

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to synchronous speed by some torque

means before it can be synchronised
to ac supply

4. A synchronous motor can be An induction motor operates only at

operated under a wide range of lagging power factor, which becomes
power factors, both lagging and very poor at light loads
leading by changing its excitation

5. It can be used for power factor An induction motor is used for driving
correction in to supplying torque to mechanical loads only
drive mechanical loads

6. It is more efficient than induction It efficiency is leaser than that of a

motor of the same output and voltage synchronous motor of the same output
rating and voltage rating

7. A synchronous motor is costlier than An induction motor is cheaper than a

an induction motor of the same output synchronous motor of the same output
and voltage rating and voltage rating.

INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation is the study of measuring instruments, their properties, application and
use. Electrical measuring instruments can be grouped as follows.
1. indicating instruments
2. integrating instruments
3. recording instruments
Indicating instruments: these are instruments that have a pointer and a scale. The
pointer indicates the magnitude of the current flowing in the circuit on the scale.
Indicating measuring instruments indicate the magnitude of the actuating quantity as
long as the instrument is connected in the circuit when it is disconnected the pointer
returns to zero i.e. they do not keep any record of the reading e.g. ammeter, voltmeter
and wattmeter’s etc.
Integrating instrument: these are measuring instruments that keep a record of the
quantity under measurement from the time they are connected to the supply, to the
time of reading the instrument e.g. ampere hour meters and kilowatt hour meters
(energy meter).
Recording instruments: these are instruments that keep a record of the quantity
under measurement on a graph paper which is moved at a uniform low speed. The
pointer of this type of instrument is provided with a marking device (i.e. pen or pencil)
and moves over the graph paper. Recording instrument are similar to integrating
instruments the difference being that a recording instrument keeps the record on a
piece of graph paper.

ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

As stated earlier indicating instruments are provided with a pointer that deflects over
the scale and consists of three essential features or torques, these being
i) Deflecting device or deflecting torque
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ii) Controlling device or controlling torque

iii) Damping device or damping torque
Deflecting device or torque: this is a device or torque that causes the deflection of
the pointer over a scale from its zero position. Deflecting torque can be produced by
either a moving iron or a moving coil as it will be seen later.
Controlling device or torque: This is the torque that opposes the deflection of the
pointer thereby bringing the pointer to rest thus indicating the magnitude of the
quantity being measured. Controlling torque is usually produced by a control spring or
gravity control.
Damping device or torque: this is the torque that prevents the pointer from oscillating
about its final position. Damping is achieved by using any of the following;
1. Fluid damping
2. Air damping
3. Eddy current damping

MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS:

A moving coil instrument is an instrument where the deflection of the pointer is caused
by the movement of a coil.
Moving coil instruments can be divided into two these being
1. Permanent magnet moving coil instrument (PMMC) – used to measure d.c
only.
2. Dynamometer type moving coil instrument – which is used to measure both a.c
and d.c

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

A permanent magnet moving coil instrument in which the deflection of the pointer is
caused by the movement of a coil placed in a magnetic field produced by the
permanent magnets.
Construction: A PMMC instrument consists of the following main parts
1. moving system
2. Magnet system
3. control system
4. damping system
5. pointer and scale

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Moving system: The moving system essentially consists of a light rectangular or

cylindrical former on which a multi turn rectangular of insulated copper or aluminium
wire is wound. Formers may be of aluminium or copper but aluminium is usually
preferred on account of weight and inertia. In some cases formers of phosphor bronze
or German silver is used in order to avoid over damping. The former is usually lightly
insulated.
Magnet system: A U-shaped permanent magnet is widely used and is made of Alnico
and has soft iron end pole pieces which are bored out cylindrically. Between the
magnetic poles is a fixed iron cylinder whose main function is to
i) to make the field radial and uniform
ii) to reduce the reluctance of the air path between the poles and hence
increase the field strength
Control system: The controlling torque is produced by two phosphor bronze hair
springs, either helical or spiral coiled in opposite directions and are normally equal in
strength. The control spring also conduct the operating current into and out of the
moving coil.
Damping system: usually eddy current damping is employed.
Pointer and scale: the pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over the graduated
scale and indicates the angular deflection of the coil and therefore, the current flowing
through the coil. The pointer is a light aluminium tube flattened at one end into the
form of a vertical knife edge. The scale markings are linearly or evenly spaced as the
deflection torque or deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current
flowing through the moving coil. In order to remove parallax error the scale is mounted
on a raised platform and a mirror is provided beneath the pointer.

Characteristics of a moving coil instrument

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The following are the characteristics of a moving coil instrument,

1. It has a linear or even scale
2. it measures d.c only
3. it is more accurate
4. it is costly
5. it has a high sensitivity
6. it employs eddy current damping
7. it employs spring control.
8. it has a low power consumption
9. it is well shielded from stray magnetic fields.

MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

A moving iron instrument is an instrument where the deflection of the pointer is caused
by the movement of an iron piece. They are two types of moving iron instruments
these being;
1. Attraction moving iron instrument
2. Repulsion moving iron instrument

ATTRACTION MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT

An attraction moving iron instrument is an instrument where the deflection of the
pointer is caused by the attraction of a moving iron.
Construction: It consists of a fixed air core coil made of insulated wire and an oval
shaped iron disc which is fitted with a spindle kept in between the coil. The spindle is
placed between the two jewel bearings. A pointer is attached to the spindle and can
freely move. The figure below shows the construction of an attraction moving iron
instrument.
For controlling torque either gravity control or spring control is used. Gravity control is
used for fixed instruments only in the figure W1 is the weight for balancing and W2 is
for gravity control. For damping air friction is provided. The current that produces the
deflection passes through the coil.

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Working: When the instrument is connected to the quantity under measurement a

current flows through the coil and produces a magnetic field which drags the moving
iron (disc) inside, thus causing the pointer to move over the scale (indicating the
quantity under measurement) due to the spindle that is caused to rotate. The force of
deflection exerted by the disc or moving coil is proportional to the square of the current
passing through the coil, as a result the scale of an attraction moving iron instrument
is crowded at the starting and finishing ends.
If the direction of current in the fixed coil changes the direction of the field produced by
it also changes and therefore the magnetic field induced in the moving coil also
changes or reverses, hence the direction of the torque will not change. An attraction
moving coil instrument is therefore, used on both a.c and d.c circuits to measure high
currents.

REPULSION MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT

A repulsion moving iron instrument is an instrument where the deflection of the pointer
is caused by the repulsion of an iron piece.

Construction; a repulsion moving iron instrument consists a hollow cylindrical fixed

coil made of insulated copper wire. Inside the coil there are two strips of iron, one strip
is fixed and is known as the fixed iron while the other strip is known as a moving iron.
The moving iron is attached to the spindle which is free to move between the two
jewel bearings. For air damping a chamber and a vane are provided. Spring or gravity
control is in used in moving iron instruments.

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Working: A repulsion moving iron instrument works on the principle that when two
soft iron strips are placed in the same magnetic field they have the same polarity as a
result they experience a force of repulsion between them which tends to move the
pointer on the scale whenever they are connected to the quantity under measurement.
The deflection force is proportional to the square of the current as a result the scale is
cramped at the beginning and it finishing ends.

Characteristics of a moving iron instrument

The following are the characteristics of moving iron instruments whether attraction or
repulsion,
1. it has an uneven or non linear scale
2. it measures either a.c or d.c
3. it is less accurate
4. it has a low sensitivity
5. it is robust in construction
6. it uses air damping
7. the deflection force is proportional to the square of the current
8. Due to the inductance of the solenoid, readings may be affected by variation in
frequency
9. It is affected by stray magnetic fields
10. It is liable to temperature errors
11. it has Hysteresis errors in d.c circuits

AMMETER
An ammeter is an instrument of very low resistance that is used to measure current
and is usually connected in series with the load whose current is to be measured.
EXTENDING THE RANGE OF AN AMMETER
To enable an ammeter measure high current its range can be extended by

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i. Connecting a resistor in parallel with the moving system and the resistor
connected is known as a shunt resistor.
ii. Connecting the ammeter on the secondary of a current transformer (by
using a current transformer)

The value of the shunt resistor is given by, RS = IaRa ohms

Is
Where IaRa = IsRs
A large portion of the current is diverted through a low value resistance (diverter or
shunt) connected in parallel with the meter.

VOLTMETER
A voltmeter is an instrument of high resistance that is used to measure voltage and is
connected in parallel with the load whose voltage is to be measured.

EXTENDING THE RANGE OF A VOLTMETER

To enable a voltmeter measure high values of voltage its range can be extended by
i. Connecting a resistor in series with the moving system and the resistor is
known as a multiplier.
ii. Connecting a voltmeter on the secondary of a voltage transformer (by using
a voltage transformer)

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The supply voltage, V = Va + VM = Ira + IRM

The value of the multiplier is given by, RM = V – Ira ohms

I

EXAMPLES
1. A permanent moving coil instrument has an internal resistance of 100Ω and
requires a current of 1mA to reach the full scale deflection (f.s.d.) Determine
i) The value of the shunt resistor necessary to extend the range to 500mA
ii) The value of the multiplying resistor necessary to extend the range to 250V

SOLUTION
Data
Resistance of instrument ra= 100Ω
Current for f.s.d. Ia= 1mA
Supply voltage, V = 250V

Value of shunt resistor, RS = IaRa ohms Is = I - Ia = 500mA – 1mA

Is
= 0.499A
= 1 x 10-3 x 100
0.499

= 0.20Ω

Value of multiplier, RM = V – Ira ohms

I

= 250 – (1 x 10-3 x 100)

1 x 10-3

= 249
0.001

= 249 000 Ω

2. A permanent magnet moving coil meter with an internal resistance of 100Ω

requires 1mA to give full scale deflection (f.s.d). Calculate the value of the shunt
resistor required to give the meter a full scale deflection range of 10A

SOLUTION
Data
Resistance of instrument ra= 100Ω
Current for f.s.d. Ia= 1mA
Current to be measured = 10A

Value of shunt resistor, RS = IaRa ohms Is = I - Ia = 10A – 1mA

Is
= 9.999A
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= 1 x 10-3 x 100
9.999

= 0.001 Ω

3. A permanent magnet moving coil meter has an internal resistance of 200Ω and
requires a current of 2mA to give full scale deflection. Determine the value of the
multiplying resistance required to enable the meter to be used as a voltmeter
reading up to 100V at full scale deflection.

