BIOLOGY DEPT NOTE BOOKLET

Science Double Award- Biology

JANUARY 1, 2021
GOOD HOPE SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL
1

LIST OF TOPICS A
CELL PROCESSES AND MAITENANCE
PLANT NUTRITION
TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION IN PLANTS
ENZYMES
ANIMAL NUTRITION
TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION IN ANIMALS
RESPIRATION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
BIOTECHNOLOGY
ECOLOGY
HOMEOSTASIS
EXCRETION
NERVOUS COORDINATION
HORMONAL COORDINATION
DRUGS
2

1.0 CELLS PROCESSES AND MAINTENANCE

OBJECTIVES

1.1 CELL STRUCTURE

- identify different parts of plant and animal cells
- identify from fresh preparations or diagrams or on photomicrographs cell surface membrane, cytoplasm, cell organelles: mitochondria,
nucleus and ribosomes of an animal cell
- identify from fresh preparations and diagrams or on photomicrographs the cell wall, cell surface membrane, sap vacuole, cytoplasm nucleus,
chloroplasts, mitochondria and ribosomes of a plant cell
- state the functions of the cell surface membrane and nucleus of an animal cell
- state the functions of the mitochondrion, nucleus, and ribosomes
 3

- examine under the microscope an animal cell (including protozoan) and a plant cell (including moss or onion epidermis) using appropriate
staining techniques.

1.2 CELL SPECILIZATION

- define tissue, organ, system, and organism.
- examine under a microscope sections of tissues from any locally available plant and animal material
- describe the relationship between cell structure and function using specialised animal cell and specialised plant cell as examples

1.3 MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES IN AND OUT OF CELLS

- define diffusion as movement of molecules from a region where they are at a higher concentration to a region where they are at a lower
concentration i.e. down
- a concentration gradient.
- demonstrate diffusion in gases and liquids.
- describe how concentration gradient, particle size and temperature affect diffusion rate.
- define osmosis (a special form of diffusion) as movement of water molecules from a region where they are at a higher concentration to a regio
n where they arhe at a lower concentration through a partially permeable membrane.
- state that osmosis is a special form of diffusion
- describe the effect of concentration gradient in the uptake of water by plants.
- describe the effect of osmosis on plant tissues, in terms of flaccid cells, turgid cells, wilting and plasmolysis
- describe the effect of osmosis on animal tissues [refer to bursting and shrinking ].
NUTRITION
OBJECTIVES
describe autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition.
identify and label the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross section under the microscope.
describe the significance of the cellular and tissue structures of a dicotyledonous leaf in terms of: distribution of chloroplasts
photosynthesis; stomata and mesophyll cells - gaseous exchange; vascular bundles - transport
define photosynthesis
state both the word and symbol equation for photosynthesis.
4

describe the intake of carbon dioxide and water by plants, the trapping of light energy by chlorophyll, the conversion of light energy into
chemical energy, the formation of carbohydrates, their subsequent storage, and the release of oxygen.
investigate the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
discuss the effect of varying light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. in
submerged aquatic plants).
state the importance of nitrogen-containing ions for protein synthesis and magnesium ions for chlorophyll synthesis.
investigate the effect of nitrogen deprivation on plant growth.
What is nutrition?
It is the uptake of substances by organisms from which energy will obtained to be used in maintaining life processes (characteristics of living
things)
Modes of Nutrition
Two modes of nutrition are;
a) Autotrophic- whereby organisms (plants) build up all their food i.e. making organic molecules from simple inorganic substances. Auto-
means self and trophos means feeding.
b) Heterotrophic- whereby organisms (animals) use ready-made organic substances as their source of food. These organic substances are
originally from autotrophs. Hetero means different or other.
Why do organisms need nutrition?
They need it to make new tissues for growth and replacement of worn out tissues but most of it is used to provide energy.
PLANT (AUTOTROPHIC) NUTRITION
Why are plants referred to as producers?
: Plants able to make (produce) their own food through the process of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is defined as;
➢ The process by which green plants make their own food using water and carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight.
➢ The process by which green plants fix complex organic substances such as carbohydrates from inorganic substances such as carbon
dioxide and water.
5

Raw materials needed for photosynthesis are;

✓ Carbon dioxide
✓ Water
✓ Sunlight
✓ Chlorophyll

How do plants obtain these raw materials?

Carbon dioxide - diffuses through the stomata found on leaves and some stems.
Water – it is absorbed from the soil by the root hair cells through the process of osmosis. Water moves between the cell walls through to the
xylem tissues which is responsible of transporting water and dissolved mineral salts.
Sunlight – it is trapped by the green pigment called chlorophyll
Chlorophyll – is a green pigment found mostly in leaves and is made by chloroplasts.
The process of photosynthesis can be summarized through the following equations;
Word equation;
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water chlorophyll Carbohydrates + Oxygen
Chemical symbol equation;
Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
The importance of photosynthesis
➢ Almost all forms of life depend on the chemical energy found in carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis.
➢ The oxygen produced by photosynthesis is essential for the process of respiration
➢ The process of photosynthesis uses the atmospheric carbon dioxide thus maintaining an ecological balance and minimizes the
greenhouse effect.
6

Although photosynthesis occurs mainly in the leaves, any part of the plant that contains chlorophyll will also photosynthesize.

The Leaf Structure

A detailed structure of the leaf which enables it to perform its photosynthetic function is described below.
➢ Most leaves are thin thus carbon dioxide can easily diffuse across the short distances to reach the inner cells
➢ Intercellular air spaces provide an easy passage for diffusion of gases.
➢ There are many stomata on the lower epidermis to allow for exchange CO2 & O2 and minimize loss of water by transpiration
➢ There are more chloroplasts on the upper cells (palisade) than on the lower cells (spongy)
➢ The branching network of veins (xylem & phloem) provides transport system for good supply of water to the cells and carrying away
of nutrients from the cells.

Leaf Structure
7

1. Cuticle- this is a waxy layer on the upper epidermis which prevents water loss by transpiration
2. Epidermis- found on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. It helps to keep the leaf in shape and protects the inner parts of the leaf
form micro-organisms. Also reduces transpiration.
3. Mesophyll – is the tissue between the epidermal tissues.
a) Palisade mesophyll tissue – Column-shaped (or elongated) cells which contain lots of chloroplasts to ensure maximum absorption
of light. Is the site for photosynthesis.
b) Spongy mesophyll tissue – irregularly shaped cells which fit loosely to allow for easy diffusion of gases.

4. Vascular bundle – contains the mains transport tissues

a) Xylem vessels – transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves through the transpiration pull.
b) Phloem vessels – transports manufactured food to growing parts of the part.
5. Guard cells – in most plants there are mainly on the lower epidermis. They surround small openings called stomata through which gases
diffuse in and out
8

The fate of glucose following the process of photosynthesis;

The figure below explains how glucose is used after photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + Water
CO2 H2O
Sunlight absorbed by
Chlorophyll to photolyse water
CO2 + H2 O2 (released as a by product)
9

C6 H12 O6

(Glucose)

Proteins used to Sucrose used for

make enzymes, respiration
cytoplasm etc Converted to

Oil & Fats used to Cellulose used to

make cell make
membrane
cell wall

Testing Green leaf for starch

Background information
The leaf manufactures carbohydrates through the process called photosynthesis. First, plants manufacture sugars which are later converted to
starch for storage in the cells to find out if photosynthesis has taken place we test the leaf starch.
Apparatus; 2 Beakers, test tube, burner, leaf, white tile, ethanol, water, testing reagent- iodine solution
Procedure;
Step 1
Boil the leaf for 3 minutes order to break open the cells. This also helps to kill the cell cytoplasm and make the leaf permeable to iodine
solution.
Step 2
Boil the leaf in ethanol (alcohol) for 2 minutes to remove the chlorophyll.
Caution; ethanol is flammable; therefore do not heat it directly.
Step 3
10

Put the leaf in warm water to soften it. Ethanol makes the leaf hard and brittle.
Step 4
Place the leaf on a white tile and add 3 drops of iodine solution.
Results
If starch is present the decolourised leaf will turn blue-black and if there is no starch it will just stain reddish brown.
Investigating the conditions necessary for photosynthesis.
- Sunlight
- Chlorophyll
- Carbon dioxide
- Water
These investigations are done using 2 sets of experiments
➢ The Main experiment – which has all the factors required except the one being investigated.
➢ The Control experiment – which has all the factors including the one being investigated.

Therefore the results obtained will be due to absence of the factor being investigated.

1. Investigating if sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

Procedure;
- A potted plant is destarched by keeping it in the dark for a day. Then the plant is exposed to sunlight for about an hour with one leaf
covered with an aluminium foil to keep light away (as seen in the figure below).
- Take the leaf that was covered and test it for starch following the procedure laid out above.
11

Results;
The part of the leaf that was covered would not change colour whilst the part exposed to sunlight would turn blue-black.
Interpretation / Conclusion
Since the starch test proved positive only for the part of the leaf that was received sunlight, we can conclude that sunlight is needed for
photosynthesis.
Investigating if Carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis
Apparatus; Two potted plants, soda lime, sodium hydrogen carbonate, petri dish, plastic bags apparatus for starch test
Procedure;
- Two destarched potted plants are covered with plastic bags.
- In one plant place a petri dish with soda lime and the other plant should have sodium hydrogen carbonate
Note; Soda lime is a chemical that absorbs carbon dioxide whilst sodium hydrogen carbonate serves to release the gas carbon dioxide.
- Expose both plants to sunlight for 3 hours and then take a leaf form each plant and test it for starch
Results;
The leaf that had soda lime did not change colour whilst the leaf that sodium hydrogen carbonate had turned to blue-black.
Interpretation;
Since the leaf from a plant with soda lime which served to absorb carbon dioxide did not stain blue-black, but only that from a plant with
sodium hydrogen carbonate which supplied carbon dioxide we can conclude that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
Determining if chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
12

Apparatus; variegated plant, Apparatus for starch test.

Background;
A variegated plant is one with uneven distribution of chlorophyll, i.e. it has chlorophyll only in patches.
Procedure;
- The plant is first destarched and then placed in sunlight for 2 hours
- Take one leaf and test it for starch

Variegated leaf – shown before and after testing for starch

Expected results
The area of the leaf that had chlorophyll would stain blue-black whilst the other area remains brown.
Interpretation;
Since the leaf stained blue-black only on areas with chlorophyll we can conclude that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.
Mineral requirement
Plants also need some mineral ions in order to manufacture other important substances needed. Mineral ions are absorbed through active
transport.
Examples of ions needed by plants;
13

a) Nitrogen – It is absorbed from ammonium compounds

- Nitrogen is used to make plant protein and when in shortage, it leads to stunted growth and pale yellow of
leaves.

b) Magnesium – absorbed from magnesium ions and it is used in the manufacturing of chlorophyll.
-Lack of magnesium results in yellowing of leaves and weak stems (leaf
chlorosis)
LIMITING FACTORS
A limiting factor is that factor which directly affects the rate of a chemical reaction if its quantity is changed.
The raw materials of photosynthesis become limiting factors of the process when they are in less supply
 Light intensity
 Carbon dioxide concentration
 Chlorophyll concentration
 Temperature

Example;
Rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity
14

Note that the same graph can be used to illustrate the effect of the other limiting factors.

The figure above shows that light intensity only affects the process of photosynthesis up to a certain level, beyond which the rate of
photosynthesis does not change even though light intensity increased. This implies that it’s no longer light that is limiting the process but
rather that; may be;
➢ chlorophyll has been bleached by light
➢ chlorophyll is fully saturated with light.
➢ The process is now affected by other limiting factors

Effect of nitrogen deprivation on plant growth

Apparatus shown below, a water culture solution apparatus is used to investigate mineral ion deficiencies. It consists of
A plant – usually a cereal or grass can be used for rapid growth
Air supply provide oxygen to the roots for respiration to release needed for active transport during uptake of mineral ions and bubbles keep
the culture solution mixed
Culture solution – contain dissolved mineral ions
Cotton wool – support the plant
Glass vessel covered by a black paper or aluminum foil – to keep away light
15

Two cereal plants (equal in size and age) are grown in two culture solution.
One set up will have a culture solution with all mineral ions required by the plant except nitrogen - this is the investigation set up
Another set up will have a culture solution with all mineral ions including nitrogen – control set up
Place the set ups in identical conditions of temperature, light intensity and allow the plants to grow for the same length of time.
Expected result
Investigation set up – stunted growth: small leaves, short stem and roots.
Yellow leaves
Control set up – a healthy plant
16

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
OBJECTIVES
describe the structure and function of root hairs in relation to their surface area, and to water and ion uptake.
- conduct experiments using dyes (stains) to identify vascular tissues in cross sections and vertical sections of stems, roots and leaves of
herbaceous dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
- state the structure and functions of vascular tissues ( xylem vessels and phloem tissues )
- describe absorption of water in terms of diffusion and osmosis.
- describe absorption of mineral ions in terms of active transport
- define transpiration as loss of water vapour from stomata
- investigate the effect of temperature, humidity, light intensity and wind on the rate of transpiration.
- describe transpiration stream as a process of water movement through xylem vessels.
- define translocation as transport of organic materials through the phloem
- discuss how transpiration is related to cell structure, stomata and intercellular air spaces

POSITION OF VASCULAR BUNDLES IN LEAVES, STEMS AND ROOTS.