SOLUTION
Data
Resistance of instrument ra= 200Ω
Current for f.s.d. Ia= 2mA
Supply voltage V = 100V

Value of multiplier, RM = V – Ira ohms

I

= 100 – (2 x 10-3 x 200)

2 x 10-3

= 99.6
0.002

= 49 800 Ω

4. A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection with 15mA and has a moving
assembly with a resistance of 5Ω. Calculate the value of the required resistance to
be connected
i) in parallel with the instrument to enable the meter read a current of 3A
ii) in series with the instrument to enable it be used as a voltmeter to read a
voltage of 250V.

SOLUTION
Data
Resistance of instrument ra= 5Ω
Current for f.s.d. Ia= 15mA
Supply voltage V = 250V
Current to be measured = 3A

Value of shunt resistor, RS = IaRa ohms Is = I - Ia = 3A – 15mA

Is
= 2.985A
= 15 x 10-3 x 5
2.985

= 0.025 Ω

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Value of multiplier, RM = V – Ira ohms

I

= 250 – (15 x 10-3 x 5)

15 x 10-3

= 249.925
0.015

= 16 661.67 Ω

OHMMETER
An ohmmeter is a dead circuit measuring instrument that is used to measure
resistance i.e. it measures resistance when the circuit is dead (when there is no
current flowing).
In an ohmmeter the current or energy needed by the instrument to operate is provided
by the battery.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

A CRO is an instrument that is used in the observation of waveforms and for the
measurement of voltage, current, frequency, phase and periodic time.
For examining periodic waveforms, the electronic beam is deflected horizontally (i.e. in
the X direction) by a sawtooth generator acting as a time base. The signal to be
examined is applied to the vertical deflection system (Y direction) usually after
amplification.
Oscilloscopes normally have a transparent grid of 10mm by 10mm in front of the
screen known as a graticule. Among the time base controls is a variable switch which
gives the sweep speed as time per centimetre. This may be in s/cm, ms/cm or μs/cm
a large number of switch positions being available. Also, on the front panel of a CRO
is a Y amplifier switch marked in volts per centimetre, with a large number of variable
switch positions.

POWER MEASUREMENT
Power is measured by an instrument known as a wattmeter.
A dynamometer wattmeter is a moving coil instrument that is used to measure power
in watts, it consists of two coils the current coil and the voltage coil
A current coil is connected in series with the load whose power is to be
measured and it has very low resistance it is similar to an ammeter.
A voltage coil is connected in parallel with the load whose power is to be
measured and has a very high resistance just like a voltmeter. A voltage coil is
also known as a potential or pressure coil.

A correctly connected wattmeter will give an accurate measure of the power in any a.c
or d.c circuit. It is essentially a moving coil instrument in which the main magnetic field
is produced by two fixed coils. The moving coil is the voltage coil and rotates within
the fixed coils being pivoted centrally between them and controlled by spiral hair
springs.
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The main magnetic field is produced by the current in the fixed coil (current coil) and is
proportional to it. The force rotating the moving coil is proportional to its current and
the magnetic field strength produced by the fixed coils. The deflection is proportional
to the product of the currents in the fixed and moving coils. Since the moving coil
current depends upon the voltage and the fixed coils depend upon the current, the
meter deflection is proportional to V x I = power in watts.
Any change in the direction of the current in the circuit affects both coils and the
direction of deflection remains unchanged, allowing the instrument to be used on both
a.c and d.c circuits. On a.c circuits the deflection will be the average value of the
product of the instantaneous values of current and voltage, meaning that the
wattmeter will measure the true power or active power in the circuit, in which the
deflection is proportional to VICos θ (watts). Damping is achieved by an air vane
moving in a dash pot.

A wattmeter can be used to measure power in a single and 3-phase system.

Power measurement in a single phase circuit; power in a single phase circuit can
be measured using a single wattmeter method as shown below. The power measured
is given by

Wattmeter reading (power) = VPIPCos θ where VP is the phase voltage

IP is the phase current
Cos θ is the power factor

Power measurement in 3-phase circuits: Power in three phase circuit can be

measured by any of the following methods
1. One wattmeter method - only used when the load is balanced.
2. Two wattmeter method - used for balanced and unbalanced loads
3. Three wattmeter method – used for balanced or unbalanced loads

Balanced loads: This is when the connected loads on the 3-phases are the same i.e.
 the current flowing in each phase is the same
 power in each phase is the same
 the power factor in each phase is the same

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 the voltage drop in all the phases is the same.

Unbalanced loads: this is where the loads connected in the 3-phases are different.
For unbalanced loads the following is true
 the current flowing in each phase is different
 the power in each phase is different
 the power factor in each phase is different
 the voltage drop in each phase is different.

Measuring power in a 3-phase system using a single wattmeter method: Power

in a 3 phase circuit can be measured using a single wattmeter as shown below. The
power indicated by the single wattmeter gives power in one phase only since the loads
are balanced the total power will be found by multiplying the reading of one wattmeter
by 3.

Wattmeter reading (power) = VPIPCos θ for one phase only.

Total power in 3-phase = 3 x VPIPCos θ

Power measurement in a 3 phase system using a two wattmeter method

Power in a 3 phase circuit can be measured using two wattmeters as shown below

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Wattmeter reading, W1 = VLILCos (30 - θ)

Wattmeter reading, W2 = VLILCos (30 + θ)

The total power in the circuit is given by W1 + W2 = √3 x VLILCos θ

Power measurement in a 3 phase 4 wire system using a three wattmeter method

Power in a 3 phase 4 wire system can be measured using three wattmeters as shown
in the diagram below

The total power is given by P = W1 + W2 + W3 = √3 x VLILCos θ where VL and IL are line

current and voltage.
TONG TESTER
A tong tester or clip on ammeter works on the same principle as the bar primary
current transformer. The laminated core of the transformer can be opened and passed
over the busbar or single core cable. In this way a measurement of the current being
carried can be made without disconnection of the supply.

PHASE SEQUENCE TESTER

Phase sequence is the order in which each phase of a three phase supply reaches its
maximum value. The normal phase sequence for a three phase supply is R – Y – B
which means that red, then yellow and finally the blue phase reaches its maximum
values.
Phase sequence has an important application in the connection of transformers and
alternators as they can not be connected in parallel unless they have the same phase
sequence.
A phase sequence tester can be an indicator which is, in effect, a miniature induction
motor, with three clearly colour coded connection leads. A rotating disc with a pointed
arrow shows the normal rotation for phase sequence R-Y-B. If the sequence is
reversed the disc rotates in the opposite direction to the arrow. However an onsite

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phase sequence tester can be made by connecting four 240V by 100W lamps and a
power factor correction capacitor from a fluorescent luminaire as shown below.

The capacitor takes a leading current which results in a phase displacement in the
other two phases. The phasor addition of the voltage in the circuit results in one pair of
lamps illuminating brightly whilst the other pair is illuminated dimly. Two lamps must
be connected in series as shown because most of the line voltage will be across them
during the test.
ENERGY METER
An energy meter is an integrating measuring instrument that is used to measure the
quantity of electrical energy consumed in Kwh. It consists of a current and voltage
coils are wound on the two magnets as shown below. The current coil establishes a
flux ΦI which is proportional to the current, and the voltage coil establishes a magnetic
flux ΦV.

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The rotation of the aluminium disc is due to the interaction of these magnetic fields.
The magnetic flux establishes eddy currents in the disc which produce a turning force.
The force exerted is proportional to the phase angle between the voltage and current
coil fluxes; maximum force occurs when they are 90o out of phase. This force is
proportional to the true power VICos θ, Which is equal to the speed of rotation of the
disc. The number of revolutions in a given time will give a measure of energy since
energy = power x time.
The rotating disc spindle is attached through suitable gearing to a revolution counter
which is calibrated to read kilowatt hours (kWh) which is the unit of electrical energy.

ILLUMINATION
INTRODUCTION
Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human beings depend on
light. Where there is no natural light, use of artificial light is made. Artificial lighting
produced electrically is playing an increasing important part in modern everyday life.
Apart from aesthetic and decorative aspects, good lighting has strict utilitarian value in
increasing production, reducing fatigue, protecting their health, eyes and nervous
system and reducing accidents. The science of illumination engineering is therefore
becoming of major importance.

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Illumination differs from light very much, though generally these terms are used more
or less synonymously. Strictly speaking light is the cause and illumination is the result
of that light on the surface on which it falls.

TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION

Light: Light may be defined as electromagnetic waves of certain frequencies which
can be detected by the human eye and converted into sensory perception so that we
see. It can also be defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces visual
sensation upon the human eye. It is denoted by the letter Q expressed in lumen hours.
Illumination: This is the measure of the light falling on a surface or number of lumens
falling on a surface per unit area. It is symbolised by the letter E and is measured in
lumens per square meter or lux.
Luminous flux: This is the light emitted by a source or received by a surface. It is
measured in lumens and represented by the letter F or Φ.
Luminous intensity: This is the power of a source or illuminated surface to emit light
in a given direction. It is represented by the letter I and is measured in candela.
Luminance: This is the measure of the brightness of a surface. It is represented by
the letter L and is measured in candela per square metre.
Lamp efficiency/efficacy: This is the ratio of the luminous flux emitted by a source to
the power consumes by it. It is measured in lumens per watt (lm/w)
Glare: This is the brightness within the sight of vision of such a characteristics as to
cause annoyance, discomfort and interference with vision or causes eye fatigue. If the
eye is exposed to a very bright source of light, the iris automatically contracts in order
to reduce the amount of light admitted and prevents damage of the retina, this
reduces the sensitivity, so that other objects within the field of vision can be
imperfectly seen, this effect is referred to as glare.
Lumen: it is the SI unit of luminous flux. One lumen is the luminous flux emitted within
a unit solid angle (one steradian) by a point source having a uniform luminous
intensity of one candela. The lumen is symbolised by lm.
Candela: It is the SI unit of luminous intensity. It is one lumen per square metre and is
symbolised by c.d.
Lux: It is the SI unit of illuminance; it is equal to one lumen per square metre.
Apostilb: It is the metric unit of luminance, unit luminance is expressed in this system
as that of a uniform diffusion emitting 1 lm/m2. 1asb. = 1/π cd/m 2
Room index: An index related to the dimensions of a room, and used when
calculating the utilisation factor and the characteristic of a lighting installation. It is
given by Lw/hm(L+w)
Where L is the length, W is the width of the room and hm is the height of the
luminaries above the working plane.