Vascular bundles make up plants transport system, these consists of the xylem and phloem vessels. The xylem and phloem vessels are
grouped together into veins and vascular bundles as they pass through leaves. The position of the vascular bundles in roots and the shoots
are shown below.
In roots
17

In the stem
Vascular tissue is found arranged in a ring near the outside edge.
18

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF XYLEM VESSELS

Xylem vessel transport water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves. Also support or anchor the plant
A xylem vessel is made up of elongated cells, joined end to end so that a long tube is formed. The end walls of the cells have disappeared
making hollow or empty tube, to allow free transport of water and minerals ions. Xylem vessels run from the roots to the leaves, their walls
are made up of cellulose and lignin. Lignin is very strong, so xylem vessels may add turgor pressure and help support the plant
19

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF XYLEM VESSELS

Phloem vessels transport of dissolved sugars and amino acids from leaves to the lower part of plants.
Phloem tubes are made up of many elongated cells joined end to end. However their inter- end walls have not completely disintegrated but
form sieve plates with small holes in them, the cells are therefore referred to as sieve tube elements. Sieve tube elements contain streaks of
cytoplasm but lack nucleus. Each sieve tube element is attached to a companion cell which has all the organelles.
20

Translocation –involves movement of organic food substances are inside the sieve tubes of the phloem. The strands of cytoplasm inside the
phloem mainly consist of sucrose, amino acids and other substances. Substances are carried to other areas for growth or storage.
1. Glucose the product of photosynthesis is very important as it makes many other important nutrients, e.g. sucrose.
Sucrose in the leaves then enters the phloem vessels.
the phloem transports the sucrose all across the leaf where it can be made used of.
2. Amino acids are also transported in the phloem.
Sucrose and amino acids are transported to every tissue of the plant, each cell use it in a different way.
Root cells convert sucrose into glucose for respiration and store it.
Growing cells make cellulose for cell walls from sucrose and use the amino acids to make proteins for growth.
Flowers use the sucrose to make the attractive scent and tasty nectar to attract insects.

Root hair cells

1. Root hair cells have tubular or elongated outgrowths of a root hair. Each root hair is usually an outgrowth of a single epidermal cell, making
the layer of root hair cells thin.
2. Having this long and narrow root hair extension, creates a large surface area to volume ratio for rapid absorption of water and minerals.
3. The cell membrane controls the concentration of the cell sap. The cell sap has a lower concentration of water molecules than the soil solution,
causing osmosis to take place.
21

Transport of water
Water molecules and minerals are absorbed from the soil by the roots.
Roots have specialized cells called the root hair cell which have a large surface area for water molecule absorption.
Water molecules get into the roots hair cells by osmosis.
The soil has low concentration of salts and more water molecules than the root hair cell sap while the cytoplasm and cell sap inside the root
hair are very strong solutions.

This makes the water to move from it is high in concentration to where it is low though a selectively/partially permeable membrane, from
the soil into the root hairs, down the concentration gradient.
Water molecules pass across the root cortex from cell to cell by osmosis before being carried away by the xylem vessels.
As water molecules are lost through transpiration a suction force (transpiration pull) causes more water to be absorbed from the soil, resulting
in a flow of water from the soil to the roots, stems, leaves and into the air. Continuous movement of water from the roots through the xylem
vessel is called the Transpiration stream.
22

Uptake of mineral salts

Root hairs absorb mineral salts by active transport. Mineral salts are dissolved in water in the soil solution. They travel to the xylem vessels
along with the water and transported to all parts of the plant.
The minerals are usually present in low concentrations in the soil. The concentration of solutes inside the roots is usually higher. Root hairs
therefore take up these ions against their concentration gradient. Active transport uses a lot of energy.

Mineral ions may be absorbed by diffusion, when their concentration in the soil is higher than in the root cells.

TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration- evaporation of water or loss of water vapor from leaves through the stomata
The rate of transpiration is affected by several factors;
(a) Light intensity – In bright light the plant may open its to supply more carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, this incidentally increase
transpiration rate as more water will be lost through a wide stomata.
23

(b) Temperature – transpiration increases as temperature increases. When temperature is high, water is quickly converted to vapour and
then lost since water molecules gain kinetic energy
(c) Air movements – water evaporates quickly on a windy day reducing the humidity around the leaf. Transpiration increases with wind
speed.
(d) Humidity – the higher the humidity, the less water will be evaporated from the leaves. When the air around the plants will be saturated,
fully filled with water vapour Transpiration decreases with increase in humidity.

The amount of water lost must be equal to the amount water absorbed from the soil via the roots. If water lost is greater than the amount
absorbed then wilting occurs.

Adaptations for controlling transpiration

❖ Thick waxy cuticle reduces evaporation from the epidermis
❖ Stomata may be sunk into pits which trap a pocket of humid air
❖ Leaves may be rolled with the stomata on the inner surface close to a trapped layer of humid air
❖ Leaves modified into spines thorns and prickles
❖ Leaves may be narrow, needle shapes to reduce the broadness and size
❖ Thick epidermal layer
❖ Presence of hairy structures to trap most and provide continuous humid environment around the stomata.

Experiment to show that water passes through the xylem

Place shoots of several leafy plants in a solution of 1% dye solution (usually celery stalks or spinach will work better)
Leave the shoots exposed to light for1 hour or more.
Result: The dye will appear in the leaf veins of some shoots. Cut across the stems of some shoots and observe. The dye appeared in the
vascular bundles.
Interpretation: the water and dissolved substances travel through the xylem as transpiration occurs.

Experiment to determine the rate of transpiration

Use two similar watered plants. Enclose entirely in a polythene bag, including its pot.

Enclose only the pot of the second plant in a polythene bag. Fix the bag firmly around the stem of the plant and seal with Vaseline.
24

Place both plants on balances, and record their masses.

Record the mass of each plant everyday, at the same time for at least a week
Looking at the results which plant lost more mass.

Experiment to measure the rate of water uptake

Set up the photometer as shown in the diagram below. Ensure that the plant stem is tightly supported into the rubber tubing with Vaseline
used to make an airtight seal.

Fill the apparatus with water by opening the screw clip. Close the clip and leave the apparatus in a light, airy place. As the plant transpires,
the water lost is replaced by water taken up he stem. Air will be drawn at the end of the capillary tube.

When the meniscus reaches the scale begin to record every two minutes. When the meniscus reaches the end of the scale, refill the apparatus
with water from the reservoir as before.

Repeat the experiment under different situations, e.g. blowing fan, putting in a cupboard, putting in a refrigerator.
25

ENZYMES
-Define the term enzyme
26

These are proteins that act as biological catalyst that speed up biochemical reactions.
-Discuss the importance of Enzymes in anabolic and catabolic reactions
a) Anabolic reaction
these are reactions that involve the synthesis of macro molecules from micro molecules e.g. starch is made by joining up glucose molecules.
These are building up reactions, ie large molecules are built up from smaller molecules eg the process of photosynthesis where a large
carbohydrate molecule is built from joining a small molecule of water and small molecule of carbon dioxide.
This is how a breaker-enzyme works (catabolic reaction)

b) Catabolic reaction
These are biochemical reactions which involve the breakdown of macromolecules into micro molecules. e.g. digestion of starch into
glucose. These are the breaking down reaction; i.e.a large molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, eg the process of respiration
where a large carbohydrate molecule is broken down into a small water molecule and a smaller carbon dioxide molecule.
This is how a builder-enzyme works (anabolic reaction):

How Enzymes Work

27

Substances which are acted upon by enzymes are called SUBSTRATES and they have specific shapes.
- Enzymes catalyze reactions by binding at their active site.
- The shape of the active site corresponds to the shape the molecules of the substrate
- The reaction is then catalyzed when the Enzyme-substrate complex is formed
- The product is then released and the enzyme is free to catalyse the next reaction

The LOCK and KEY model (hypothesis) explains enzyme action because;
- Only the correct enzyme-substrate combination can work.
- Higher temperatures make the enzyme and substrate molecules to move more quickly, this also means the substrate molecules enter
the active site of the enzyme and the product molecules leave the active site quickly

-Describe intracellular and extracellular enzymes

a) intra-cellular enzymes
They catalyze reactions in the cytoplasm of the cells that formed them. They are produced inside the cells and remain inside the cells to
catalyse reactions taking place inside the cells eg enzymes catalyzing photosynthesis and respiration.
28

b) Extra-cellular enzymes
They catalyze chemical reactions outside the cells that have formed them. E.g. digestive enzymes. They are produced inside the cells and
secreted outside the cells to catalyse reactions outside the cell. Eg fungi releases extracellular enzymes to digest food outside its body.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
➢ All enzymes are protein in nature
➢ They are reaction specific
➢ Enzymes are substrate specific (lock and key theory)
➢ They are reusable
➢ The are affected by temperature
➢ They are affected by pH
➢ Most enzymes’ names end with the suffix “–ase” e.g. amylase, sucrase, lactase, maltase, lipase, carbohydrase, catalase
➢
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITY
- Very low temperatures inactivate enzymes which results in very low rates of chemical reactions.
- An increase in temperature speeds up the activity of an enzyme, therefore increasing the rate of reaction. Enzymes work best at
temperatures called the optimum temperature.
- Temperatures above 50 degrees denature enzymes, i.e. leads to a change in the protein structure of the enzyme, this result in reactions
proceeding very slowly to maintain life. Most organisms are destroyed by very high temperatures due to extremely low chemical reactions
which cannot maintain life processes.
GRAPH SHOWING EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITY
29

EFFECT OF pH ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

1. The graph showing the effects of pH on the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions is shown in the graph below:
30

2. Enzyme activity is the highest at the optimum pH of the enzyme.

3. As the pH increases or decreases from the optimum, enzyme activity sharply decreases. The shape of the active site is changed as the enzyme
is denatured.
4. At extreme pH levels, the enzyme is completely denatured and the rate of reaction drops to zero.
5. The optimum pH for each enzyme differs. For example, pepsin works best under the acidic conditions in the stomach, while intestinal
enzymes work best under alkaline conditions.
31

ANIMAL NUTRITION
What is a balanced diet?
A meal that contains all the necessary nutrients in correct proportions, i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins & minerals, water and fibre.
Why should energy intake relate to the following?
Gender;
Men should be given more food than women because they have a large body.
Age;
Young children require more energy for their size than adults do. This is because children are still growing and are more active. Also, extra
proteins are required for making new tissues as the child grows. In addition, more calcium, iron and vitamin A are needed for bone
formation, red blood cells and disease resistance respectively.
Occupation;
The amount of energy people use in physical activity varies according to how active they are, i.e.
➢ Sedentary work (office workers, clerical services) needs less amount of work
➢ Moderately active – light industry workers need more energy than sedentary workers.
➢ Very active – (e.g. mine workers, builders, steel workers) need more energy than the other groups above.

Pregnancy;
Energy requirements are increased during pregnancy to allow for the growth of the baby and the adjustment of the mother’s body to
pregnancy. Pregnant women require more supply of calcium, proteins, iron and vitamin D.
Lactation;
32

Lactation means the production of breast milk for feeding the baby. Extra energy is required for the production of milk. Fats are laid down
during pregnancy as an energy store. A lactating mother’s diet should contain protein, calcium and vitamin A and D.
The main food groups are;
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats / oils

Carbohydrates
- There are the major energy sources for the body.
- Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- Exist in two types; (i)Sugars and (ii) Starch
(i)Sugars;
- are the simplest form of carbohydrates
- all sugars taste sweet
- all sugars are soluble in water
- there are three types of sugars
Type a)- Simple sugars (reducing sugars)
They are the simplest form of sugar. Simple sugars consist of a single independent saccharide molecule hence are called monosaccharides,
e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose.
Type b) – Double sugars
Complex sugars consisting of two sugar molecules hence called disaccharides, e.g. sucrose, lactose, maltose.
Refer to the figure below on how disaccharides are formed.
Monosaccharides Disaccharide
33

> Glucose + glucose Maltose

> Glucose + fructose Sucrose
> Glucose + Galactose Lactose

Type c) – Long sugars

➢ These are complex sugars also called polysaccharides which are made up of many sugar units (more than three monosaccharides)
linked together forming a long chain e.g. glycogen, cellulose, pectin.
➢ They taste sweet
➢ They are soluble in water
➢ They are a more complex form of sugar
(ii) Starch
- It is a complex form of carbohydrate
- It is not soluble in water
- It consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- Starch molecules are made of a chain of sugar molecules hence named polysaccharides
Proteins
- Replace and repair worn out tissues
- Essential in the manufacture of hormones, antibodies and enzymes
34

- Excess is stored as an energy source

- Are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen elements
- Also contains small amounts of Sulphur, iron, phosphorus
Proteins are made of smaller units called amino acids
Structure of amino acid
H

R C COOH

NH2
There are 20 amino acids.
Examples of amino acids are cysteine, glycine, alanine, glutamine, proline etc.
Proteins are classified as;
- Plant protein – e.g. beans peanuts (legumes)
- Animal protein – e.g. milk, meat, eggs
Fats
▪ It is a good energy source
▪ Fats are usually solids whilst oils are liquids and insoluble in water
▪ Fats consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements
▪ A fat molecule is made of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acids

Fatty acids (e.g. steric acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid)

 35

glycerol
Food tests
Food Nutrient Methodology Positive Result Expected

Starch - if solid crush the sample to small

pieces
reagent
Place the food sample on a dimple
Iodine Solution Blue-black colour
tile
Colour
- Add 3 drops of iodine solution on
Brown colour the food sample

Reducing sugar - if solid crush the sample to small

pieces
e.g.Glucose
Put the sample in a test tube and add
reagent Brick red colour
water to make an extract
Benedicts’ Solution or (Also, dirty green - very little
- Add a 5 drops of Benedict’ s
Fehling’s solution amount and yellow – moderate
solution shake
quantity of reducing sugar)
Colour
- place the mixture in a warm water
Deep blue colour bath for 2 minutes
 36

Protein - if solid crush the sample to small

pieces
Also called the biuret test
Put the sample in a test tube and add
Reagent Purple colour
water to make an extract
Copper sulphate solution &
- Add a 5 drops of Sodium
Sodium hydroxide solution)
hydroxide solution and shake
Colour
Add 5 drops of Copper sulphate
light blue
solution and shake
Fats - if solid crush the sample to small
pieces
Emulsion test
Place a food sample in test tube &
reagent Milky /white emulsion
add 2cm3 ethanol and shake
ethanol
- Allow the mixture to settle and
colour then decant the top layer into
another tube then add 2cm3 of water
colourless

Digestion
It is the breaking down of large insoluble, complex food substances into smaller soluble and simplified particles that can be absorbed.
37

This process takes place in the alimentary canal (gut), which is a tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. When straightened, a mature
gut measures between 7.5m and 9.0m long
Types of digestion
1) Physical digestion (mechanical digestion)
The breaking down of large and insoluble food substances to small and soluble food substances to increase surface area for enzyme action.
It involves the processes of chewing, emulsification and peristalsis. During chewing the teeth tear, cut crush / grind food into smaller
particles with a large surface area for enzyme action.
2) Chemical digestion
The conversion of complex food substances to simplified food molecules for easy absorption, through the action of enzymes.
Stages involved in the human digestion.
1. Ingestion; the taking in of food through the mouth

2. Digestion; the breaking down of large insoluble food molecules into smaller soluble particles.

3. Absorption; the passage of digested food through the intestinal walls (in the ileum) to the body fluids. i.e. the circulatory system

4. Assimilation; the building up of body’s own materials from the absorbed food substances. i.e. usage of the absorbed food substances.

5. Egestion; The discharge of the undigested, unabsorbed material form the alimentary canal. This done through the anus.
Structure of the alimentary canal
38

Functions of parts;
a) The mouth;
Ingestion and mastication (chewing) takes place in the mouth (buccal cavity).
39

➢ Teeth serve to grind food into smaller particles for easy swallowing and increasing the surface area for enzyme activity.
➢ The saliva moistens / lubricates the food
➢ The tongue helps to work the food into a ball called food bolus to be swallowed easily.

The enzyme salivary amylase produced by salivary glands under the tongue begins the chemical digestion of starch into maltose.
When food is swallowed, the soft palate closes the opening of the nasal cavity and epiglottis closes opening the trachea to avoid choking.
The food bolus is then pushed down through the oesophagus the process of peristalsis
Circular muscle
Note that the circular
muscles always
contract behind the
food bolus, thus
explaining its
direction

Longitudinal muscle

b) The Stomach;
This is a muscular bag which stores food temporarily and release it in small quantities to the lower alimentary canal. It produces gastric
juices which mix with food and churns it to a watery paste called chyme. Peristaltic action helps to churn the food.
The gastric juice secreted from the stomach walls contains;
40

1. Hydrochloric acid – which inactivates the salivary amylase and kills most of the bacteria ingested with food.
2. Enzyme pepsin – which begins the chemical digestion of proteins to peptides. Pepsin is only active in acidic conditions.
3. Rennin – only produced in infants coagulate (clot / thicken) milk thus making it digestible.

4. Mucus – it prevents the stomach from being corroded by its own hydrochloric acid.

c) Small intestine
The upper part is wider and called Duodenum, it is about 20cm long.
The rest of the small intestine is called the ileum and it’s the longest part of the gut, about 6m to 7m.
The final stages of digestion take place in the duodenum.
• Duodenum
Bile; a greenish fluid made in the liver and stored in gall bladder, is secreted into the duodenum to emulsify fats; i.e. making them
digestible.
Pancreatic juice; an alkaline made by the pancreas and contains a number of enzymes.
Trypsin – This converts some proteins peptides.

 Pancreatic amylase – Acts on starch converting it to maltose.

 Lipase - This breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
Other digestive enzymes contained in the pancreatic juice and the intestinal juices are; maltase, lactase, sucrase, peptidase.
maltase
Maltose Glucose
lactase
Lactose Glucose
peptidase
Peptides Amino acids
41

sucrase
Sucrose Glucose
Note also, that the pancreatic juice contains sodium hydrogen carbonate which is alkaline in order to provide the suitable pH needed by
the request of the enzymes.
Though the cells of the gut are partly made of proteins, they are not attacked by proteases for the following reasons;
 The protein enzymes are secreted in an inactive form and only become active when inside hydrochloric acid.
 There is mucus secretion which also serves to protect the gut cells from self-digestion.

• Ileum
The digestive process of the duodenum continues here shortly and the walls of the ileum also secrete intestinal juice
which completes digestion.
The ileum is the site for absorption of the digested food material. The ileum is adapted to carry out its function
because of the following features;
 It is fairly long thus increasing the surface area for absorption.
 The epithelium cells are very thin for easy and rapid diffusion of food substances.
 It has many folds (finger-like projections called villi) on the inner lining thus increasing the surface are for
absorption.
 It is surrounded by a large network of blood capillaries to allow for easy diffusion and rapid transport of
food substances to other parts of the body.

The end products of digestion (glucose, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids) are absorbed into the blood stream
through diffusion and active transport and they reach the liver through the hepatic portal vein.
Structure of a villus as seen through a small section of the ileum.
42

SUMMARY OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

LOCATION GLANDS ENZYME SUBSTRATE PRODUCT

Mouth Salivary Amylase Starch Maltose

Stomach Gastric Pepsin Protein Peptides

Rennin Milk protein Coagulated milk
43

Duodenum Pancreas Amylase Starch Maltose

Lipase Fats Fatty acids &
Glycerol
Trypsin Protein &
Peptides Amino acids

Lactase
Lactose Glucose +
Lipase
Galactose
Fats
Maltase
Fatty acids +
Maltose
Sucrase Glycerol
Sucrose
Peptidase Glucose + Glucose
Peptides
Glucose + Fructose
Amino acids

ASSIMILATION
44

This is whereby the end products of digestion are used within the body.
1. Glucose
▪ Used by all cells during respiration
▪ Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver

2. Amino acids
▪ They are used to make protoplasm (living material), hormones and enzymes
▪ Used to repair and replace worn out tissues
▪ Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver to form urea which is excreted in urine
3. Fatty acids & glycerol
▪ These recombine in the lacteal to form fat globules
▪ They are stored under the skin and around organs for heat insulation and as an energy store
▪ Used by cells for respiration when glucose and glycogen are used up.

d) Large Intestine
The large intestine is divided into the caecum, colon, and rectum.
 The caecum is a swollen sac located in the lower right-hand portion of the abdominal cavity.
 The colon plays a very important role in the re-absorption of water from the undigested waste food.
 The rectum, about 15 cm, is the terminal portion of the large intestine. At the exit of the rectum, called the anus, is
a round muscle, the anal sphincter that closes the anus. The rectum stores faeces and release them through the
anus at interval. The release of faeces is called egestion / elimination / defecation

Faeces are a mixture of substances such as;

45

▪ Undigested food mainly the cellulose

▪ Dead and living bacteria from the alimentary canal
▪ Mucus and dead cells from the gut walls. The cells lining the gut have a limited life span.
▪ Surplus bile and other secretions which colour the faeces.

The large intestine has a smooth mucosal lining (only the rectum has folds) that secretes mucus to lubricate the
unwanted materials.
Describe the role of the liver in metabolism
1. Deamination
A process whereby excess amino acids are broken down by the liver into glycogen and urea (nitrogenous waste)
The human body cannot store excess amino acids; therefore they are taken to the liver for deamination where the
amino group is removed and the residues converted to glycogen for storage.
2. Fat metabolism
Breaking down of fats into CO2 and H20 to release energy.
3. Detoxification
The conversion of harmful substances into less harmful ones; e.g.
➢ Chemical substances in drugs and alcohol are broken down into harmless substances.
➢ Used hormones are broken down into inactive forms
➢ Ammonia produced during Deamination is converted into less poisonous substance called urea – to be excreted
through the kidneys.
➢ Dead red blood cells are broken down and the iron stored. The other waste forms bile.

4. Formation of bile
46

The liver produces bile salts which are important in the emulsification and subsequently absorption of fats
5. Storage organ
A number of substances used by the body (such as bile, glycogen, iron, vitamin A, B, D) are stored in the liver.
6. Regulation of blood sugar
The liver is able to convert glucose, amino acids and other substances to an insoluble carbohydrate called glycogen.
Some of the glucose may be from the hepatic portal vein carrying blood rich in digested food from the ileum to the
liver.
• When the glucose level is higher than normal range (80mg /100cm 3 to 160mg/100cm3 of blood) the pancreas
secretes insulin hormone into the blood which activates the liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen.
• If the concentration of blood sugar falls below 80mg/100cm 3 of blood, the pancreas secretes another hormone –
glucagon which activates the liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.

GLUCOSE

stimulated by
stimulated by
Conversion

Conversion
Glucagon

Insulin

GYCOGEN

Therefore this brings the glucose concentration to normal range.

47

Note; if the blood glucose level rises above 160mg/100cm 3, glucose is excreted by the kidneys. A blood glucose
concentration below 40mg/100cm3 affects the brain cells adversely leading to convulsions and coma.
Lack of insulin leads to a condition called Sugar diabetes.

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

- explain why multicellular animals need a circulatory system.

- describe the circulatory system as a system of tubes (blood vessels) with a pump (heart) and valves to ensure one-
way flow of blood.
- describe the dual circulation as consisting of pulmonary and systemic circuits.
- - discuss the difference between the two circuits (pulmonary and systemic) in terms of pressure, direction of blood
flow and quality of blood
name the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver, and kidney.
- describe the structure and function of the heart
- compare and contrast the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries.
- locate pulse points and count the pulse rate
- investigate the effect of physical activity on pulse rate.
- describe coronary heart disease in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries
-discuss possible causes of coronary heart diseases (diet, stress, smoking)
discuss preventative measures of coronary heart diseases
48

- list the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma
- identify red and white blood cells as seen in diagrams and/or photomicrographs.
- describe the functions of blood:
red blood cells - haemoglobin and oxygen transport; white blood cells - phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue
rejection; platelets - fibrinogen to fibrin causing clotting; plasma - transport of blood cells , ions, end products of
digestion, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins, plasma proteins.
- describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid.
- discuss common blood-related diseases including HIV/AIDS, malaria, leukaemia, and anaemia.
- discuss how the blood-related diseases can be prevented.
explain why immunity often results after an infection or a vaccination.
- explain why some people do not become immune to some diseases.

Transport in Humans
Most organisms are multi cellular and larger and therefore cannot rely upon diffusion and osmosis to meet their
transportation needs. These organisms use an elaborate system of blood transported in vessels to distribute substances
around. Movement of dissolved substances, waste products and water flow is referred to as circulation.

In humans, circulatory system consists of the

i) Heart – a pump which drives blood around the body

ii) Blood vessels – these conduct blood to all parts of the body
iii) Blood – a circulating fluid with dissolved and suspended substances. The table below shows substances
transported by blood:
49

Substance Carried from Carried to

glucose ileum All body cells
Amino acids ileum All body cells
Vitamins ileum All body cells
Mineral ions ileum All body cells
water colon All body cells
oxygen lungs All body cells
Carbon dioxide All body cells lungs
Urea, uric acid liver kidneys
hormones Hormonal glands Target organs

iv) Valves - to ensure one way flow of blood

General overview of the circulatory system

The human body is highly vascularized, the heart as the central pump is connected to other main body organs by arteries and veins.

Pulmonary artery and vein – conduct blood to and from the lungs
50

Aorta (main artery) – conduct blood from the heart to other body organs

Vena cava (main vein) - conduct blood from other body organs to the heart

Hepatic artery and vein - conduct blood to and from the liver

Hepatic portal vein - conduct blood from the intestines to the liver

Mesenteric artery - conduct blood to the intestines

Renal artery and vein - conduct blood to and from the kidneys
51

Dual Circulation

Dual circulation refers to the fact that blood passes twice through the heart in one complete circulation. Mammals have a double circulatory
system which consists of pulmonary and systemic circuits.
52

The table below summarizes the difference between pulmonary and systemic circuit.

Pulmonary Systemic

• Blood flow at low pressure because it • Blood flows at high pressure because it
travels for a short distance. travels for a longer distance.
• Circulation between heart and lungs. • Circulation between heart and rest of
body
• Blood loses CO2 and gains O2 heart. • Blood loses O2 and gains CO2
• vein carries oxygenated blood • Veins in this circuit carry deoxygenated
blood.
• arteries carry deoxygenated blood • Arteries carry oxygenated blood

k
53

Structure and function of the heart

The heart is a muscular organ situated in the thoracic cavity between the lungs. It pumps blood to all body organs. It is made up of a special
type of muscle called the cardiac muscle which is in continuous contraction and relaxation. The heart has two sides left and right separated
by the septum and is further divided into four compartments.

Right atrium – receives and pumps blood with low concentration of oxygen from the vena cava to the right ventricle.

Right ventricle – receives and pumps blood with low concentration of oxygen from the right atrium to the pulmonary artery.
54

Left atrium- receives and pumps blood with high concentration of oxygen from the lungs to the left ventricle.

Left ventricle - receives and pumps blood with high concentration of oxygen from the left atrium to the aorta.

Blood vessels associated with heart

Coronary arteries – supply the heart muscles blood containing oxygen and nutrients.

Vena cava – transport blood with low concentration of oxygen from different body organs to the heart

Aorta - transport blood with high concentration of oxygen from the heart to the different organs

Pulmonary artery - transport blood with low concentration of oxygen from heart to the lungs

Pulmonary vein - transport blood with high concentration of oxygen from lungs to the heart

Blood vessels

There are three types of blood vessels: artery, vein and capillary. The table summarizes the difference between arteries, veins and capillaries.

Type of blood vessel Structural Features Functional Features

Thick muscular walls and Carry blood away from the
thick elastic fibres heart
Narrow small lumen (internal Carry blood with high
diameter/space for blood concentration of oxygen
passage) (except P. artery)
No valves Carry blood at high
pressure
Artery
Presence of pulse
55

Vein Thin walls and very few Carry blood towards the
elastic fibres heart
Large and wide lumen Carry blood with low
concentration of oxygen
( except P. vein)
Presence of valves Carry blood at low pressure
No pulse

Capillaries Tiny and small permeable Allow exchange of

walls, only one layer of cells substances, intermediate
thick between the arteries and
veins, carry blood from
arteries to veins
Tiny passage Carry both oxygenated
blood (on side connected to
the arteries) and blood with
low concentration of
oxygen ( on side connected
to the veins)
No valves Reducing blood pressure
56

Summary of blood flow

Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins

Pulse rate

Pulse rate refers to the number of heart beats per minute. On average the pulse rate of a normal person is about 72 beats per minute. Pulse rate
can be detected on special areas around the body; these are referred to as pulse points, thus the wrist, under the left breast, at the temple, and
at the neck/ collar.