LAWS OF ILLUMINATION
There are two laws of illumination these being
The Inverse square law
Lambert’s cosine law

The Inverse square law

This law states that the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance of the distance between the surface and the light source provided that
the distance between the surface and the light source is sufficiently large so that the
source can be regarded as a point source.
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Source with
luminous
intensity, I

Distance, d
Illuminated
surface

Point where
illumination E is
to be calculated

Illumination, E = luminous intensity, I

Distance squared, d2

NOTE: The inverse square law is used to find the illumination directly below the
lamp

Example 1
A lamp of luminous intensity 1000 candela is suspended 2 metres above a laboratory
bench. Calculate the illumination directly below the lamp.

Solution
Data
Luminous intensity, I = 1000cd
Distance, d = 2m

Illumination, E = Luminous intensity, I

Distance, d2

= 1000cd
2x2

= 250 lux

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LAMBERT’S COSINE LAW

The cosine law states the illumination at any point on a surface is proportional to the
cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and the luminous flux.

Source with
luminous
intensity, I

Surface B Surface A
θ

Dis
Normal

ant
ce
,d

Illuminated
surface

Point where
illumination E is
to be calculated

Since the two surfaces A and B are joined together by the trigonometry of the cosine
rules, the equation is known as the cosine law.
Very often the illuminated surface is not normal to the direction of the light, but is
inclined. The area over which the light is spread is then increased in ratio, the
expression for illumination then becomes
Illumination, E = Luminous intensity, I x cos θ
Distance squared, d2

Example 2
A street lantern suspended a 2000cd light source 4m above the ground. Determine
the illumination directly below the lamp and 3m to one side of the lamp base.

Solution
Data
Luminous intensity I = 2000cd
Distance = 4m
Distance of opposite = 3m

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Lamp with luminous

intensity, I = 2000cd

4m

Xm

3m
EA EB

Illumination bellow the lamp, EA = luminous intensity, I

Distance, d2

= 2000cd
42
= 125 lux

Illumination at 3m to one side of the lantern EB:

The distance between the light source and the position on the ground at EB can be
found by Pythagoras theorem

Xm = √ [(4m)2 + (3m)2]

= √ (25m)

X = 5m

EB = Icos θ
d2

= 2000cd x 4
(5m)2 x 5

= 64 lux
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Note: Cos θ = 4/5

Example 3
A discharge lamp is suspended from a ceiling 4m above a bench; the illumination on
the bench below the lamp is 300 lux. Find
Luminous intensity of the lamp
The distance along the bench where the illumination falls to 153.6 lux

Solution
Data
Distance = 4m
Illumination below the bench = 300 lux

Lamp with
luminous intensity I

Unknown
distance, d
4m

EA = 300 lux x EB = 153.6 lux

Illumination, EA = luminous intensity, I

Distance, d2

Luminous intensity, I = EA x d2

= 300 lux x 42

= 4800 cd

Illumination, EB = luminous intensity, I x Cos θ

Distance, d2

Distance, d2 = I x Cos θ
EB

d2 = 4800 cd x 4m

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d2 = 125

d = 2√125

d = 5m

By Pythagoras theorem, X = √ (52 – 42)

= 3m
Therefore, the distance along the bench where the illumination falls to 153.6 lux is 3m

Example 4
A lamp of 100cd emits light uniformly in all directions and is suspended at 1.5m above
the centre of a working table that is 3m square. Calculate the illumination
a) At the centre
b) At each corner of the table

Solution
Data
Luminous intensity, I = 100 cd
Suspension height/distance = 1.5m
Size of table = 3m2

Illumination at the centre, E = luminous intensity, I

Distance, d2

= 100 cd
1.52

= 44.4 lux

MEASUREMENT OF ILLUMINATION
Illumination is measured by an instrument known as a light meter or an illumination
meter or a lux meter. It consists of a selenium photocell connected to a very sensitive
micro ammeter. When light rays fall on the cell it causes electrons to be released, so
that a small current is supplied to the micro ammeter. The value of the current is
proportional to the amount of the light received, so the instrument scale is calibrated
directly in lux.

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Collecting
ring
Micro ammeter
Light rays

Transparent
film

Selenium
coat Lux

Iron plate

The recommended levels of illuminance for various types of installations are given
below. These figures are usually printed on the back of the lux meter, as given by the
IES code.

TASK WORKING SITUATION ILLUMINANCE (LUX)

Casual seeing Storage rooms, stairs and 100
washing rooms

Rough assembly Workshops and garages 300

Reading, writing and Classrooms and offices 500

drawing

Fine assembly Electronic component 1000

assembly

Minute assembly Watch making 3000

THE LUMEN METHOD

When designing interior lighting schemes the method most frequently used depends
upon a determination of the total flux required to provide a given value of illuminance
at the working plane. This method is generally known as the lumen method.
To determine the total number of luminaries required to produce a given illuminance
by the lumen method, the following formulae is applied

Total number of lamps required = illuminance level (lux) x area (m2)

Lumen output of each lamp (lm) x U.F x M.F

Where,
The illuminance level is chosen after considering the IES code
The area is the working area to be illuminated
The lumen output of each luminaire is that given in the manufacturer’s specification

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UF is the utilisation factor

MF is the maintenance factor

UTILISATION FACTOR OR COEFFICIENT OF UTILISATION

Utilisation factor is the ratio of the total light flux reaching the working surface to the
total light flux emitted by the lamp.
The light flux usually reaching the working plane is always less than the lumen output
of the lamp since some of the light is absorbed by the luminaire and some is directed
to walls, ceilings and floors where only a small part is reflected. The utilisation factor is
given by

Utilisation factor, UF = Total light reaching the working surface

Total light flux emitted by the lamp

The utilisation factor is expressed as a number which is always less than unity.
MAINTENANCE FACTOR
Maintenance factor is defined as the ratio of the illumination under working conditions
to the illumination when everything is perfectly clean.
The light output of a luminaire is reduced during its life because of accumulation of
dust and dirt on the lamp and fitting. Decorations also deteriorate with time, and this
results in more light flux being absorbed by the walls and ceiling. The maintenance
factor is given by

Maintenance factor = Illumination under normal working conditions

Illumination when everything is perfectly clean

A figure of about 0.8 is normally taken to account for this loss of light to the
surrounding but in very dusty, dirty or smoky atmospheres the number may be further
reduced.

Example 5
It is proposed to illuminate an electronic workshop 9m x 8m x 3m high to an
illuminance of 500 lux at the bench level. The specification calls for luminaires having
one 1500mm 65W natural tube having an output of 3400 lumens. Determine the
number of luminaires required for this installation when the UF and MF are 0.9 and 0.8
respectively.

Solution
Data
Workshop dimensions = 9m x 8m x 3m
Illumination = 500 lux
Luminous flux = 3400 lumens
MF = 0.9
UF = 0.8

Number of luminaires/lamps required = illumination, E x Area, A

Luminous flux x UF x MF

= 500 lux x (9m x 8m)

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3400 x 0.8 x 0.9

= 14.7

Therefore, 15 luminaires will be required.

Example 6
Estimate the total flux required to provide a service value of 120 lux in a room 5m by
7m. The utilisation and maintenance factors are 0.6 and 0.8 respectively.

Solution
Data
Illumination, E = 120 lux
Room dimensions = 5m x 7m
UF = 0.6
MF = 0.8

Lamp flux (luminous flux), F = illumination, E x Area, A

UF x MF

= 120 x (5m x 7m)

0.6 x 0.8

= 8750 lumens

If the lamps and surroundings are not perfectly clean, then determining the lumens
received (luminous flux) on a working plane, the depreciation factor or maintenance
factor should be included. i.e. lumens received on the working plane.

Lumens received = No. of lamps x wattage of each lamp x efficiency x Utilisation F

Depreciation F

Alternatively,

Lumens received = No. of lamps x wattage of each lamp x efficiency x UF x MF

Depreciation Factor is the inverse of the maintenance factor

Total wattage required = Gross (total) lumens received

Lamp efficiency

Number of lamps = Total wattage

Wattage of each lamp

Example 7
It is required to provide an illuminance of 100 lux in a factory hall 30m x 15m. Assume
that the depreciation factor is 0.8, coefficient of utilisation is 0.4 and efficiency of the
lamp is 14 lumens per watt. Suggest the number of lamps and their ratings. The sizes
of lamps available are 100, 250, 400 and 500 watts.

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Solution
Data
Illumination, E = 100 lux
Hall dimensions = 30m x 15m
Lamp efficiency = 14lm/w
DF = 0.8
MF = 0.4
Total flux given out by lamps, F = Illumination, E x Area, A
DF x UF

= 100 x (30 x 15)

0.8 x 0.4

= 140 625 lumens

Total wattage required = Total flux given out

Lamp efficiency

= 140 625
14

= 10 000 W (say)

Number of 100W lamps required = Total wattage required

Wattage of each lamp

= 10 000
100

= 100 lamps

Number of 250W lamps required = 10 000

250

= 40 lamps

Number of 400W lamps required = 10 000

400

= 25 lamps

Number of 500W lamps required = 10 000

500

= 20 lamps

Suggested number of lamps and their ratings

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40 lamps in 5 rows, each row having 8 lamps of 250W can be used giving spacing of
3.75m in length and 3m in width.

STROBOSCOPIC EFFECT
Stroboscopic effect is the reversal of ions and electrons which takes place when the
polarity of the supply changes, (that is twice every cycle of the supply voltage i.e. on a
50Hz supply that is 100 times every cycle) which causes rotating machines to appear
stationary or move at a lower speed, as a result of the reversal of ions and electrons
coinciding with the speed of the revolving machine.
The following methods are used to reduce stroboscopic effect
I. Connecting lamps in different phases
II. By using of a twin tube fitting where one tube has a capacitor connected in
series with it to produce a phase shift of the current in that tube.

As a result of stroboscopic effect, moving objects such as rotating parts of machinery,

illuminated by this light may appear to be moving in disunity or jerks or rotating more
slowly than their actual speed.

PHOTO BENCH
A photo bench is used to determine the output candela of an unknown lamp using a
known standard lamp. At balance the illumination is equal on both sides of the matt
screen.

Luminous intensity of = luminous intensity of standard lamp, S x (distance, d2)2

Unknown lamp X (Distance, d1)2

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TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES

The interior lighting schemes may be classified as
I. Direct lighting
II. Semi direct lighting
III. Semi indirect lighting
IV. Indirect lighting
V. General lighting

Direct lighting: It is the most commonly used lighting scheme. In this lighting scheme
more than 90% of the total light flux is made to fall directly on the working plane with
the help of deep reflectors. Though it is most efficient but causes hard shadows and
glare. It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.

Semi direct lighting: In this lighting scheme 60 to 90% of the total light flux is made
to fall downwards directly with the help of semi direct reflectors, remaining light is used
to illuminate the ceiling and walls. Such a lighting system is best suited in rooms with
high ceiling where a high level of uniformly distributed illumination is desirable.

Semi direct lighting: In this lighting scheme 60 to 90% of the total light flux is thrown
upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection and the rest reaches the working plane
directly except for some absorption by the bowl. This lighting scheme is with soft
shadows and is glare free. It is mainly used for indoor decoration purposes.

Indirect lighting: In this lighting scheme more than 90%of the total light flux is thrown
upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl reflectors. In such
a system the ceiling acts as a light source, and the glare is reduced to maximum. The
resulting illumination is soft and more diffused, the shadows are less prominent and
the appearance of the room is much improved than that which results from direct
lighting it is used for decoration purposes in cinemas and hotels etc. and in workshops
where large machines and the other obstructions would cause troublesome shadows if
direct lighting is employed.

General lighting: In this scheme lamps made of diffusing glass are used which give
nearly equal illumination in all directions.

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DESIGN OF LIGHTING SCHEMES

The lighting schemes should be such that it may
i) Provides adequate illumination
ii) Provide light distribution all over the working plane as uniform as possible.
iii) Provide light of suitable colour
iv) Avoid glare and hard shadows as far as possible

The factors should be considered when designing lighting schemes,

Illumination level: This is the most vital factor because a sufficient illumination is the
basic means by which we are able to see our surroundings. Since only when objects
are illuminated do they take on the necessary brightness? It is the task of illumination
to give objects a distributed brightness. It is this differential brightness which gives
essential perception of details. For each type of work there is a range of brightness
most favourable to output i.e. which causes minimum fatigue and gives maximum
output in terms of quality and quantity. The degree of illumination to give necessary
brightness to the objects depends upon.
i) The size of the object to be seen and its distance from the observer. The
greater the distance from the observer and smaller the size of the object,
the greater will be the illumination required.
ii) Contrast between the object and background. Greater the contrast between
the colour of the object and its background, greater will be the illumination
required to distinguish the object properly. Objects that are seen for longer
periods of time require more illumination than those for casual work.
Similarly moving objects require more illumination than those for stationary
objects.

Uniformity of illumination: the human eye adjusts itself automatically to the

brightness within the field of vision. If there is lack of uniformity, the pupil or iris of the
eye has to be adjusted more frequently and thus fatigue is caused to the eye and
productivity is reduced. It has been found that visual performance is best if the range
of brightness within the field of vision is not greater than 3:1, which can be achieved
by employing general lighting in addition to localised lighting. Apart from consideration
of causing fatigue, local lighting without using matching general lighting creates
psychological feeling of loneliness, gloom and unfriendliness.
Colour of light: The appearance of the body colour entirely depends upon the colour
of the incident light. In general the composition of the light should be such that the
colour appears natural i.e. its appearance by artificial light is not appreciably different
from that by day light. For certain applications such as street lighting, colour of light
does not matter much if different components have not to be distinguished from each
other by their colours. Highly efficient discharge lamps, which cause colour distortion,
can be used.

Shadows: In lighting installation, formation of long and hard shadows causes fatigue
of the eyes and therefore is considered to be a short coming, complete absence of
shadows altogether again does not necessarily mean an ideal condition of lighting
installation. Contrary to popular opinion, a certain amount of shadow is desirable in
artificial lighting as it helps to give shape to the solid objects and make them easily
recognised. Objects illuminated by shadow less light appear flat and uninteresting,
contours are lost and it is difficult to for the eye to form a correct judgement of the
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shape of the object. However there is one exception to these i.e. in drawing offices
where we are to see flat surfaces, shadow less light is essential other wise shadows
would hinder the work. Hard and long shadows can be avoided by
i) Using a large number of small luminaries mounted at a height not less than
2.5m.
ii) By using wide surface sources of light using globes over filament lamps or
by indirect lighting scheme.

Glare: It may be direct or reflected i.e. it may come directly from the light source or it
may be reflected brightness such as from a desk top, nickled machine parts, or
calendared paper. Direct glare from a source of light is more common, and is more
often a hindrance to vision. A glance at the sun proves that an extremely bright light
source causes acute eye discomfort. Light sources of far brilliance than the sun, such
as the filament lamp or the incandescent mantle of a gas lamp, also causes discomfort
by direct glare. Reflected glare is glare which comes to the eye as glint or reflection of
the light source in some polished surfaces.

Mounting height: The mounting height will largely be governed by the type of building
and type of lighting scheme employed. In the case of direct lighting, in rooms of large
floor area, the luminaries should be mounted as close to the ceiling as possible.
Lowering them will not only make the illumination less uniform, but will also bring them
more into the field of vision, thus increasing glare, without causing an appreciable
increase in the coefficient of utilisation. In the case of small rooms with high ceiling,
there is something to be gained by lowering the luminaires, but even here the better
solution would be to use filament lamps with focusing reflectors and to mount them
high.
In the case of indirect and semi direct lighting, it would of course be desirable to
suspend the luminaires far enough down from the ceiling in order to give reasonably
uniform illumination on the ceiling.
SPACE TO MOUNTING HEIGHT RATIO
The correct mounting height of luminaires is important since glare may result if fittings
are placed in the line of vision. Excess height will result in rapid reduction of
illuminance, as demonstrated by the inverse square law, and make lamp replacement
and maintenance difficult. The correct spacing of luminaires is important since large
spacing between the fittings may result in the fall off illumination at the working plane
midway between adjacent fittings. The illuminance between the luminaires must not
be allowed to fall below 70% of the value directly below the fitting. For most installation
the spacing to mounting height ratio of 1:1 to 2:1 above the working plane is usually
considered adequate and the working surface is normally taken as 0.85m above the
floor level as shown below.

LAYOUT OF LUMINAIRES
To maintain an even distribution of illuminance from the luminaires, those adjacent to
the walls must be fixed at half the spacing distance. This is because a point in the
middle of the room receives luminous flux from two adjacent luminaires, whilst a point
close to the wall is illuminated mainly from one luminaire.

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Considering the previous example of an electronic workshop requiring 15 luminaires to

provide the required illuminance, if we assume the space to mounting ratio of 1:1, the
best layout may be four rows of four luminaires each row. This would necessitate
using one extra luminaire than the calculation suggested. This is quite acceptable
since the overall illuminance will be raised by only about 6% and the resultant layout
will be more symmetrical whilst complying very closely with the space to height ratio.
The layout is shown below.

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HEATING
Heat is the energy in transit between two bodies due to their difference in temperature;
it is measured in joules or calories.
When current flows through a conductor there is friction between the electrons and the
molecules of the conductor thereby producing heat energy. The electrical energy
supplied to overcome this is known as the heating effect of an electric current.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of an object or body; it is measured
in degree Celsius (oC) or degree Kelvin (oK) or degree Fahrenheit (oF) or degree
Rankine (oR) by an instrument known as a thermometer.
The relationship between the Kelvin and degree Celsius scale is given by

T (K) = T (oC) + 273

T (oC) = T (oK) – 273

The relationship between the Rankine and degree Fahrenheit scale is given by
T (oR) = T (oF) + 460

T (oF) = T (oR) – 460

The relationship between the degree Rankine and Kelvin is given by

T (K) = 5 T (oR)
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T (oR) = 9 T (K)
5
The relationship between the degree Celsius and the degree Fahrenheit is

T (oF) = 9 T (oC) + 32
5

T (oC) = 5 T (oF) – 32
9
Example 1
Find the equivalent value of T = 50oC in degrees Fahrenheit, Rankine and Kelvin.
Solution

T (oF) = 9 T (oC) + 32 = 9 (50) + 32 = 122 oF

5 5

T (oF) = T (oF) + 460 = 122 + 460 = 582 oF

T (K) = T (oC) + 273 = 50 + 273 = 323K OR T (K) = 5 T (oR) = 5 (582) =323K

9 9
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat energy can be transferred through the following methods
i) Conduction: This is the method of heat transfer through solids.
ii) Convection: this is the method of heat transfer through liquids and gases
iii) Radiation: this is the method of heat transfer through a vacuum.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

This is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the mass of 1Kg of a substance by
1oC.

The quantity of heat energy is given by, Q = Mc (t2 – t1) Joules

Where M is the mass in Kg

C is the specific heat capacity in J/kg oC
(t2 – t1) is the change in temperature.
The table below gives the specific heat capacities of some well known substances.