Pulse rate is increased by physical activity.

This removes accumulated carbon dioxide

More blood is sent to the exercising muscles hence increase blood flow

More oxygen and glucose is transported to the respiring cells, therefore increase respiration rate to release more energy.

Coronary heart disease (CHD)

Coronary heart disease results from occlusion (blockage) of coronary arteries. Coronary arteries are two arteries branching from the aorta to
supply muscles of the heart with nutrients and oxygen. If these vessels are blocked, blood flow to the heart muscles will be prevented leading
heart attack or failure.
57

Terms associated with CHD

Atherosclerosis – accumulation of fatty material (atheroma) in the lining of coronary arteries. The arteries become narrow and blood flow is
reduced.

Atheroma – fatty deposits accumulated inside the lining of blood vessels. It is made up largely of cholesterol

Thrombus – a blood clot, formed by blood cells trapped by the rough surface of the atheroma. If blockage of arteries comes as a result of a
clot the condition is referred to as coronary thrombosis

Factors that increase the risk of CHD

58

Increased emotional stress –associated with constriction of some blood vessels resulting in raised blood pressure. High blood pressure (i)
encourages formation of a thrombus (ii) increase rate at which atheroma is deposited.

Tobacco smoking – harmful components of tobacco include nicotine and carbon monoxide. Their effects are (i) damaged linning of arteries
(ii) encourage formation of atheroma (iii) increased blood pressure and heart beat

Fatty diet and obesity – obesity is a condition in which excess fat accumulates in the body due to overeating especially food with high
amounts of animal saturated fats which high cholesterol levels.

Lack of exercise – leads to slow blood flow which encourage cholesterol accumulation.

How to prevent / reduce risk of CHD

Avoid stress,

Quit smoking

Eat diet with low unsaturated fats

Exercise regularly

Components of blood

Component Structure Function

Red blood cells These are tiny, Absorb and distribute oxygen
biconcave cells without around the body. At high Oxygen
nucleus concentration oxygen combines
with haeoglobin to form oxy
Made in the bone haemoglobin which is an unstable
marrow and
59

disintegrates in the liver compound that disintegrates at

after 120 days low oxygen supply.

Made up of spongy
cytoplasm enclosed in a
flexible cell membrane

Have a red pigment

haemoglobin which
have a high binding
affinity to oxygen

Numerous in the
bloodstream and
provide a large surface
area for oxygen
transportation
60

White blood cells Relatively large cells Destroy disease causing organism
Phagocyte when compared to RBC through phagocytosis (surround,
engulf and digest
Capable of movement antigens/bacteria)
by action of cytoplasm,
can squeeze out the
capillary wall

Have large irregular

shaped nucleus

Lymphocyte Relatively large cells Produce antibodies which stick

when compared to RBC and destroy the antigens

Made in the lymph Neutralize toxins released by

nodes disease causing organisms

Have large central

nucleus
61

Platelets Tiny cell fragments

❖ When the skin cut &
blood is flowing out, the
platelets are exposed to
air, they disintegrate &
release an enzyme called
thrombokinase, into the
plasma.
❖ Thrombokinase in the
presence of calcium ions
found in the blood can
now change the plasma
protein prothrombin to an
active enzyme thrombin.
❖ Thrombin reacts with the
soluble plasma protein
fibrinogen and changes it
to insoluble fibrin
❖ Fibrin forms a
mesh/network of fibres
around the injured part.
❖ The blood cells become
trapped in the fibres, dry
up, die and harden to form
a scab under which the
wound can heal & prevent
entry of foreign particles.

Plasma Liquid part of blood Transport substances found within

consists of water, its composition.
dissolved substances,
plasma proteins,
62

hormones and blood

cells.

Exchange of substances
63

Exchange of substances occurs between blood, tissue fluid and cells in the capillary bed (network of capillaries in between tissues). Blood
from the arterial end enter the capillary at high pressure leading to vasodilation, forcing blood plasma to leak through capillary walls and
permeates into tissue fluid. Branching of capillaries and narrower lumen offer considerable resistance to blood flow, therefore pressure is
eventually reduced, slowing down blood flow and allowing more time for exchange of substances. Cells extract useful substances from tissue
fluid; in turn release excretory products into the fluid which later pass back into blood in the capillary. In the end towards the veins water
molecules can also diffuse into blood to balance the osmotic pressure. Blood leaves the capillary into the vein at low pressure.
64

RESPIRATION, BREATHING, EXCHANGE OF GASES

- define respiration as the release of energy from food substances in all living cells.
- define aerobic respiration as the release of a relatively large amount of energy by the break down of food substances in the presence of
oxygen.
- state the equation for aerobic respiration, using words and symbols.
describe the uses of energy in the body of humans including muscle contraction, cell division, growth, protein synthesis, active transport,
transmission of nerve impulses and maintenance of constant temperature.
define anaerobic respiration as the release of a relatively small amount of energy by the break down of food substances in absence of
oxygen.
- state the equation for anaerobic respiration in plants and animals using words and symbols.
- describe fermentation process as a form of anaerobic respiration
demonstrate the release of energy through anaerobic respiration using yeast.
describe the production of lactic acid in muscles during exercise.
- describe the role of the exchange surface of the alveoli in gaseous exchange.
PURE SCIENCE ONLY
- describe the role of the diaphragm, ribs and intercostal muscles in breathing.
- investigate the effect of physical activity on the rate and depth of breathing.
- identify on diagrams and name the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated capillaries.
describe the effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components (nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide) on health: strong association with
bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer and heart disease, and the association between smoking during pregnancy and reduced birth weight

RESPIRATION

Definition: Release of energy from food substances in all living cells.

Uses of energy
65

a) Muscle contraction
b) Protein synthesis
c) Temperature regulation
d) Cell division
e) growth
f) Active transport
g) Transmission of nerve impulses
Aerobic respiration
Definition: Release of a relatively large amount of energy by break down of food substances in the presence of oxygen.
Aerobic respiration can be summed up by the following equation:
enzymes
Word equation: Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + 2830 kJ (energy)
enzymes
Symbol equation: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2830 kJ (energy)
Anaerobic respiration
Definition: Release of a relatively small amount of energy by break down of food substances in the absence of oxygen.
(i) Alcoholic Fermentation
enzymes
Word equation: Glucose → Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + energy
enzymes
Symbol equation: C6H12O6 → 2C2H OH + 6CO2 + energy
(ii) Lactic acid fermentation
enzymes
Word equation: Glucose → Lactic acid + hydrogen + energy
66

enzymes
Symbol equation: C6H12O6 → 2C3H4O3 + 2H2 + energy
Production of lactic acid in the muscles
This process contributes to the discomfort one might experience in exhausted muscles.
❖ If the muscles are exercising vigorously, oxygen supply may become insufficient leading
to anaerobic respiration.
❖ This results in build –up of lactic acid in the muscles which is likely to cause a painful
sensation.
❖ Accumulation of lactic acid lead to muscle fatigue ( due to release of relatively small
amounts of energy)
❖ an oxygen debt is created by the fact that lactic acid needs to be completely oxidized later
(forming water and carbon dioxide).

At the end of the exercise, the breathing rate continues to be fast and deep, providing extra oxygen for the cells to get rid of lactic acid, i.e.
paying the oxygen debt. This process occurs in the muscle cell and the liver.

Aerobic vs. Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Oxygen is present Absence of oxygen
Large amount of oxygen released Small amount of energy released
Products of complete oxidation: water and Products of incomplete oxidation: alcohol and
carbon dioxide carbon dioxide OR
Lactic acid
67

Takes place in the mitochondria Takes in the matrix (lining) of the cell
membrane or in the cytoplasm

Anaerobic respiration in Yeast

❖ Boil some water to expel all the dissolved oxygen
❖ When cool, use the boiled water to make up a 5% glucose solution and 10% of yeast solution
❖ Place 5cm3 of glucose solution and 1cm3 of yeast solution in a test tube
❖ Cover the mixture with a thin layer oil to exclude atmospheric oxygen
❖ Fit the delivery tube and allow it to in the lime water as shown in the diagram below.
❖ After 10 -15 minutes of warming if necessary, observe changes.
68

Observation
❖ Bubbles of gas escape from the mixture
❖ Lime water turns milky
Interpretation
Yeast-glucose solution produced carbon dioxide (which is why lime water turned milky). Since oxygen was excluded through use of oil, the
type of respiration that occurred was anaerobic.

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction refers ability to produce young ones of a species (i.e organism which share similar characteristics & can interbreed to produce
fertile offspring). There are two types of reproduction;
69

• Asexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
It is the reproduction in which new organisms are formed from a single parent without a gamete reproduction. This is reproduction without
fertilization i.e. no fusion of gametes. The offspring from asexual reproduction are genetically identical to each other & to the parent
organism and are referred to as CLONES.
Examples of asexual reproduction in animals
a. Binary fission: this is found in organisms such as Amoeba and Yeast. Amoeba have a short generation time can divide one cell into

many cells if the conditions are favourable.

b. Spore formation in moulds: as a result of fungi such as Mucor and Rhizopus are formed by the process of mitosis.
c. Budding in Hydra.

Vegetative propagation involves the use of plant parts to make new ones.
❖ ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
70

a. Budding: where buds develop into new individuals. A bud together with some cambium layers is taken from a selected plant (this is
the scion). A T-shaped cut is made in the bark down to the cambium of the stock. The scion is carefully inserted, but with the bud
still exposed beneath the bark of the stock. The stock and the scion are tied together and the junction is protected with wax.

b. Grafting: a form of cutting where a part of a plant is carefully cut off to make a scion and then attached to a stock and the two grow
together. The stock collects water and mineral salts and transports them to the growing scion. This is common with oranges and
lemons.

c. Cuttings: stems are cut below the node and planted in suitable soil so that the node can develop adventitious roots to form a new
plant. This is used with plants such as sugar cane, cassava.
71

d. Layering: a low branch is bent down and a ring of bark around of about 5 cm wide is removed from around the node where it touches
the ground. The area with a ring is completely covered with moist soil while the end of the branch is allowed to remain free until the
roots develop around the ringed area. Then the branch is cut off from the parent plant and allowed to grow on its own.

❖ NATURAL METHODS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

a. Bulbs: are modified shoots consisting of a flattened disc-like stem with closely set nodes, bearing a fleshy scale leaves surrounded by
some dry scale leaves which cover the food store.
72

b. Rhizomes: this is a horizontal underground stem which possesses scale leaves and buds. It contains a store of food reserves which
enables the plant to survive through unfavourable environmental conditions such as hot dry weather and winter. A number of
daughter plants can be produced from a single rhizome. Examples of rhizomes include ginger.

e. Stem tubers: is a swollen underground stem bearing a number of reduced scale leaves. The buds produce flowering aerial shoots, and
adventitious roots grow at their bases. Each shoot grows into a self supporting young plant.

o Suckers and runners: suckers are lateral branches of a stem with terminal buds which grow from the base of an underground stem just
beneath the surface of the soil. Examples of plants which undergo this type of vegetative propagation include bananas and plantain.
In a runner the stem grows along the surface of the ground. New shoots appear along the stem with adventitious roots developing
below them. Examples include strawberries.
73

Advantages of asexual reproduction

o It involves only one parent and no fertilization is required.

o The young plant can use the food stored in its organ as it develops.
o Take a short time to produce young ones with this mode of reproduction.
o It does not require external agencies, such as insect and wind for pollination and dispersal.
o The daughter plants are the same as the parent in every way (no variation).
o If plants are already in a suitable habitat, they can colonize the area rapidly.
o It is economical in some plants thus saving planting materials e.g. use of buds.
o Juvenile period is reduced.
o Plants propagated by vegetative means are small in size and this makes harvesting and other operations easier.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

• The lack of dispersal mechanism might lead to overcrowding and therefore young individuals may compete for food and space with
the parents.
• Offspring may be wiped out by extinction due to lack of variation in case of environmental conditions which do not favour the
species.
• Some vegetative structures may be at risk to fire.

Commercial applications of asexual reproduction in flowering plants

i. growing of sweet potatoes and grapes: since the offspring is genetically identically to the parent, this means the good characteristics of the
parent are passed onto the new individual hence preserving good qualities. Therefore sweet potatoes are produced using vegetative
74

propagation i.e. cutting. The part that is cut is then covered by soil and it is being watered for a few days. The cut part develops roots and the
plant grows faster than if seeds were used.
ii. Production of oranges using grafting and budding methods: a bud of an orange is inserted under the bark of a lemon plant since the two
plants are close varieties. This is used to produce a plant which will produce fruits with the combination of the two plants. This can also be
used to produce desired qualities of plants with flowers of a particular or shape can be produced by gardeners.

Difference between asexual and sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

1. There is no variation (parent same as 1. There is variation (parents may be

offspring genetically) different from offspring genetically)
2. Seed dispersal or pollination not 2. Modes of seed dispersal and pollination
important. important.
3. Involves two parents which produce
gametes which will have to meet to
3. Involves only one parent to produce
produce a young one.
young ones.
4. Requires much energy for gamete
production
4. Does not require much energy.
5. Occurs in all advanced organisms.
5. Occurs mostly in some organisms that
are not advanced.
6. Uses both mitosis and meiosis.
6. Uses mitosis
75

Sexual Reproduction in Plants.

Functions of parts
• Stigma – receives pollen grains
• Style – allows the pollen tube to pass through to the ovary
• Ovary – produces female sex cells called ovules
• Anther – produces the male sex cells called pollen grain
• Filament – holds the anther
• Petals – encloses parts of the flower ( protection)
• Sepals – protects the ovary (and the general flower during the bud stage)
• Flower stalk – holds the flower in position (attaches the flower to the plant)
• Receptacle – where all the other parts of a flower are attached
76

Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma
Types of Pollination
 Self Pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma in the same flower, or the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of one flower to stigma of another flower on the same plant.
 Cross Pollination – The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same species.
Agents of Pollination
• Insects
• Wind
Characteristics of Flowers
Wind Pollinated Flower Insects Pollinated Flower

▪ Have dull small bracts ▪ Bright coloured petals

▪ Have large petals
▪ Have feathery stigma ▪ Plain stigma
▪ Light pollen grains produced ▪ Sticky pollen grains
▪ Lots of pollen grains produced ▪ Few pollen grains
77

▪ Have no scent ▪ Scented petals

▪ No nectar ▪ Have nectar

Pollen from insect pollinated flower pollen from wind pollinated flower
Growth of the Pollen Tube
If pollen grains are of the same species as the flower they land on, they may germinate. Germination is triggered by a sugary solution on the
stigma, involves the growth of a pollen tube from the pollen grain.
78

The pollen tube contains the male nucleus, which is needed to fertilise the ovule inside the ovary. The pollen tube grows down the style,
through the ovary wall, and enters the ovule through the micropyle.
Release the male gametes nucleus and fertilisation occurs i.e. the fusion of the male nucleus with the female nucleus. If the ovary contains a
lot of ovules, each will need to be fertilised by a different
pollen nucleus.

Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of the male nucleus with female nucleus.
The fertilized egg (ovule) develops into an embryo. The embryo has plumule (which develops into shoot) and a radicle (which develops into
roots). The embryo is attached to the cotyledons in – one in monocots & two in dicots. The embryo is found enclose in seeds.
Nb; after fertilization the petals dry up and fall off leaving the ovary to develop into the fruit & ovules into the seeds
Non- Endospermic Seed (Dicot) e.g. bean seed
79

Functions of Parts
1. Testa {seed coat} – this is the tough outer cover in seeds. It protects the embryo from physical damage.
2. Cotyledon - this is where food is stored fro the embryo. Non Endospermic seeds (dicots) have two cotyledons. Endospermic seeds
have one cotyledon
3. Micropyle – it is an opening left by the pollen tube on the testa. It allows water & O 2 needed for germination to enter the seed to go
4. Embryo is made of the;
▪ Plumule – which develops into the shoot during germination
▪ Radicle – which grows in the root system.

Environmental Conditions For Germination

The following conditions must be present in order for seeds to germinate
• Water
• Oxygen
• Suitable Temperature

Water
Adequate water is needed for germination to start & continue. Excess water prevents germination by probably excluding oxygen. The forces
exerted by the accumulation of water into the seed may eventually rapture the testa. Water is also required to activate the biochemical
reactions associated with germination because these take place in solution.
Oxygen
80

It is required for aerobic respiration. The energy released is used to run chemical reactions within the cells of the embryo during its period of
growth.
Suitable Temperature
This will make enzymes to be activated thus chemical reactions will occur at the highest rate. Each species of seeds have an optimum
temperature for germination.
The Role of Enzymes in Seed germination
In the early stages of germination, the food reserves in the cotyledons mostly starch & proteins are acted upon by enzymes and converted to
soluble products which pass to, & are used by the actively growing regions. Glucose is formed from the stored starch & being used in
various ways; e.g. In the synthesis of cellulose & incorporated into cell walls and in the process of respiration to generate energy needed in
the growing regions.
Seed Dispersal
This is the transfer {scattering away} of seeds from the parent plant to new sites. After seed development either the entire fruit or the seed(s)
contained within are dispersed from the parent plant
Advantages of Seed dispersal
I. It reduces chances of competition for nutrients & space
II. There is also more chance of finding a fresh area to colonize, thus increasing the overall species population in time. (it promotes
plants diversity in different localities)

Disadvantages
I. There is a possibility of not finding a suitable place for germination

Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal.

There are four main agents of dispersal, namely;
• Animal
• Wind
• Water
• Self
81

1. Animal Dispersed Seeds

Example

• They have hooks or spines with which they attach themselves to the skin, fur or wool of passing animals and thus carried over
some distance before dropping off or being scratched off. E.g. goose grass, buttercup etc.
• Contained in succulent fruits which have edible fleshly parts. E.g. tomatoes, strawberry, mulberry, wild berries, grapes etc.
The fruit is eaten & digested but the seeds are resistant to digestive enzymes & pass unharmed through the gut of the animal
to be deposited with faeces often on fertile soils.

2. Wind Dispersed Seeds

Example
82

• Parachute fruits & seed – seeds of willow herb & the fruit of dandelion have projecting feathery hairs (parachute-like
strutures) which increase their surface area. As a result, the seeds floats over long distances before sinking to the ground. It is
therefore likely to be carried a long way from the parent plant by slight air current.
• Winged fruits – Fruits of sycamore & ash trees have wing-like outgrowths from the ovary walls or leaf-like structures on the
flower stalk. These wings cause the fruit to spin as it falls from the tree & slow down its fall. This delay increases the chances
of the fruit being carried away in air currents.
• Pepper pot effect – e.g. poppy has along flower on which hangs a dry hollow capsule (formed from the ovary) with one /
more openings. The wind shakes the flower stalk and seeds are scattered on all sides through the openings in the capsule

3. Water Dispersed Seeds

Some plants e.g. Coconut have a fibrous ovary wall which enables the fruit to float on water so that the seed is water dispersed
4. Self Dispersed Seed
Example;

Explosive fruits – the pods of flowers in the pea family dry up in the sun and shrivel. The tough fibres in the fruit wall shrinks &
set up a tension forcing the fruit to split in half down the lines of weakness, the two halves curl back suddenly & flick out

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

83

The Male Reproductive System

Functions of Parts
1. Testes – they produce sperms & the hormone testosterone
2. Scrotum – a special sac outside the abdominal cavity containing testes. At this position testes are kept at a temperature slightly below
the body temperature. This is the best temperature fro sperm production
3. Sperm ducts – carry sperms from the testes to the urethra
84

4. Prostate gland – it secretes a fluid that activates & feed sperms

5. Seminal vesicle – it secretes a fluid that activates aids in sperm mobility
6. Urethra – it carries urine & semen ( fluid containing sperms) out of the male’s body
7. Epididymis – A coiled tube that stores sperms
8. Penis – It is used to deposit sperms into the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse

The Female Reproductive System

Functions of Parts
1. Ovaries – they produce ova (eggs) and the hormones oestrogen & progesterone
2. Oviducts – the tube through which the ova pass when released from the ovary. It is also a region where fertilization occurs.
3. Uterus – the region where the embryo is implanted after fertilization in the oviduct
4. Cervix – A ring of muscle closing the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina. It dilates / widens during child birth.
5. Vagina – it accommodates (receives) the penis during copulation. It is where sperms are deposited from the male and also serves as a
birth canal.

The Difference Between Female (ovum) & Male (sperm) Gametes

SPERMATOZOA OVUM
85

cytoplasm

Cell membrane

Smaller in size (diameter of sperm head is Larger in size (diameter of 0.05mm)

0.01mm)
Has no food store Has a food store
Has a tail which helps it to swim towards Does not move by itself (move by the help
the egg of cilia within the oviducts)
Produced in large numbers Produced in small numbers
Life span is 2 – 3 days (i.e. sperms might Has a life span of 24hours after being
be able to fertilize an ovum within 2 – 3 produced
days )

How does a sperm meet an ovum in human mammals?

An erect penis is inserted into the well lubricated vagina and the paroxysmal movement of the penis in the vagina plus the vagina muscle
contractions stimulates the contraction of the epididymis & sperm duct thus pushing the sperms through the ducts along which they mix with
fluids from the seminal vesicles & prostate glands. The mixture of sperms & these fluids is now called semen. Continued stimulation results
in the release of the semen into the vagina, this is called ejaculation.
86

Once deposited into the vagina sperms swim up through the cervix & uterus to the oviducts where they meet with an ovum. More than 500
million sperms are released from a single ejaculation, but only one sperm is needed to fertilise the ovum.

During fertilization the tail of the sperm remains outside as the head travels through the cytoplasm to deliver the nucleus, thus fertilization is
defined as the fusion of the sperm nucleus with the egg nucleus to from a zygote. Following fertilization the egg membrane changes form in
order to prevent further entry of other sperms & then the zygote divides through mitosis forming an embryo as it travels down into uterus for
implantation.

Then a number of changes occur in uterus to allow for a successful growth of the embryo.
These include formation of:
❖ Placenta – a region that allows for the exchange of substances between mother & foetus
❖ Umbilical cord - made of umbilical artery which carries deoxygenated blood & waste from foetus & the umbilical vein bringing
oxygenated blood & nutrients from mother to the foetus.
❖ Amnion - a membrane that surrounds the foetus & produces amniotic fluids
❖ Amniotic fluid – a watery fluid that protects the foetus from external shock.
87

Function of Amnion & Amniotic Fluid

The amnion (also called amniotic sac) is a thin membrane covering the embryo & has a protective function. The sac is filled with a fluid
known as amniotic fluid which supports the embryo & protect it from mechanical shock. As the embryo increases in size the amniotic sac
also expands to accommodate it.
88

SPECIAL DIETARY NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

A woman needs adequate supply of food

•She must eat plenty of nourishing foods, especially proteins for the growing baby
•She needs an increased intake of calcium & vitamin D (i.e. in milk) for the formation of strong bones if the baby
•She must have an increased intake of carbohydrates for the energy needed to carry the growing baby.
•She should avoid taking any drug unless seriously necessary & prescribed by a medical practitioner.
•She must also avoid alcohol & smoking as these interfere with the growth of the baby leading to miscarriage still born or children
born underweight
The Menstrual Cycle

Uterine Cycle

Ovarian Cycle
89

The menstrual cycle is characterized by two cycles, the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle running simultaneously.

Ovarian cycle
In the ovarian cycle, one ovum is released every 28 days. First two hormones produced by the pituitary gland are secreted, i.e. Follicle
Stimulating Hormone (FSH) & Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The Hormone FSH is acts on one of the follicles inside the ovaries to mature &
ripen. LH later stimulates the ripe follicle to rupture & release an ovum, this is known as ovulation. The ovum is then moved into the oviduct
by cilia where it can meet with a sperm, but if the ovum is not fertilized it breaks down & flows out in through the vagina in the form of
blood.
Uterine cycle
The ruptured follicle then develops into solid body (gland) known as the corpus luteum, which secretes the sex hormones oestrogen &
progesterone which stimulates the uterus lining to thicken & form more blood vessels, The uterus lining thickens every time during
ovulation so that it is ready for the embryo. But if there is no fertilization, the corpus luteum breaks down & stops releasing progesterone. A
drop in progesterone levels then leads to the constriction of the blood vessels lining the uterus, as a result the thickened lining breaks down
& the blood escapes through the cervix & vagina, this is known as menstrual period.

Note; a fall in the level of the sex hormones triggers the release of FSH & LH which in turn stimulates ovulation, hence the cycle continues.

Effect of Diet on Menstrual Cycle

Females are advised to eat food rich in iron as they loose a lot of blood during menstruation. Females lacking iron miss periods during
certain months & some may eventually become anaemic. These kinds of people are normally given iron supplements in the form of tablets &
normally advised to eat lots of green vegetables to gain iron.

Effect of Emotional State on Menstrual Cycle

Anxiety, stress & excitement may result in a female having her menstrual periods earlier than normal.
90

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL/CONTRACEPTIVES

Contraceptives: An agent or device intended to prevent conception. Contraception is the birth control by the use of devices (diaphragm or
intrauterine device or condom) or drugs or surgery. Contraceptives are used for family planning as they prevent pregnancy. Contraceptives
can be divided into four groups;
1. Natural
2. Hormonal/chemical
3. Physical/mechanical
4. Surgical methods

1. Natural methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Abstinence: no sexual • 100% effective against o No disadvantage

intercourse at all. pregnancy and STDs
Withdraw (Coitus • Purely natural and does not o Highly unreliable as there
interruptus); penis depend on artificial is a pre-ejaculation fluid
withdrawn from the vagina devices. which can be secreted and
before ejaculation contains sperms and it is
not easy for the man to
withdraw his penis as he
will be at the peak of
pleasure.
o There is high pregnancy
risk.
o STDs are spread with this
method.
91

Rhythm (safe period): • Acceptable in most o It is unreliable because

sexual intercourse done religions. keeping track of
only during the safe periods • Can be effective against ovulation can be difficult
and avoided during fertile pregnancy if the dates are as it can change any time
periods (when fertilization noted well. and it is difficult to be
is likely to lead to certain about the safe
pregnancy). Uses the period length.
mucus, calendar and o Encourages the spread of
temperature method. STDs

Prolonged breastfeeding • Very effective against o No disadvantage

(cultural method) pregnancy.
• 100% effective against
STDs

2. Hormonal/chemical methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Pill e.g. RU486: two kinds • Easy to use. o Does to prevent STDs.
mini-pill (contains • Reversible o Must be taken daily.
progesterone which causes • Does not interfere with o Have side effects to
changes in the uterus lining sexual activity. women’s health; breast
preventing implantation) • 99% safe at preventing swelling, cervical cancer,
and combined pill (contains ovulation and pregnancy. nausea, diarrhoea and
Oestrogen and progesterone • Can be administered by weight gain.
and this prevents ovulation) individuals
92

Implant contraceptives: • Long term protection o Needs trained personnel

chemicals that contain against pregnancy 99% to insert and remove it.
synthetic Oestrogen and o Encourages the spread of
effective (just like the pill)
progesterone and placed • No need to visit health STDs.
under the skin to prevent centres. o Has some side effects e.g.
ovulation. It lasts for 5 • Reversible. prolonged periods and
years. irregular menstrual
bleeding during the first
month of use.
Spermicides: kills sperms, • Kill sperms. o Must be applied before
must be applied inside the • Effective when used with every sexual activity.
vagina as far up as possible the diaphragm o It is messy.
ten minutes before sexual • Serves as a lubricant for o Unreliable when used
intercourse. the vagina. alone.
• Easy to be used/applied. o Does not prevent STDs.
o Has to be used with the
diaphragm.
Injection (Depo-Provera): • Reversible. o Can lead to sterility.
injected into the body every • 99% effective against o Administered by a doctor.
3 months. Stops ovulation pregnancy. o Causes abnormalities in the
by preventing formation of period.
ova in the ovaries. o Can lead to heavy
menstrual bleeding.
o Have side effects like;
dizziness, weight gain.
o Does not protect against
STDs.
Morning-after pill: Used • Effective against o Only prescribed by a doctor
after intercourse has taken pregnancy if taken before in case of risk it is not for
place. Contains hormones 3 days of sexual act. regular use.
which cause lining of the o Therefore not easily
uterus to be shed. It is to be accessible.
taken 48-72 hours after
sexual intercourse
93

especially if pregnancy
poses a risk.