Substance Specific heat capacity

Water 4190 J/Kg oC
Ice (0oC to – 20oC) 2100 J/Kg oC
Copper 390 J/Kg oC
Iron 500 J/Kg oC
Aluminium 950 J/Kg oC
Brass 370 J/kg oC
Dry air at standard atmospheric
pressure 1015 J/Kg oC

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Example 2
Calculate the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 6 kg of a
substance from 10oC to 25oC.

Solution

Data
Mass = 6Kg
Temp. t1 = 10oC
Temp. t2 = 25oC

Quantity of heat energy, Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 4190 x 6 x (25 – 10)
= 377 000J
= 377 KJ

Conversion from Kwh to Calories

NOTE: 1Kwh = 3 600 000 J

1 Calorie = 4.187 joules
1 Kcal. = 4187 joules
1 Kwh = 3 600 000 joules = 3 600 000 Cal.
4.187
= 860 000 Cal.
= 860 Kcal.

HEAT/THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Heat efficiency is the ratio of the useful heat (heat required or output) to the heat
generated (heat supplied or input) expressed as a percentage. Heat efficiency gives
the efficiency of an electrical appliance.
The electrical energy supplied to the electrical appliance forms the input energy, the
heat obtained from the appliance forms the output energy. The difference between the
two if any represents the energy loss.

Heat efficiency, η = heat output (useful heat)

heat supplied (heat generated)

Heat output, Q = Mc (t2 – t1) Joules or Q = M (t2 – t1) Kilocalories or Kcal.

Heat supplied is given by, H = I2 Rt Joules or H = I2 Rt Kcal.

4187

or H = VIt Joules or H = VIt Kcal.

4187
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or H = Pt Joules or H = Pt Kcal
4187

or H = V2t Joules or H = V2t Kcal.

R 4187R

Where I is the current in amperes

R is the resistance in ohms
t is the time in seconds
V is the voltage in volts
P is the power in watts
4187 which is joules constant

JOULE’S LAW OF HEAT

Joule’s law states that the heat generated in a conductor by the flow of current is
proportional to the square of the current, the resistance of the conductor and the time
for which the current flows, i.e. H α I2Rt. (H=I2Rt/Joules constant).

EXAMPLES
1. Determine the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 200Kg
copper metal from 15oC to 150oC. Neglect any loss of heat and assume the
specific heat capacity of copper is 390 J/Kg oC.

Data
Mass, M = 200Kg
S.H.C. = 390 J/Kg oC
Temp. t1 = 15oC
Temp. t2 = 150oC

Amount of heat energy, Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 200 x 390 (150 – 15)
= 10 260 000 J
= 10.26 MJ

2. A tank has a capacity of 100 litres. An 8 Kw, 400V immersion heater is used to
warm the water and has an efficiency of 90%. The temperature is raised from 10oC
t0 90oC. Determine
i) the time taken to heat the water to the required temperature
ii) the current drawn from the supply
iii) the cable type, size and the MCB rating to be used for the heater
iv) If the efficiency is reduced to 80%, calculate the time it will take in hours
to reach the same temperature.

Data
Mass, M = 100Kg (1 litre = 1Kg)
Power rating = 8 Kw
Voltage, V = 400V
Temp.t1 = 10oC
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Temp. t2 = 90oC
Efficiency, η = 90%
S.H.C. = 4190J/Kg oC

Heat required to heat the water, Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 100 x 4190 (90 – 10)
= 33 520 000 J
= 33.52MJ

Heat energy supplied (input) = Heat output x 100

Efficiency

= 33 520 000 x 100

90
= 37 244 444.44 J

= 37.24 MJ

Energy in kwh required = 37 244 444.44 (Note 1Kwh = 3 600 000)

3 600 000

= 10.35 Kwh.

i) Time taken = energy required in Kwh

Power rating in Kw

= 10.35
8

= 1.29 Hours

ii) Current drawn by heater IL = Power rating

√3VL Cos θ

= 8 000
1.732 x 400 x 1

= 8 000
692.8

= 11.57A

iii) A 4 core 2.5mm2 Cable PVC insulated, MCB rating 15A triple pole.

iv) Heat energy required to heat the water remains 33 520 000 J

Heat energy supplied becomes, Q = Heat output x 100

Efficiency

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= 33 520 000 x 100

80

= 41 900 000 J

Energy in Kwh = 41 900 000

3 600 000
= 11.64 Kwh

Therefore, time = energy in Kwh

Power in Kw

= 11.64
8
= 1.45 Hours

3. Calculate the heat energy in joules required to raise the temperature of 0.028m 3 of
copper from 0oC to 60oC. (Take the S.H.C. of copper to be 390J/Kg oC and its
density is 8930kg/m3).

Data

Volume = 0.028m3
Temp. t1= 0oC
Temp. t2 = 60oC
S.H.C. = 390 J/Kg oC
Density, D = 8930 kg/m3

Heat energy required, Q = Mc (t2 – t1) Mass = density x volume

= 250.04 x 390 x 60 = 8930 x 0.028
= 5 850 936 J = 250.04 kg

4. A tank is fitted with a 3Kw immersion heater on a 240V supply and because of the
heat loss from the tank which contains water; its efficiency is 80%. It is required to
heat 10 litres of water from 20oC to 100oC. Calculate
i) time taken
ii) heater current
iii) Cost of the energy if the cost is K150 per Kwh.

Data

Power rating = 3 Kw
Voltage, V = 240V
Efficiency, η = 80%
Temp. t1 = 20oC
Temp. t2 = 100oC
S.H.C. = 4180 J/Kg oC
Mass, M = 10Kg
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i) Time taken = energy input in Kwh

Power rating in Kw

Heat energy output = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 10 x 4180 x 80
= 3 344 000 J

Heat input = Heat energy output

Efficiency

= 3 344 000
0.8

= 4 180 000 J

Energy in Kwh = 4 180 000

3 600 000

= 1.16 kWh.

Time taken = 1.16 = 0.39 Hours

3

ii) Heater current, I = 3 000

240

= 12.5A

iii) Cost of energy at K150/Kwh = K 1.16 x 150

= K 174

5. An electric heater contains 12Kg of water at 30oC. It takes 15 minutes to boil the
water. The losses of the water heater are 2000 joules. Calculate the power rating
of the heater.

Data
Mass, M = 12Kg
Temp. t1 = 30oC
Temp. t2 = 100oC
Heat loss = 2000J
S.H.C. = 4180 J/Kg oC
Time = 15 min.

Useful heat (output) Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 12 x 4180 x 70
= 3 511 200J

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Heat input = Heat output + losses

Heat input = 3 511 200 + 2000

= 3 513 200 J

Heat input is also given by H = I2RT Joules

= Power x Time

Therefore power rating = Heat input, H

Time(s)

= 3 513 200 J
15 x 60

= 3 903.56 W or 3.9KW
6. It is required to heat 20Kg of water from 15oC to 100oC in 30 minutes, when the
heater takes 10A. Calculate the resistance of the heater element. Assume that the
efficiency of the heater is 90%.

Data

Mass, M = 20Kg
Temp. t1 = 15oC
Temp. t2 = 100oC
Current, I = 10A
Efficiency = 90%

Heat output, Q = Mc (t2 – t1)

= 20 x 4180 x 85
= 7 106 000 J

Heat input, H = Heat output x 100

Efficiency

= 7 106 000
0.9

= 7 895 555.56 J

Heat input is also given by H = I2RT

Resistance of heater element, R = Heat input, H

I2T

= 7 895 555.56
102 x 30 x 60

= 43.86 Ω

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HEATIG UNITS
A resistor when used for producing heat is called a heating unit or element. Heating
elements are in three forms
i) Round wires
ii) Ribbon wires
iii) Strips

Round or ribbon wires are used in small heating units such as electric stoves, room
heaters, soldering irons, heat convectors, electric kettles, electric irons, hot plates,
water heaters and other heating appliances.
Strips are generally employed in big furnaces where the quantity of heat required is
very high.

MATERIAL USED FOR HEATING ELEMENTS

The material that are mainly used for heating elements are either Kanthal or nichrome
wire.

Kanthal: it is an alloy of chromium, nickel, iron etc. prepared in different percentages

of combination for different purposes. It has a maximum working temperature of
1280oC (2336oF) its specific resistance is 135μΩcm at 20oC. Its melting point is
approximately 1510oC (2750oC). It is specifically used in big furnaces for annealing
stainless steal and various types of pottery work.

Nichrome wire: It is an alloy of 80% nickel and 20% chromium, its maximum working
temperature is 1150oC (2102oF) and has a specific resistance of 110μΩcm at 20oC. It
is generally used for making elements of heating appliances for domestic purposes.

APPLICATION OF THE HEATING EFFECT

The heating effect of an electric current is used in the operation of many electrical
devices such as electric lamps, fuses, arc welding, spot welding, electric heaters
(electric stoves, room heaters, soldering irons, hot air circulators, hair driers, electric
kettle, toasters, hot plates), water heaters etc.

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BASIC ELECTRONICS
Electronics is the study of the flow of current in semiconductors, a vacuum and in
gases.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
A Diode is a two terminal semiconductor device that consists of a PN junction that
conducts easily in one direction and has a high resistance or behaves as an insulator
when conducting in the opposite direction.

Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lie between those of a

conductor and those of an insulators and are found in group four of the periodic table.
The two most used semiconductor materials in electronics are silicon and germanium
which are both tetravalent atoms i.e. they have four valence electrons.
Semiconductors can be divided as follows

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Intrinsic semiconductors: these are semiconductor in their purest form, i.e. pure
semiconductors have a low conduction. If the temperature of a semiconductor is
increased, more bonds break and the intrinsic conduction increases because more
free electrons and holes are produced. The resistance of a semiconductor therefore
decreases as the temperature rises.

Extrinsic semiconductors: These are impure semiconductors or they are

semiconductors where impurities have been added. The addition of impurities is
known as doping. The impurities added are known as a dopant or doping agent.
The usual doping agents or dopants are
1. Pentavalent atoms having five valence electrons e.g. arsenic, antimony,
phosphorus etc.
2. Trivalent atom having three valence electrons e.g. gallium, indium. aluminium,
boron etc.
3.
Valence electrons: these are electrons in the outer most shell of an electron. Silicon
and germanium have four valence electrons.