3. Physical/mechanical/barrier Methods

Method advantages Disadvantages

Condom sheath (male: • 99 % effective in o Allergy of the lubricant or
thin rubber covering fitted preventing pregnancy and latex.
on an erect penis. Has a STDs o Improper use can result
bulb to collect sperms after • Easily available, accessible leading to the spread of
ejaculation. • No need for medical STDs.
Femidom/female condom: assistance needed. o There is a possibility of
thin sheath which lines the • Can be used with bursting in case of too
vagina prevents entry of Spermicides mush friction during sexual
sperms. act

Diaphragm/cap: it is a • Fairly effective (98%) in o High risk of infections.

dome shaped piece of blocking the sperms. o Has to be used with other
rubber with a piece of metal • Does not have any side methods e.g. Spermicides.
worn by women fitted on effects. o Possibility of discomfort if
the cervix opening to not inserted properly.
prevent sperms from o In rare cases may lead to
reaching the uterus. irritation to the penis or
vagina.
o Has to inserted by a
physician
o Correct size must be fitted
Intra-Uterine Device • Reliable for women who o Has to be inserted by a
(IUD)/Loop: small objects already has children and qualified doctor.
(spiral, loop, ring) made of those who do not live far o There is need for pelvic
steel or plastic which is from the health facilities examination to determine
inserted by a physician into • Stops implantation. the size of the cervix.
the uterus. Fitted by • Reversible. o Can cause excessive
straightening in a tube like • Long term contraception bleeding.
94

instrument, pushing this o Does not protect against

through the cervix then STDs.
pushing the IUD out at the
tube’s end. The IUD
interferes with implantation
of the embryo)

4. Surgical methods
Method advantages Disadvantages

Vasectomy and • Permanent and 100 % o Does not prevent STDs

Laparatomy (tubal effective. o Irreversible
ligation): in men sperm • Safe and simple out patient o Has to be done at a
duct is cut and tied to operation. hospital.
prevent sperms from • Sexual characteristics are o Pains can be experienced
passing to the urethra. In not affected as the after surgery.
individual can still o Not suitable for young
women (laparatomy)
ejaculate (men). people but for people who
oviduct cut and tied to already have children
95

prevent the sperms from

reaching the egg in the
oviduct.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

1. Syphilis
Caused by; a spirochete bacterium called Trepanema Pallidum

Transmission – a) through unprotected sexual intercourse

b) From pregnant woman to foetus across the placenta

Symptoms (In both males & females)

I. First stage – painless sores appear on genitals or site of infection, which can heal after 4 – 8 weeks.
II. Second stage – skin rash, lymph nodes enlarge, headache, aches & pains in the bones.
III. Third stage – brain & heart damage which occur within 10 years of original infection. During birth a baby’s eyes may become
infected as it passes through the cervix & vagina.
96

Treatment - Can be treated with penicillin

Control
I. Abstinence
II. Condom use
III. Be faithful to your partner

2. Gonorrhea

Caused by; a bacterium called Nersseria gonorrhoeas / gonococcus

Transmission – a) through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person

b) from pregnant woman to foetus across the placenta
c) During delivery

Symptoms
• In males
▪ Yellowish smelly discharge from the penis
▪ Painful urination
▪ May lead to the blockage of the urethra and sperm ducts leading to sterility

• In females
▪ Painful urination
97

▪ Yellowish & smelly discharge from the vagina.

▪ Oviducts may become blocked resulting in sterility
▪ Bacteria may invade the baby’s eyes at birth & cause blindness.
▪ May not show any signs at first stage

Treatment – can be treated by using antibiotics like penicillin

Control
I. Abstinence
II. Condom use
III. Be faithful to your partner

3. AIDS

(i) Cause
It is caused by a virus called Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Transmission

 Unprotected sexual contact

 Mixing of infected blood with a non-infected one, e.g. by blood transfusion, sharing unsterilized sharp instruments like needles & blades.
 Mother to child during pregnancy by breast feeding
98

(ii) Treatment

AIDS has no treatment; however, its unpleasant effects can be alleviated through the use of antiretroviral therapy.

(iii) Prevention & Control

❖ Abstinence
❖ Using a condom during sexual contact
❖ Avoid sharing needles & blades
❖ Screening of blood before transfusion

BIOTECHNOLOGY
It is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing & service industries.
Why Micro-organisms are used in Biotechnology
 99

1. Savings on fuel because they carry out reactions at moderate temperatures.

2. They are very efficient because they produce purer products & less waste.
3. undergo fermentation
4. Easy to culture
5. Reproduce quickly
6. Diverserevision revision
7. Different source of food
8. Simplified structure
9. Require less space

The Role Micro-organisms in Food Production

Bread baking
1 Flour, warm water, sugar, salt and yeast are mixed to form a dough;

2 The dough is kneaded to distribute the yeast evenly

3 Yeast (fungus) is used for making bread.
4 Fermentation (anaerobic respiration) releases carbon dioxide which makes some bubbles in the dough, giving the bread light texture.
5 Yeast has got no enzymes that digest starch in the flour. But adding water activates amylase in the flour which converts starch to
sugar/glucose.
6 Yeast enzymes are catalysts in fermentation of the sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide.
7 Gluten, a protein in the flour makes dough to be sticky, and also holds gas bubbles.
8 When the dough is ready, it is cooked at high temperatures to make the bubbles of carbon dioxide to go out and also to kill the yeast.
9 High temperatures evaporate alcohol.

• Sour Milk (madila)

The milk is put into a large container & bacteria (lacto bacillus) are added to ferment the milk. The bacteria converts the milk sugar
(lactose) to lactic acid. The lactic acid will coagulate (solidify) the milk protein. Water will then remain at the bottom of the container &
coagulated protein floats on top. The mixture is sieved to remove the waste water from the curd or sour milk. At this stage the milk is
sometimes stirred to obtain evenly thick & smooth sour milk. Then the sour milk will be ready for packaging & distribution.

• Chibuku ( traditional brew)

100

Mealie meal, water & malt are mixed & left to ferment & this mixture is called wort. This is the first fermentation process, the enzymes
found in the malt break down starch (mealie meal) to maltose & glucose & then ferment these sugars to alcohol. After this fermentation,
the mixture is cooked at 970C for about one hour. Yeast & lactic acid are added. Lactic acid gives chibuku its sour taste. The second
fermentation process will then occur. The yeast cells will then ferment maltose & glucose. (sugars from the first fermentation) to
produce alcohol. After the second fermentation process, the mixture is then served. Chibuku is pasteurized, before packaging to kill both
yeast cells & any other micro-organisms
. Wine production:
There are five main steps involved in alcohol production eg wine
1. Yeast and sugar are added to fruits / fruit juice;

2. It is kept in anaerobic conditions at a warm temperature;

3. Yeast feeds on sugar, producing carbon dioxide and ethanol;

4. As ethanol accumulates, it eventually kills the yeast and hence fermentation stops;

5. Dead yeasts are filtered off, and the wine is bottled.

Single Cell Protein/ Mycoproteins

The aim here is to produce food in bulk using micro-organisms or the organism being the food itself. It can be used to feed humans &
animals. Filamentous fungus which is very rich in proteins can be produced in large amounts & be used as a meat substitute. It contains a lot
of dietary fibre & very little amount of fat. Unicellular algae, fungi & bacteria have been used
➢ Fungi can be grown on a range of cheap or waste materials, eg. Sugar cane, dairy waste.

➢ The fungi can then be purified and processed for use as human or animal food.

➢ Quorn is an example of human food made of mycoprotein.

Advantages of using mycoprotein as a food source are:

• Large amounts can be produced quickly in fermenters;
101

• It does not need large area of land, as do growing crops or keeping animals;

• Fungi feed on cheap or waste products, so it is economical to produce.

• Mycoprotein has a high protein and fibre content, and it is low in fats.

• Yorghurt & cheese

Bacteria are used to ferment milk to form yoghurt & cheese. Milk is homogenised and pasteurized. The bacteria act on the milk sugar
(lactose) & convert it to lactic acid, which in turn coagulates the milk protein, casein to produce a thick creamy substance (yoghurt).
The lactic acid gives the yoghurt its slightly sour taste. In cheese making, the mould can also be involved e.g. adding spores of
penicillium at the fermentation stage to give varieties of cheese.

The Role of Micro-organisms in Fuels & Other Chemicals

▪ Fuel
In some countries e.g. Brazil, yeast is used to ferment sugar from sugar cane to alcohol (ethanol). The ethanol is distilled & then
concentrated to about 96% alcohol. Pure alcohol will burn in the same way as petrol. It is used in car engines that are specially
adapted. Unlike petrol, it does not pollute the atmosphere.
Micro-organism can be used for production of bio-gas, e.g. methane gas. This gas can be produced from decomposing cow dung
using bacteria. This gas can be used as a substitute fro the gas used fro cooking, which is fossil fuel.
Enzymes
Biotechnology often involves production of large amounts of enzymes through the use of microbes eg. Bacteria and fungi.
➢ Examples of enzymes produced are:

1. Protease and lipase enzymes for use in biological washing powders;

2. Rennin for use in cheese making ( for vegetarian cheese );

3. Enzymes for use in medical tests, e. to estimate blood cholesterol levels or blood glucose level.
102

Biological Enzyme Washing Powders

When washing powders are prepared, some biological enzymes are added to help in removing stains from clothes, e.g.- The enzyme
lipase will act on fat stains & make easy to wash the clothes.
a. The proteases would act on protein stains & remove the much faster & easier, e.t.c

Biogas
➢ Biogas is the name given to a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide produced by microbes.

➢ It is made when bacteria break down organic materials under anaerobic conditions.

➢ Any organic material can be used, eg plant waste, animal dung, human wastes/ faeces.

➢ The waste is put into a digester with a starter culture of bacteria, eg Methanobacterium, and left for several months.

Biogas digesters usually have the following features:

• They are underground; this strengthens the walls and keeps heat inside.

• They are situated away from homes because

a) methane is flammable and there is risk of explosion,

b) the decomposing organic waste smells unpleasant.
• They have very thick walls ( so that they do not crack as gas is produced ).

• There is an inlet pipe to add waste.

• There is an outlet pipe where gas can be trapped or removed for storage.

• It must be possible to open the digester periodically so that the sludge can be removed.

NB:
➢ When organic waste is added to the digester, bacteria break down proteins, carbohydrates and fats, producing methane ( CH 4 ) and
carbon dioxide.
103

➢ This can be used as domestic fuel, eg for heating and lighting.

Using organic waste to make biogas is an advantage because:

▪ The raw material is a waste product, i.e cheap and freely available;

▪ It reduces the amount of rubbish to be disposed off;

▪ The product can be used as a domestic fuel, e.g for lighting or heating, so it reduces the consumption of other fuels;

▪ The process is simple and requires no complex equipment;

Methane is a ‘ clean fuel’ when it is burned

The Role of Micro-organism in the Production of Medicine (Antibiotics & Vaccines)

Antibiotics
These are chemicals that are used to kill germs. E.g. penicillin which is produced by a mould. Penicillium is used to cure bacterial diseases
e.g. syphilis & gonorrhea.
. PENICILLIN
• Made from the mould fungus known as PENICILLIUM NOTATUM.
• Penicillium mould requires a nutrient solution ( waste product from the processing of starch from maize).
• Huge tanks or fermenters are used, holding up to 200 000 litres of mould or nutrient solution, to produce penicillin.
• The mould is then filtered – off and penicillin extracted.

2. CEPHALOSPORIN
• Made by the mould called CEPHALOSPORIA.
• New cephalosporins are effective against bacteria which have developed resistance to penicillin.
104

3. TETRACYCLINE
• Made by the bacterium called STREPTOMYCES AUREFACIEUS.
• They act on a wide range of bacteria.

4. AMPICILLIN & METHICILLIN etc.

B) VACCINES
➢ A vaccine is a substance which is injected into the body of a person for providing immunity.

➢ They are made from particular proteins or small part of disease causing microorganisms.

➢ They can be made from the following:

1. DEAD MICROORGANISMS
E.g Whooping cough vaccine.
• Whooping cough is caused by the bacterium BORDETELLA PERTUSIS.

• It’s vaccine is a suspension of killed Bordetella pertusis.

2. WEAKENED FORM OF MICROORGANISMS

E.g vaccine against TB and Poliomyelitis.
3. SUBSTANCE FROM A MICROORGANISM WHICH DO NOT CAUSE A DISEASE.
E.g Diptheria vaccine.

ROLE OF MICROORGANISMS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is the transfer of genes from one organism to another of a different species. Genetic engineering has been found to solve
most problems, e.g.
➢ These are techniques used to transfer DNA from one type of organism to another.
105

➢ DNA from a donor is cut into fragments using enzymes;

➢ DNA fragments are transferred to vectors;

➢ Vectors carry the donor DNA into recipient cells;

➢ The recipient cell has a new gene and therefore has a new characteristic;

➢ The recipient cell can be cloned to make thousands of identical copies of a gene.

NB:
In human growth hormone production (HGH):
HOW INDUSTRIES IN BOTSWANA BENEFIT FROM BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. Industries produce beer, drugs, food ( e.g bread and madila ), fuels and chibuku for sale locally and internationally to generate
foreign currency.

2. Industrial products sold for local consumption.

3. Creation of employment for local community who work for the industries.

4. Help to cut down costs of importing biotechnological raw materials already available and produced locally e.g milk bought locally
for making cheese.

ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each other & their environment.
106

TERMS USED IN ECOLOGY

• Community – all organisms of all species living in the same habitat

• Habitat – the area where an organism lives
• Population – a group of organisms of the same species
• Species – a group of organisms of the same kind which mate & produce a fertile offspring
• Environment – the surroundings where an organisms lives
• Ecosystem – consists of a community & its environment
• Food chain – a linear feeding relationship between organisms
• Food web – a set of linked food chains showing a more complex but realistic feeding relationship
• Producer – an organism which makes its own food e.g. plants. (also known as autotrophs)
• Primary consumer – an organism that feeds directly on producers; a.k.a. herbivores
• Secondary consumers – an animal that feeds on primary consumers a.k.a. meat eaters/ carnivores
• Omnivores – an animal that feeds on both meat & plants e.g. man
• Tertiary consumers – organisms that normally feed secondary consumers
• Decomposers – organisms that normally feed on dead animal or plant matter
• Scavengers – animals that feed on the remains of dead animals e.g. vultures & hyenas
• Trophic / feeding level – stage in a food chain or food web
• Pyramid of numbers – a diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic level, the length of the bar is proportional to the
number of organisms.
107

An Ecosystem is a habitat – a place where an organism lives and the physical factors that influence it e.g. temperature, soil type, rainfall; (or
a community of organisms interacting with their environment)

All energy for an ecosystem which flows through an ecosystem comes from the sun, i.e. the sun the principal source of energy.
Energy is transferred through an ecosystem by feeding, when one organism eats another organism some energy is passed on.

The feeding relationships are shown using food chains & food webs.

Food chain is a linear representation of how energy is passed between organisms, & has one type of organism at each feeding (trophic)
level.

producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer

e.g.
1. grass zebra lion vulture

2. algae tadpole water scorpion perch

Schematic flow diagram of food chain

108

Food web is a complex but more realistic way of presenting energy flow – made of several food chains interlinked.
There are usually 4 to 5 feeding levels in a food chain, and these levels are called trophic levels.

Food web – It is made of many food chains linked together.

e.g.

Owl Flea Tick

Shrew Fox Weasel Badger

Caterpillars Rabbit Grasshopper

Oak tree Grass

109

Schematic flow diagram of food web

The first trophic level is Producers. These are always green plants / green algae which are photosynthetic. Producers produce food for the
next trophic level, which are primary consumers. These are always plant eaters so they are called Herbivores. The primary consumers are
eaten by secondary consumers, also referred to as carnivores because they eat other animals. The tertiary consumers feed largely on
secondary consumers. Producers & all the consumers stated above are fed on by Decomposers.
Sun’s energy Producers Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers
110

Decomposers

The arrows show the direction of flow of energy.

Energy is not cyclical meaning that it does not return to its source & it can be used over & over.
Energy is either lost or used up along the food chain.

If Producer Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers

Has 100KJ keeps 10KJ for growth keeps 1KJ Keeps 0.1KJ
90KJ lost 9KJ lost 0.9KJ lost
Most energy is passed on between producers & tertiary consumers, but also most of it is lost i.e. only 10% of the energy is passed on from
one trophic level to the next as shown above. A very small amount of energy reaches the tertiary level. After that there is not enough energy
to support life at fourth consumer level. More energy is found at the beginning of the food chain & it decreases up the trophic level.
There are several reasons to this;
1. the plants will have used some of the energy for themselves
2. the herbivores may not eat all of the plants e.g. may only eat leaves
3. the herbivores may not be able to digest all parts of the plants
This means that there are more producers & a few consumers. This can be illustrated using a pyramid of numbers as shown below
Pyramid of Numbers
Algae tadpole water scorpion perch
‘

Perch
Water scorpion
111

Tad poles

Algae
The bar for producers is always at the bottom of the diagram. Pyramids of numbers are usually a typical shape with a broad base, but in
certain circumstances they are in wrong shape, e.g.

Eagle

This happens when the producer is a

birds
large with lots of smaller consumers
Caterpillar feeding on it
Large plant

Pyramids of Biomass
These are diagrams that show the mass of organisms at each trophic level. The length of the bar is proportional to the mass of organisms

Perch

Water scorpion

Tadpole

Algae
 112

NUTRIENT CYCLES

Energy cannot be recycled in an ecosystem but nutrients can be recycled, carbon & nitrogen for example, can be used again & again in
different forms in an ecosystem.

The Carbon Cycle

• There is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is used by plants to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis. Therefore green
plants remove carbon from the atmosphere.
• Plants are eaten by animals, so the process of feeding passes carbon from plants to animals.
• Plants and animals respire all the time when there are alive, and respiration releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• When plants & animals die, they are decomposed by bacteria & this causes decay. This process also releases CO 2 to the atmosphere.
Through these processes the carbon cycle is balanced
Photosynthesis is balanced naturally by Respiration & Decay
• However, human beings have upset the cycle by adding more CO2 to the air. This is caused by combustion of fossil fuels like; natural
gas, crude oil, coal.

Refer to the figure below of the Carbon cycle

Plants use the

CO2 in the atmosphere
PHOTOSYNTHESIS atmospheric CO2 to make
carbohydrates
113

RESPIRATION
DECAY

Animal tissue
formed from eating
DECAY EATEN
plant tissue

Fossil fuels; e.g.

natural gas, Coal,
RESPIRATION
Crude oil

COMBUSTION FOSSILISATION
114

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON THE ENVIRONMENT

There is a natural balance between plants & animals, as shown by food webs & food chains. However human activities upset the balance,
harming the environment & posing many problems to human beings themselves. Examples are given below
How Poor Agricultural Practices Result in the Destruction of Ecosystems
1) Monoculture
This means growing one type of crop on the same piece of land year after year. Such crops cannot support a mixed population of organisms.
It also leads to the displacement of the natural plants & animals, as the land will be cleared for growing that particular crop. Monoculture
also results on the use of pesticides to control pests affecting that crop, but this often kills not only the pests but also other beneficial
organisms.

2) Overstocking
This means keeping a large number of livestock with a small area. This leads to overgrazing which might lead to soil erosion. Overgrazing
leads to the destruction of habitats for small organisms.

3) Deforestation

This refers to the cutting down of too many trees (for the purposes of building industries, residential houses, construction of roads & other
things) without replacing them. As a result most habitats are destroyed & also certain plant species are destroyed. The noise caused during
the construction drive away some animals & hence disturbing the ecosystem.
4) Pesticides
Some insecticides such as DDT are non-biodegradable, i.e. cannot be decomposed by biological organisms. Therefore they enter the smaller
organisms in the food chain. The concentration of this insecticide increases up the trophic levels hence the tertiary consumer may die due to
higher concentrations of the insecticides, (Bioaccumulation)
115

Bioaccumulation
Scenario - A lake was sprayed with an insecticide to control mosquitoes. The diagram shows how the insecticide passed from organism to
another in a food chain.
Mosquito larva small fish large fish fish eagle

Vulture

Cat Consumes many organisms which had consumed more organisms with high
concentrations of the pesticides
Lizard

Mosquito Treated with pesticides & therefore more small organisms will be affected by the pesticide

5) The use of Fertilizers

Fertilizers are very rich in nitrates & phosphates, and they are normally used to enrich the soil for better crop yields. If these nitrates &
phosphates are drained into rivers due to running water, they promote the growth of green algae. These green algae will flourish & cover up
the surface of the water and prevent the plants beneath from receiving sunlight; as a result these plants may eventually die because they will
not be able to make themselves food. When they die, they get decomposed by the bacteria & this process uses lot oxygen from the water. As
a result there will be insufficient oxygen supply to the marine animals, e.g. fish. These animals will then suffocate & die. This whole process
is called EUTROPHICATION

PROBLEMS LEADING TO FAMINE

 Unequal Distribution of Food
The country may have enough food but not equally distributed among the whole population. There are certain areas where people are
extremely poor due to lack of food while in other areas in the same country people have more than enough.

 Natural Disasters
116

Certain areas may experience heavy rainfall resulting in floods, which may destroy many houses & vegetation. People will remain poor
without shelter & food. In certain areas it may be very hot & dry without any rain which will make farming impossible. Since many people
rely on farming, they will starve because livestock will be destroyed & no crops will be grown.

 Increase in Population
If there are too many people in a given area & less resources, there will be a serious problem because there will be acute shortage of food
supply.

POLLUTION

It is the presence of harmful substances in an environment

OR
It refers to bringing about changes that are destructive to both living & non-living things in an environment.

These harmful substances are called POLLUTANTS

Types of Pollution

• Air Pollution

The presence of pollutants in the atmosphere causes air pollution. E.g. poisonous gases from industries results in the pollution of air. One of
the most common gases released from industries is Sulphur dioxide. When this gas combines with the moisture in the atmosphere, it falls
down as acid, which corrodes buildings & destroys vegetation.
117

Excess CARBON DIOXIDE in the atmosphere can also bring about some problems. An increase in CO2 may be due to burning fuels; e.g.
fire wood, fossil fuels etc. at a higher rate & also due to the cutting down of trees which could otherwise help in reducing the CO2
concentration in the atmosphere. CO2 has the ability to trap a lot of heat energy & allow little to escape the atmosphere. If the concentration
of CO2 is very high it means more heat will be trapped leading to a rise in the earth’s temperature. This is known as Global Warming. This
rise in temperature may result in the melting of ice in the arctic poles raising the sea levels, which may even lead to floods.

Some oxides such as lead oxide released from car exhausts may also pollute the air & are harmful to people when inhaled.

• Water Pollution
• Sewage Disposal
Some waste materials from toilets and kitchens when drained into rivers will cause water pollution. This waste contains disease causing
micro-organisms which may result in people catching diseases if they use this untreated water, e.g. cholera, bilharzia etc.
• Inorganic wastes
These are usually the waste materials from industries which when discharged into rivers, pollute the water. This waste may contain
poisonous chemical substances such as mercury, lead etc. If they enter the food chain e.g. e.g. from small fish up to human beings, they
may cause serious health problems such as cancers or even death.

• Land Pollution

The land may be polluted by litter e.g. tins, papers, glasses etc, which may end up acting as breeding places for disease causing micro-
organisms. The land may also be polluted by disposed chemicals, which may destroy beneficial organisms.

CONSERVATION
This involves preserving habitats & protecting individual species of plants & animals.

Advantages
118

1. it ensures biodiversity
2. it ensures the protection & keeping of species with survival value

Reasons for Conserving Organisms

1. they are a source of food e.g. Mowana & Mosukujane
2. For medicinal purposes e.g. sengaparile (devil’s claw) & monepenepe
3. For tourist attraction e.g. rhinos, cheetahs, lions etc.

Material Recycling
This is one way of conserving materials & it involves the use & reuse of materials (i.e. reprocessing of used materials to be used again).
Reasons For Recycling
1. Reduces littering & pollution
2. Saves money because there is no need to make new materials

Examples of Recycling
 Organic waste can be fermented to produce methane gas, which is used in cooking and other things.
 Empty bottles can be cleansed and reused in the packaging of drinks, like at kgalagadi breweries
 Scrap metals & tins can be heated up & molded to make new items.
 Old newspapers can be used to make toilet paper.
119

HOMEOSTASIS

This refers to keeping the internal environment stable (constant) or within narrow limits.

In mammals a variety of organs play specific roles in homeostasis.

Organs Concerned Factors controlled

Kidneys Water (osmo-regulation),
pH & urea
Lungs CO2 & O2
Skin & Liver Temperature
Liver & pencreas Blood sugar / glucose

The Skin
The skin has two layers;
1. Epidermis
2. Dermis

Epidermis
This is the outermost layer of the skin. It protects the body from pathogens by forming a barrier on top of one’s body.
120

Dermis
This tissue has several structures such as hair follicle, sebaceous gland, nerve endings, adipose tissue, blood vessels etc.
Functions of the skin
a) Protection – the outermost layer of the dead cells of the epidermis helps to reduce water loss & provides a barrier. The melanin pigment
produced by the mulphigian layer protects the skin from damage by ultra-violet light rays.

b) Sensitivity – scattered throughout the skin are a large number of tiny receptors which give rise to sensations of pain, pressure, heat & cold.
These make us aware of changes in our surroundings & enable us to avoid danger.

c) Temperature Regulation - Keeping the human body temperature constant is an example of a homeostatic mechanism. The skin plays an
important role in maintaining a constant body temperature by adjusting blood flow near the skin surface & by sweating.

The Skin Structure

121

▪ Hair Follicle – This gives rise to the found on the surface

▪ Sebaceous gland – Secretes an oily substance called sebum. This goes onto the skin surface to keep it soft & supple
▪ Sweat glands – Absorb excess water and salts to make sweat
▪ Blood vessels – These supply the skin with useful substances such as food & take away waste such as CO2 from the skin.
▪ Nerve endings – These are receptors to touch, pressure, heat etc; they pick up stimuli in the skin & also bring motor impulses to the
skin.
▪ Adipose tissue – (sub – cutaneous fats found below the skin), it is food store and also insulates the internal organs & prevents
excessive heat loss.
122

Maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans;

Overcooling;
If the temperature of blood falls below normal, the Hypothalamus in the brain detects this, impulses are sent to the skin for the blood’s
temperature to be increased. The skin will respond by;
i. Vaso-Constriction – this is the reduction on diameter of the blood vessels running near the skin surface. This reduces blood flow near
the skin surface & thus heat loss (by conduction, convection & radiation) is greatly reduced.

ii. Sweat production stops – heat is conserved when there is no evaporation of sweat from the skin.
iii. Hair on the skin surface stands up. This helps to trap air that insulates the body.
iv. Shivering – shivering is an involuntary muscular contraction in response to a drop in body temperature. During these muscular
contractions a lot of heat energy is released.

Overheating
If the blood’s temperature rises above normal, the thermoregulatory centre of the hypothalamus detects this, impulses are sent to the skin to
cool the blood. The skin responds by;
i. Vaso-dilation – blood vessels in the skin increase in diameter. As a result more blood flows near the skin surface. More heat is lost
(by conduction, convection & radiation)
123

ii. Producing sweat – Sweat glands absorb water, excess salts & urea from the blood to make sweat. This is transported to the skin
surface through the sweat duct to the sweat pore. As the sweat evaporates, it draws a lot of heat from the blood capillaries and one
feels cooler as the temperature falls to normal.
iii. Hair on the skin lies close to the skin surface – these makes the air currents to easily flow close to the skin surface, collecting sweat
& heat energy away from the body.