P - TYPE MATERIAL
A P – type material is formed by doping a tetravalent (silicon) atom with a trivalent
atom. The three valence electron from the trivalent atom forms covalent bonds with
the four electrons from the tetravalent atom, but one bond is left incomplete and it
gives rise to a hole. In this type of semiconductor, conduction is by the movement of
holes in the valence band. Holes form the majority carriers and electrons constitute
the minority carriers. The process of conduction is called deficit conduction. Since the
concentration of holes is more than the concentration of electrons in the conduction
band, conduction is by means of holes at the top valence band.

Trivalent atom + tetravalent atom = P – type material.

N – TYPE MATERIAL
An N – type material is formed by doping a tetravalent atom with a pentavalent atom.
The five pentavalent electrons form covalent bonds with four tetravalent atoms, but
one electron remains without making any bond thus forming an N – type material
(Negative). In N – type materials there is an excess of free electrons and yet it is
electrically neutral.
In N – type material electrons are the majority carriers while holes are the minority
carriers.
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Pentavalent atom + tetravalent atom = N – type material

THE P-N JUNCTION

When the P and N type material are fabricated in the same continuous crystal lattice
the plane dividing the two regions is known as a junction. As soon as the junction is
produced, free electrons near the junction in the n –type material move by diffusion
across the junction into the p – type material where they fill holes. Diffusion occurs
because the concentration of electrons in n-type material is large and in the p-type
material it is small. As a result the n-type material near the junction becomes positively
charged and the p-type material negatively charged (both previously being neutral). At
the same time, holes diffuse from p-type to n-type, capturing electrons there. The
exchange of charge soon stops because the negative charge on the p-type material
opposes the further flow of electrons and the positive charge on the n-type opposes
the further flow of holes. The region on either side of the junction becomes fairly free
of charge carriers and is called the depletion (or barrier) layer.
The situation is as though there is a battery across the junction with a small voltage
( about 0.1V for germanium and 0.6V for silicon) called the junction voltage, acting
from n to p type.

When the N and P type material are brought together the following happens
1. A thin depletion layer or region (also called space charge region or transition
region) is established on both sides of the junction and is so called because it is
depleted of free charge carriers. Its thickness is about 10-6m
2. A barrier potential or junction potential is developed across the junction.
3. The presence of the depletion layer gives rise to junction and diffuse
capacitances.

FORWARD BIASING A DIODE OR P-N JUNCTION

Biasing is the connection of a potential across a PN junction. Forward biasing is the
connection of a potential in such a way that the positive of the source or battery is
connected to the p type material and the negative of the source is connected to the n-
type material. When a diode is forward biased the depletion layer narrows as the
potential across the junction is increased. When the source voltage exceeds the
junction voltage, 0.1V for a germanium diode and 0.6V for a silicon diode. The diode

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begins to conduct, current flows because majority carriers are able to cross the
junction, electrons move from the n to the p side and holes in the opposite direction.
The junction is said to be forward biased and the resistance offered is very low. A
diode only conducts when forward biased.

REVERSE BIASING A DIODE

Reverse biasing of a diode is the connection of a potential in such a way that the
positive of the source is connected to the n-type material and the negative of the
source is connected to the p-type material. When a diode is reverse biased the
electrons and holes are repelled further from the junction and the depletion layer
widens thus producing a very the resistance. A diode does not conduct when reverse
biased.

TYPES OF DIODES
There are several types of diodes, each with a feature that suit it for a particular job.
The following are some of the types of diodes,
1. the junction diode
2. the point contact diode
3. the zener diode
4. a photodiode
5. light emitting diode or LED
6. Solar cell

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7. Varicap (varactor) diode

8. Gunn diode

Junction diodes: they are used as rectifiers to change a.c to d.c in power supplies.
Silicon is preferred over germanium because it has a much lower reverse current; it
has a higher breakdown voltage and can work at higher temperatures.
Point contact diodes: they are used as signal diodes to detect radio signals (a
process similar to rectification in which radio frequency a.c is converted to d.c)
because of their low capacitance. Germanium is used for signal diodes since it has a
lower ‘turn on’ voltage than silicon (about 0.1V compared to 0.6V) and so lower signal
voltages start it conducting in the forward direction.

A ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode is a heavily doped reverse biased heavily doped silicon or germanium
PN junction diode that is operated in the breakdown region where current is limited by
an external resistance and power dissipation of the diode. Silicon is preferred to
germanium because of its higher temperature and temperature capabilities.
Zener Biasing
For proper working of a zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must,
1. be reverse biased
2. Have a voltage across it greater than the zener breakdown voltage
3. be in a circuit where the current is less than the maximum zener current

USES OF ZENER DIODES

Zener diodes find numerous applications in transistor circuitry. Some of their common
uses are;
1. as voltage regulators
2. as a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison purposes
and for calibrating voltmeters.
3. as peak clippers or voltage limiters
4. for meter protection against damage from accidental application of excess
voltage
5. for reshaping a waveform.

Photodiode: it consists of a normal PN junction in a case with a transparent ‘window’

through which light can enter. A photodiode is operated in reverse bias and the
leakage (minority carrier) current increases in proportion to the amount of light falling
on the junction. This effect is due to the light energy breaking the bonds in the crystal
lattice of the semiconductor and producing electrons and holes.
Photodiodes are used as fast ‘counters’ or ‘read’ holes in punched tapes and cards
when they generate a pulse of current every time a beam of light is interrupted. They
are also used in light meters to measure light intensity.

Light emitting diode, LED: it consists of a junction diode made from the
semiconducting compound gallium arsenide phosphide. It emits light when forward
biased; the colour depends on the composition and impurity content of the compound.
A LED does not light when reverse biased and if the reverse bias is more than 5V the
LED gets damaged.

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An external must be connected in series with the LED to limit the forward current
unless it is a constant current type.
LEDs are used as indicator lamps, particularly in digital electronic circuits to show
whether the output is ‘high’ or ‘low’, they are also used in decimal display e.g.
electronic calculators, clocks, cash registers and measuring instruments.
Solar cell: these are photovoltaic types; they are connected in series-parallel on
panels on artificial satellites and space vehicles and are used to power the electronic
equipment.
Photovoltaic cell when illuminated produces a voltage i.e. it is a true cell. It consists of
a p-n semiconductor junction with the p layer being thin enough to allow the incident
light to reach the junction. There it creates electron hole pairs by breaking bonds
between atoms in the depletion layer which exists at the junction. The junction voltage
then sweeps the positive holes to the p side and the negative electrons to the n-side. If
there is an external circuit current flows through it, with the p-side acting as the
positive terminal of the cell. The source of energy is the incident light. The voltage
available depends on the junction materials, the intensity of the light and the current
taken.
Varicap diode: This is a diode designed to have a certain range of capacitance e.g. 2
– 10pF, the value being changed by varying the reverse voltage and therefore the
width of the depletion layer. When reverse biased a diode behaves as a capacitor
because its depletion layer acts as an insulator sandwiched between two conductors
(the p- and n-type regions). The greater the area of the junction and the thinner the
depletion layer the greater is the capacitance. Most diodes are designed to have a
minimum capacitance but a Varicap is designed to have a certain range of
capacitance. Such diodes are used to tune TV and v.h.f. radio sets in special circuits
which allow the circuit to lock automatically to the desired station. The process is
called automatic frequency control (a.f.c.).
Gunn diode: It is made from n-type gallium arsenide sandwiched between metal
electrodes and is used in microwaves oscillators.

TRANSISTORS
Transistors are three terminal semiconductor devices that consist of two PN junctions.
The basic types of transistors are:
a) Bipolar junction transistor, BJT; its operation depends on the flow of both the
majority and minority carriers. The two types of BJTs are PNP and NPN
transistor.
b) The unipolar or field effect transistor, FET; in which the current is due to the
majority carriers only. The two types of FETs are Metal oxide semiconductor
field effect transistor, MOSFET and an insulated gate field effect transistor,
IGFET or a junction gate field effect transistor, JUGFET.

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

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A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that consists of

two p-n junctions connected back to back manufactured in a single piece of a
semiconductor crystal.
The two types of BJTs are PNP and NPN and the three transistor terminals are
emitter, base and collector. The two transistor junctions are emitter base (E/B)
junctions and the collector base (C/B) junction.
The symbols used for a PNP and NPN are shown below. The arrowhead is always at
the emitter not at the collector and in each case its direction indicates the conventional
direction of current flow. For a PNP transistor the arrowhead points from the emitter to
base meaning that the emitter is positive with respect to the base and collector. For an
NPN transistor, it points from base to emitter meaning the base and collector is
positive with respect to the emitter.

TRANSISTOR TERMINALS
The three transistor terminals are

1. Emitter: this is a heavily doped (more than any region) region that emits
charge carriers to the base.
2. Base: This is the smallest region of the transistor sandwiched between the
emitter and collector.
3. Collector: The collector collects majority charge carriers coming from the
emitter and passing through the base. In most transistors the collector is the
largest region because it dissipates much power. Because of this the collector
and emitter can not be interchanged.

TRANSISTOR BIASING

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For normal transistor operation voltages of correct polarity must be connected across
the two transistor junctions.
1. The emitter base junction must always be forward biased.
2. The collector base junction must always be reverse biased.

TRANSISTOR CURRENTS
The three currents that flow in a properly biased transistor are IE, IB, and IC. For a PNP
transistor connected in the common base mode, it is seen that
IE = IB + IC
A small part of emitter current (about 1 – 2%) goes to supply the base current and the
remaining part (about 98 – 99%) goes to supply collector current. By normal
convention currents that flow into a transistor are taken as positive and those that flow
out as negative.

TRANSISTOR CONFIGIURATION
There are three ways of connection transistors (called configuration), these being
1. common base (CB) configuration
2. common emitter (CE) configuration
3. common collector (CC)configuration
The term ‘common’ is used to denote the terminal that is common to the input and
output terminals. The common electrode is normally grounded as a result these
modes of operation are frequently referred to as grounded base, grounded collector
and grounded emitter.
Common base configuration: this is a connection where the base is common to both
the emitter and collector. In this configuration the emitter current IE is the input current
and the collector current IC is the output current.
Common emitter configuration: this is a connection where the emitter is common to
both the collector and base. The input signal is applied between the base and emitter
and the output is taken out from the emitter and collector circuit.
Common collector configuration: this is a connection where the collector is
common to both the base and emitter. The input signal is applied between the base

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and collector and the output signal is taken out from the emitter collector circuit.
Conventionally speaking IB is the input current and IE is the output current.

APPLICATION OF TRANSISTORS
Some of the common applications of transistors are
1. it is used as a switch
2. it is used as an amplifiers
3. it is used in voltage regulators.

THYRISTORS OR SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFERS (SCR)

A thyristor is a four layer, three terminal semiconducting device that consists of three
PN junctions connected back to back.

A thyristor is also known as a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) because it is rectifier

which can control the power supplied to a load in a way that wastes very little energy.
When forward biased a thyristor does not conduct until a positive voltage is applied to
the gate. Conduction continues when the gate voltage is removed and stops only
when the gate voltage is switched off or reversed or the anode current falls below a
certain value.
Consider the circuit below that shows the operation of a thyristor, when S1 is closed,
the lamp L1 stays off. When S2 is closed as well, the gate current flows and the
thyristor switches on i.e. ‘fires’. The anode current is large enough to light the lamp,
which remains on even if S2 is opened.

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APPLICATION OF A THYRISTOR
The main application of a thyristor is as a power control device. When a thyristor is ON
its voltage is negligible and when OFF its current is negligible. A thyristor never
dissipates any appreciable amount of power even when controlling substantial
amounts of load power. The common applications of a thyristor are
1. Relay control
2. regulated power supplies
3. static switches
4. motor control
5. inverters
6. battery chargers
7. heater controls
8. phase control

GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

AN ELECTRIC SUPPLY SYSTEM

An electric supply system is the conveyance of electrical energy from the generating
station to the final consumer.

PARTS OF AN ELECTRIC SUPPLY SYSTEM

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An electric supply system can be divided into

1. Generating station
2. Transmission
3. Distribution
The figure below shows a single line diagram of an electric supply system.

GENERATING STATION OR POWER STATION

A generating station is a special plant that generates bulk electrical energy.
Electricity generation is the process of converting energy available in different forms
(non-electrical energy) to electricity.
Energy available in different forms such as pressure head of water, chemical energy
of fuels, nuclear energy of radioactive substances etc, can converted into electrical
energy by the use of an alternator coupled to a prime mover. The prime mover
(turbines) is driven by the energy obtained from various sources (water, force of wind,
coal). For example Chemical energy of a fuel (e.g. coal) can be used to produce
steam at high temperature and pressure. The steam is fed to a prime mover which
may be a steam engine or a steam turbine the turbine converts heat energy of steam
into mechanical energy which is further converted into electrical energy by the
alternator.

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Similarly other forms of energy can be converted into electrical energy by employing
suitable machinery and equipment.

At the generating plants the electrical energy is produced at a relatively low voltage
between about 2300 volts and 30,000 volts, depending on the size of the unit. The
generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power station transformer to a
higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by country) for transmission over long
distances.
TYPES OF GENERATION STATIONS
The following are some of the types of generating stations
1. Nuclear power station
2. Hydroelectric power station
3. Diesel power station
4. Thermal power station (uses coal, natural gas or petroleum)
5. Other forms of generation include wind, geothermal, solar, tide and wave, use
of gas and heat from waste disposal.

Methods of generating electricity

There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy
into electrical energy:
Static electricity, the physical separation and transport of charge (eg. triboelectric
effect and lightning)
Electromagnetic induction (as in an electrical generator, dynamo or alternator)
transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into electricity
Electrochemistry (direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a
battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse.)
Photoelectric effect (transforming photon energy, as in solar cells)
Thermoelectric effect (direct thermal energy differential to electric conversion, as in
thermocouples and thermopiles)
Piezoelectric effect (from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic
molecules/crystals)
Nuclear transformation, charged particle creation and acceleration (eg. Betavoltaics
or alpha particle emission)
All turbines are driven by a fluid acting as an intermediate energy carrier. Many of the
heat engines just mentioned are turbines. Other types of turbines can be driven by
wind or falling water.

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Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground and
drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid to create vapour to drive a
turbine.
Water (hydroelectric) - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water, produced by
hydroelectric dams or tidal forces.
Wind - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind. Solar
updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the chimney by heating it
with sunlight, and are more properly seen as forms of solar thermal energy.
Reciprocating engines
Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel,
biogas or natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at
low voltages. Biogas is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or
wastewater treatment plant, with a reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a
small gas turbine.
Photovoltaic panels
Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and
abundant, solar electricity is still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale
mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels.

TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

The transmission and distribution systems are similar to man’s circulatory system. The
transmission system may be compared with arteries in the human body and
distribution system with the capillaries. They serve the same purpose of supplying the
ultimate consumers with the life giving blood of civilization-electricity.
After the voltage has been stepped up at the generating station the process of
transmission begins. Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical
energy, a process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. A power transmission
network typically connects power plants to multiple substations near a populated area
and is usually done by a 3phase, 3-wire system.
The transmission of electrical energy can either be done using either
1. Overhead transmission lines
2. Underground transmission.

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Fig. Overhead transmission line

REASONS FOR HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION.

Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) for the following reasons
 Reduces the volume (size) of the conductor material needed due to a reduction
in the current flowing at a high voltage. i.e. it becomes cheaper
 Increases the transmission efficiency
 Reduces the energy lost in transmission ( percentage line drop reduces)

LIMITATIONS OF HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION

From the discussion above it may appear advisable to use the highest possible
voltage for transmission of power in a bid to save the conductor material. However, it
must be realised that high voltage transmission results in
 The increased cost of insulating the conductors
 The increased cost of transformers, switchgear and other terminal apparatus.
Overhead transmission
Overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly
always an aluminium alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with
steel strands. Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission but aluminium
is lower in weight for equivalent performance, and much lower in cost. Today,
transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower
voltages such as 66 kV and 33 kV are usually considered sub-transmission voltages
but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are
usually used for distribution. Voltages above 230 kV are considered extra high voltage
and require different designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages.
Since overhead transmission lines are uninsulated wire, design of these lines requires
minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. During adverse weather
conditions of high wind and low temperatures, overhead conductors can exhibit wind-

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induced oscillations which can encroach on their designed clearances. Depending on

the frequency and amplitude of oscillation, the motion can be termed gallop or flutter.

Underground transmission
Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of
overhead power lines. Underground transmission of power is normally used across:
 Densely populated urban areas
 Areas where land is unavailable or planning consent is difficult
 Rivers and other natural obstacles
 Land with outstanding natural or environmental heritage
 Areas of significant or prestigious infrastructural development
 Land whose value must be maintained for future urban expansion and rural
development

Advantages of underground power cables:

 Less subject to damage from severe weather conditions (mainly wind and
freezing)
 Greatly reduced emission, into the surrounding area, of electromagnetic fields
(EMF). All electric currents generate EMF, but the shielding provided by the
earth surrounding underground cables restricts their range and power.
 Underground cables need a narrower surrounding strip of about 1- 10 meters to
install, whereas an overhead line requires a surrounding strip of about 20- 200
meters wide to be kept permanently clear for safety, maintenance and repair.

Some disadvantages of underground power cables:

 Undergrounding is more expensive, since the cost of burying cables at
transmission voltages is several times greater than overhead power lines.
 The life-cycle cost of an underground power cable is two to four times the cost
of an overhead power line.
 Whereas finding and repairing overhead wire breaks can be accomplished in
hours, underground repairs can take days or weeks and for this reason
redundant lines are run.
 Operations are more difficult since the high reactive power of underground
cables produces large charging currents and so makes voltage control more
difficult.

COMPARISON OF D.C AND A.C TRANSMISSION

Electric Power can be transmitted either by means of d.c or a.c. each system has its
own merits and demerits. It is therefore, desirable to discuss the technical advantages
and disadvantages of the two systems for transmission of electric power.
DC TRANSMISSION
For some years now, the transmission of electric power by dc has been receiving the
active consideration by engineers due to its numerous advantages
ADVANTAGES
i) It requires only two conductors compared to three for a.c. transmission
ii) There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems
in d.c transmission

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iii) Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c transmission line is
less than the a.c line for the same load and sending end voltage. For this
reason a d.c transmission line has a better voltage regulation
iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c system, therefore, the entire cross sectional area
of the conductor is utilised
v) For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in
the case of d.c system than in an a.c system. Therefore the d.c line requires
less insulation
vi) A d.c line has less corona loss and has reduced interference with
communication lines.
vii) The high d.c transmission is free from dielectric losses, particularly in the case
of cables.
viii) In d.c transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronizing
difficulties

DISADVANTAGES
i) Electric power can be generated at high d.c voltage due to communication
problems
ii) The d.c voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at high
voltages
iii) The d.c switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.

A.C TRANSMISSION
Nowadays, electric power is almost exclusively generated transmitted and distributed
in the form of a.c.

ADVANTAGES
i) The power can be generated at high voltages
ii) The maintenance of a.c substations is easy and cheaper
iii) The a.c voltage can be stepped up or down with ease and efficiency by
transformers. This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at
high potentials.

DISADVANTAGES
i) An a.c line requires more cables than a d.c line
ii) The construction of an a.c line is more complicated than a d.c line
iii) Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is
increased
iv) An a.c line has capacitance; therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due
to charging current even when it is open.

CONCLUSION
From the above comparison, it is clear that high voltage d.c transmission is superior to
high voltage a.c transmission. Although at present, transmission of electric power is
carried by a.c transmission even though there is increased interest in d.c transmission.

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SUBSTATION
A substation is an assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g.
voltage, a.c to d.c, frequency, power factor etc.) of an electric supply system.
Classification of substation: There are several methods of classifying substations,
however the two most important ways of classifying them is according to
1. Service requirements
2. Constructional feature.

1. According to service requirements: A substation may be used to change voltage

levels, improve the power factor or convert a.c to d.c etc. According to service
requirements substations can be classified into
 Transformer substation
 Switching substation
 Power factor correction substation
 Frequency changer substation
 Converting substation
 Industrial substation
2. According to constructional features: A substation has many components (e.g.
circuit breakers, switches, fuses, instruments etc.) which must be housed properly
to ensure continuous and reliable service. According to construction features, the
substation are classified as
 Indoor substation
 Outdoor substation
 Underground substation
 Pole- mounted substation.

Fig. substation
Control
To ensure safe and predictable operation the components of the transmission system
are controlled with generators, switches, circuit breakers and loads. The voltage,
power, frequency, load factor, and reliability capabilities of the transmission system
are designed to provide cost effective performance for the customers.

Failure protection``````````````````
Under excess load conditions, the system can be designed to fail gracefully rather
than all at once. Brownouts occur when the supply power drops below the demand.
Blackouts occur when the supply fails completely.

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Rolling blackouts, or load shedding, are intentionally-engineered electrical power

outages, used to distribute insufficient power when the demand for electricity exceeds
the supply.

Communications
Operators of long transmission lines require reliable communications for control of the
power grid and, often, associated generation and distribution facilities. Fault-sensing
protection relays at each end of the line must communicate to monitor the flow of
power into and out of the protected line section so that faulted conductors or
equipment can be quickly de-energized and the balance of the system restored.
Protection of the transmission line from short circuits and other faults is usually so
critical that common carrier telecommunications are insufficiently reliable. In remote
areas a common carrier may not be available at all. Communication systems
associated with a transmission project may use:
 Microwaves
 Power line communication
 Optical fibers
Rarely, and for short distances, a utility will use pilot-wires strung along the
transmission line path
Transmission lines can also be used to carry data: this is called power-line carrier, or
PLC. PLC signals can be easily received with a radio for the long wave range.
Optical fibers can be included in the stranded conductors of a transmission line, in the
overhead shield wires. These cables are known as OPGW or Optical Ground Wire.
Sometimes a standalone cable is used, ADSS or All Dielectric Self Supporting cable,
attached to the transmission line cross arms.

Health effects of electric power transmission

Some research has found that exposure to elevated levels of EMF (electromagnetic
fields), including ELF (extremely low frequency) fields, such as those originating from
electric power transmission lines, may be implicated in a number of adverse health
effects. These include, but are not limited to, childhood leukemia, Alzheimer's, adult
leukemia, breast cancer, neurodegenerative diseases (such as amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis), Miscarriage, and clinical depression. Although there seems to be a small
statistical correlation between various diseases and living near power lines, any
physical mechanism is not clear. One proposed mechanism is that the electric fields
around power lines attract aerosol pollutants.
One response to the potential dangers of overhead power lines is to place them
underground. The earth and enclosures surrounding underground cables prevent the
electric field from radiating significantly beyond the power lines, and greatly reduce the
magnetic field strength radiating from the power lines, into the surrounding area.
However, the cost of burying and maintaining cables at transmission voltages is
several times greater than overhead power lines
DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electricity distribution is the final stage in the delivery (before retail) of electricity to end
users. A distribution system's network carries electricity from the transmission system
and delivers it to consumers. Typically, the network would include medium-voltage
(less than 50 kV) power lines, electrical substations and pole-mounted transformers,
low-voltage (less than 1000 V) distribution wiring and sometimes electricity meters.

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The distribution of electrical energy can be divided into primary and secondary
distribution and is usually done by a three phase four wire system.
Secondary distribution also consists of feeders, distributors and service mains.

AN ELECTRICAL GRID
An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers
to consumers. An electrical grid includes all the three parts of an electric supply
(generation, transmission and distribution) system. A network connecting all
generating stations, transmission lines and distribution lines is known as a national
grid and that connecting national grids is known as an international grid.
The sense of grid is as a network, and should not be taken to imply a particular
physical layout, or breadth. "Grid" may be used to refer to an entire continent's
electrical network, a regional transmission network or may be used to describe a sub
network such as a local utility's transmission grid or distribution grid.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

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A distribution system is the part of the power system that distributes power for local
use. In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the substation
fed by the transmission system and the consumer meters. It generally consists of
feeders, distributors and service mains.

Feeders: A feeder is a conductor which connects the substation (or localised

generating station) to the area where power is to be distributed. Generally no tappings
are taken from the feeder to supply consumers so that current in it remains the same
throughout. The main consideration in the design of the feeder is the current carrying
capacity.
Distributor: A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken to supply the
consumers. The current along a distributor is not constant because tappings are taken
at various places along its length. When designing a distributor voltage drop along its
length is the main consideration since the statutory limit of voltage variation is ± 6% of
the rated value at the consumer terminals
Service mains: A service mains or cable is generally a small cable which connects
the distributor to the consumer terminals.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

A distribution system may be classified according to;
i) Nature of current – a.c distribution system and d.c distribution system
ii) Type of construction – Overhead system and underground system
iii) Scheme of connection – Radial system, ring main system and interconnected
system.
The a.c distribution system can be classified into
 primary distribution
 secondary distribution
Primary distribution: it is that part of a.c distribution system which operates at
voltages higher than general utilisation and handles large blocks of electrical energy
than the average low voltage the consumers uses. The voltage used for primary
distribution depends upon the amount of power to be conveyed and the distance of
the substation required to be fed. The most commonly used distribution voltages are
11 KV, 6.6 KV and 3.3 KV. Due to economic consideration primary distribution is
carried out by a 3-phase, 3 wire system.
Secondary distribution: it is that part of a.c distribution system which includes the
range of voltages at which the ultimate consumer utilises the electrical energy
delivered to him. Secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 415/240 V, 380/220 V 3-
phase, 4-wire system.

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Line Voltage (VL): This is the voltage between any two phases; in the diagram above
the line voltage is 415V.

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Phase voltage (VP): This is the voltage between any phase and the neutral; in the
diagram above the phase voltage is 240V.

Line voltage and phase voltage are related by the following relationship,

Line voltage, VL = √3 x phase voltage, VP

OVERHEAD VERSES UNDERGROUND SYSTEM

The distribution system can either be overhead or underground overhead lines are
usually mounted on wooden, concrete or steel poles which are arranged to carry
distribution transformers in addition to the conductors. The underground system uses
conduits, cables and manholes under the surface of the streets and side walks. The
choice between overhead and underground system depends upon a number of
factors, therefore, it is desirable to make a comparison between the two.
Public safety; The underground system is safer than the overhead system because
all distribution wiring is placed underground and there are little chances of any hazard.
Initial cost: the underground system is more expensive due to the high cost of
trenching, conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipment. The initial cost of
an underground system may be five to ten times more than that of an overhead
system.
Flexibility: The overhead system is much more flexible than the underground system.
In underground system the manholes, duct lines etc. are permanently placed once
installed and the load expansion can only be met by laying new lines. However, on an
overhead system, poles, wires, transformers etc. can be easily shifted to meet the
changes in load condition.
Faults: The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as the cables are
laid underground and are generally provided with better insulation.
Appearance: the general appearance of an underground system is better than the
overhead system as all the distribution lines are invisible.
Fault location and repair: In general there are little chances of faults in an
underground system. However if a fault does occur it is difficult to locate and repair the
fault in an underground system. On the other hand in an overhead system, the
conductors are visible and easily accessible so that fault location and repair can easily
be made.
Current carrying capacity and voltage drop: An overhead distribution conductor
has a higher current carrying capacity than an underground cable of the same
material and cross sectional area. On the other hand an underground cable has a
much lower inductive reactance than that of an overhead conductor because of closer
spacing of conductors.
Useful life: The useful life of the underground system is much longer than that of an
underground system. An overhead system may have a useful life of 25 years whereas
an underground system may have may have a useful life of more than 50 years.
Maintenance cost: The maintenance cost of an underground system is very low
compared to that of an overhead system because of ;less chances of faults and
service interruptions from wind, ice, lightening as well as from traffic hazards.
Interference with communication circuits: an overhead system causes
electromagnetic interference with telephone lines. The power line currents are
superimposed on speech currents, resulting in the potential of the communication
channel being raised to an undesirable level. However, there is no interference with
underground system.
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MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN OVERHEAD LINE

An overhead line is subjected to uncertain weather conditions and other external
interference. This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of safety in order to
ensure the continuity of operation in the line. The successful operation of an overhead
line depends to a great extent upon the mechanical design of the line. In general the
main components of an overhead line are;

1. Conductors which carry electric power from the sending end to the receiving end.
The commonly used conductor materials are aluminium, copper, cadmium copper,
and galvanised steel. The choice of a particular material will depend upon the cost,
the required electrical and mechanical properties and the local conditions.
2. Supports which may be wooden poles, lattice steel towers, reinforced concrete
poles which keep the conductors at a suitable level above the ground.
3. Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the
ground. There are several types of insulators but the commonly used insulators are
pin insulators, strain insulators, suspension insulators and shackle insulators which
can be made from porcelain, glass, steatite
4. Cross arms which provide support to insulators
5. Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, lightening arresters,
anti-climbing wires etc.

REFERENCES
P. S Dhogal, Basic electrical engineering, Vol. 1 and 2, Indian, 2005

J.B Gupta, Electrical technology, Indian, 2002

John Bird, Electric circuit theory and technology, Newnes Oxford, 2002.

Brian Scaddan, Electrical installation work, Newnes, 2008

V. K Metha, Principles of power system, S. Chand and company New Delhi, 2005

B.L Theraja, Electrical Technology, Indian, 2005

Dr E. Chikuni, Dr O.I Okoro, Prof. M.T Khan Concise higher electrical engineering,
Juta 2008

Ashfaq Husain, Electric Machines, Indian, 2005.

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