The role of the brain in temperature regulation

The hypothalamus located in the brain, detects the temperature of the blood. The thermoregulatory centre (in the hypothalamus) receives
sensory impulses from the skin. If the blood is too hot, the hypothalamus sends an impulse to skin. The effect of this motor impulse will
cause the skin to respond through the activities that cool the blood as outlined above. This mechanism of coordination is known as “Negative
Feedback Mechanism”. This whereby the outgoing impulse counteracts the effects of the received impulse. If the blood is too cold, the
outgoing impulse will make the skin warm the blood.

Osmo-regulation (water balance)

 124

Water balance in the body is achieved by regulating the amount of water in the urine. This is made possible by the action of ADH – anti-
diuretic hormone produced in the pituitary gland.
Importance of water balance
Water is gained by the body from drinks & food and also produced within through respiration.
It is lost through urine, sweat, faeces & as vapour in the exhaled air. It is imperative that there is balance between water gained & lost. If this
balance breaks down then the body cells will either gain or loss water through osmosis resulting in malfunctioning.

Generally kidneys regulate the amount of water present in the body by variation of the urine produced as depicted in the flow diagram
below.

Detected by the hypothalamus Detected by the hypothalamus

cells cell
trated blood

Dilute blood
 125

Pituitary gland produces ADH

Pituitary gland stops producing
ADH

Kidney tubule cells become less

Kidney tubule cells become more permeable to water – less water is
permeable to water – more water re-absorbed
is re-absorbed

Small amounts of concentrated Large amount of dilute urine is

urine produced produced

Normal amount of water in the

body
126

Regulation of glucose level

The recommended sugar level must be around 160mg/100cm3. When the concentration of blood sugar increases, insulin is released by the
islets of Langerhans cells in the pancreas into the blood stream. Upon reaching the liver, it stimulates the liver cells to take up excess glucose
& convert it to glycogen for storage. When the glucose levels in the blood drop another hormone called glucagon is released to stimulate the
liver cells to convert glycogen back to glucose.
EXCRETION

This refers to the removal of metabolic waste from the body. There are several organs which play an important role in this process.

EXCRETORY ORGAN EXCRETORY PRODUCT

Lungs Carbon dioxide
Kidneys Nitrogenous waste, water toxins,
used drugs, hormones & excess
salts.
Liver Bile pigments

Position of Kidneys in the body

127

Functions of parts
i) Blood vessels
➢ Renal artery; brings oxygenated blood to the kidneys from the aorta. This blood is rich in food materials, oxygen & waste substances
such as urea.

➢ Renal vein; carries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the vena cava.

ii) Kidneys
These are bean shaped organs found in the abdomen towards the back. They filter the blood and remove any waste to form a substance
called urine.

iii) Ureter
This is a tube that emerges from of the two kidneys and serves to transport urine from kidneys to the bladder.
128

iv) Bladder
It is a muscular organ that stores urine. It is kept closed by a ring of muscles called sphincter muscles, which relax at certain times to let
urine out of the bladder. An adult’s bladder can hold between 450-500ml of urine.

v) Urethra
It is a tube that carries urine to the outside of the body. In females it carries urine only, whilst in males it transports both urine & semen but
at different times.

Structure of Kidney & Nephron

129

Approximately one million nephrons (right) compose each bean-shaped kidney (left). The filtration unit of the nephron, called the
glomerulus, regulates the concentration of important substances such as potassium, calcium, and hydrogen, and removes substances not
produced by the body such as drugs and food additives. The filtrate, urine, leaves the nephron through a long tubule and collecting duct.
Chemical signals triggered by the body’s need for water and salt cause the walls of the tubule to become more or less permeable to these
substances, which are reabsorbed accordingly from the urine.

The main function of the kidneys is to remove urea & other waste from the body as urine. The kidney has two regions; the cortex & the
medulla. The cortex appears dark red since the glomerulus is located in this region. The medulla is lighter than cortex this is where the rest
of renal tubule lies, towards the ureter. A nephron is the smallest unit that makes urine. It consists of a cup-shaped structure called the
Bowman’s capsule , which encloses highly coiled capillaries called the Glomerulus. Extending form the bowman’s capsule is along coiled
tube called the renal tubule.
130

The nephron makes urine through these main processes;

➢ Ultra filtration
➢ Selective reabsorption

Ultra filtration
An arteriole brings blood (dirty) into each of the glomerulus in a kidney. The blood is from the aorta hence it under high pressure. The rapid
coiling of afferent artery in the glomerulus further raises this pressure. The raised pressure of the blood forces the liquid part of the blood
into the bowman’s capsule and this is called ultra filtration. This fluid is now called the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate trickles
down the renal tubule extending from the glomerulus coiled around the capillaries. The glomerular filtrate has both useful & waste
substances dissolved in it. As the glomerular filtrate moves down the renal tubule some water, glucose & other useful salts are reabsorbed
back into the blood by the capillaries coiled around the renal tubule. The process of choosing which substances are taken back into the blood
is called Selective-Reabsorption. The waste materials will be left behind to exit the renal tubule through the collecting ducts. The substance
is now called urine.

If the blood becomes too concentrated (has less water) a hormone called Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) is released. This will stimulate the
nephron to reabsorb most of the water. If the blood is dilute (has more water) the production of ADH stops. The nephron will then leave
most of the water in the glomerular filtrates therefore more urine is made.

KIDNEY FAILURE
Kidneys may not perform their function if they have been affected by diseases or as a result of sudden drop in blood pressure, maybe due to
road accidents. If the kidney fails one can have a kidney transplant or use an “artificial” kidney or dialysis machine. During a kidney
transplant a close relative is usually the best candidate. Sometimes the patient’s immune system can resist the transplanted kidney, therefore
immunosuppressant drugs are used to minimize rejection.

Dialysis machine
131

Blood from a patient suffering from kidney failure is led from the patient’s vein into the dialysis tubing which is made of cellulose material.
In the tubing there are submicroscopic pores which allow small molecules such as those of salts, glucose & urea to leak out into the water
bath which the dialysis tubing is coiled in. larger substances such as proteins are not allowed into out of the dialysis tubing, hence making
semi-permeable. Because the concentration of the waste substances is higher in the blood than in the dialysis fluid, they will pass through the
membrane into the dialysis fluid. The continuous coiling of the tubing enables a thorough blood cleansing.
Nervous System

Discuss the principle of detecting change in the environment and responding to it

Five key events in the Nervous System.

I. Receptor cells in sense organ detect a stimulus.

132

II. Nerve impulse travel through a sensory neurone to the CNS

III. Nerve impulse travel through a relay neurone inside the CNS
IV. Nerve impulse travel through a motor neurone to reach an effector organ
V. The effector organ responds, e.g. muscle contracts

Discuss the relationship of sensory cells, sense organs and effector organs

(Brain & Spinal cord)

Stimulus →→→ Receptor→→→ Sensory neurone →→→ CNS →→→ Motor neurone→→→ Effector organ

Definition of biological terms in coordination

1) Sensory neurone – This is a nerve cell which receive stimulus & changes it to an impulse & conveys the impulse to the CNS (CNS –
Central Nervous System; brain & spinal cord)
2) Motor neurone – This is a nerve cell which takes impulses from the CNS to the effector organs, e.g. muscles & glands
3) Relay neurone – connects the sensory neurone & the motor neurone together.
4) Impulse – The electrical message carried along the nerve cell.
5) Reflex arc – When an impulse re-routes itself through the spinal cord & back the area of stimulation
6) Reflex action – Is a response to the stimulus which does not involve the use of the brain, e.g. sneezing, coughing, blinking, change of
the size of the pupil etc.
7) Axon –An elongated extension from the cell body which conducts impulse away from the cell body
8) Cell body – The mass of cytoplasm (containing nucleus) from which the braches of the cell originates.
9) Synapse – areas where nerve cells make close contact with each other.
10) Myelin sheath – A fatty substance (with protein) which surrounds larger nerve fibres & act as an insulator.
11) Reflex – A quick automatic response to a stimulus
12) Dendron – A short extension of a cell body which is involved in receiving stimuli, i.e. conducts impulses towards the cell body.
133

Neurones are not directly connected to each other but are separated by very small gaps called synapse. A nerve impulse arriving at one side
of a synapse cause the secretion of a chemical transmitter (neurotransmitter) substance which diffuses across the gap & restarts the nerve
impulse in the next neurone.
A synapse ensures that nerve impulses travel in one direction only.

Type of Sense organ / Sensory cells Stimulus

Sense Receptor
Sight Eyes Photoreceptors (cones & rods Light {(Cones = colour;
cells) Rods = light)}
Hearing Ears Mechanoreceptors Sound & Pressure
Smelling Nose Chemoreceptors Smell (chemicals in the air)
Touch Skin Themoreceptors Temperature
Mechanoreceptors Pressure (pain)
Taste Tongue Chemoreceptors Chemicals in food

Structure of Motor & Sensory Neurones

Describe the functions of a sensory neurone, a motor neurone, and a relay neurone
Draw a labeled diagram of a sensory neurone, motor neorone, and a relay neurone.
134

Differences between Sensory & Motor neurones

Feature Sensory Neurone Motor Neurone
Cell body - It is located to the side of the nerve - It is terminal with
fibre dendrites projections from
its surface
135

- It has a smooth surface without

dendrites
Nerve fibre - It has both the Axon & Dendron - It only has the Axon

Nerve endings - Its nerve endings are attached to - Its nerve endings are
sensory organs attached to the effector
organ.

Reflex Action
136

The nervous pathway of a reflex action is known as a Reflex arc, and it allows for a rapid response to a stimulus.
Example; Knee jerk
137

1. The stimulus is a tap on the knee

2. Receptor cells in the muscle detect the stimulus.
3. An impulse is conveyed along the sensory neurone to the spinal cord
4. In the spinal cord the impulse is on to the motor neurone
5. The motor neurone then conveys the impulse from the spinal cord to the effector organ; muscles of the leg.
6. The muscles respond by contracting & so the lower leg jerks up

Reflex Action Voluntary action

The response is very rapid The response may be slow
Nerve impulses take the shortest route Nerve impulses take a long route
Spinal cord is involved Brain is involved
Effectors are muscles & glands Effectors are muscles only

Functions of the Spinal Cord

➢ It conducts sensory impulses from the muscles to the brain
➢ It carries motor impulses from the brain to the trunk limbs
➢ It is responsible for reflex actions involving body structures below the neck

HORMONAL CORDINATION
A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland carried in the blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXOCRINE & ENDOCRINE GLANDS

The exocrine glands are those glands which have ducts, i.e. their secretions are passed through ducts onto the epithelial surface e.g. tear
gland, salivary gland etc. The endocrine glands are ductless (do not have ducts) and their secretions are carried by the blood.
138

EXAMPLES OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS & THE HORMONES THEY PRODUCE

GLAND HORMONE
Thyroid Thyroxin Legend; ADH – Antidiuretic
Adrenal Adrenaline Hormone FSH – Follicle Stimulating Hormone

Pituitary ADH, FSH, TSH TSH – Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

Pancreas Insulin, glucagon

Testis Testosterone
Ovaries Oestrogen,
Progesterone

locations of glands
139

Function of Insulin
- Insulin reduces the blood glucose level when its high (regulates the amount of glucose level in the blood) by stimulating the liver
cells to take up glucose from the blood & convert it to glycogen & stored.

Function of glucagon
- it raises the blood glucose level when its low by stimulating the liver cells to convert the stored glycogen to glucose.
140

Functions of adrenaline
This is commonly known as Flight or Fight hormone because it prepares the body for action. It has the following affects;
- It increases the rate & depth of breathing.
- It increases the rate of heart beat
- Constricts the blood vessels carrying the blood to the gut & skin hence diverting more blood to the muscles
- It also promotes the conversion of the stored glycogen to glucose to raise blood sugar level. (therefore functions like glucagon)

The above mentioned effects help to provide more glucose & more oxygen to the working muscles.

Function of testosterone
- It controls the production & development of sperms
- Regulates the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics e.g. enlargement of sex organs, growth of facial hair (beard),
muscle enlargement, deepening of the voice etc.

Functions of oestrogen & Progesterone

- It is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females, e.g. armpit & pubic hair, development of
breasts, broadening of hips, enlargement of vagina etc
- It prepares the uterus for implantation by making its lining thicker & rich in blood vessels

Comparison between the Nervous & the Endocrine Systems

141

NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Information passes as electrical impulses Information passes as a chemical
substances (hormone)

Transmission is through the nerves Transmission is through the blood

Rapid Transmission & immediate Slow transmission & usually slow response
responses e.g. blinking of the eye e.g. growth
The response is short lived The response is long lasting

The response is exact since impulses are The response is usually widespread
sent directly to target organs because hormones are dispersed throughout
the body

DRUGS
Definition
• A drug is a chemical substance that alters / changes the normal function of the body
• A chemical substance that creates physical, mental, emotional or behavioral change in the user.
• Any substance taken in from an external source to affect or modify chemical reactions in the body.

Why Use Drugs?

• Relief pain
• Give excessive energy
• To get pleasure / euphoria (ecstasy)
• To improve performancess
142

• To cure diseases

The use of drugs can be categorized into two

• Non –medicinal purpose

• Medicinal purpose

Non – Medicinal Drugs

Tobacco
EPO
Nicotine
Cocaine
Mandrax
Heroine
Marijuana

Medicinal Drugs
Antibiotics – drugs that cure bacterial diseases. These are obtained from other organisms e.g. penicillin

Anti-acids – these are drugs taken to neutralize excess stomach acid.

Painkillers – these are drugs taken to alleviate pain or suppress the parts of the brain that sense pain; e.g. aspirin, morphine.
143

Sedatives – these are drugs used to calm down a person, or suppress their emotions (tranquilizers)

Drug Dependence

Frequent use of a drug causes the body to develop resistance to the effect of the drug. This leads to the use of increased dosages of the drug
to get the same effect. Eventually this leads to drug dependence – inability of the body systems to function normally without the drug

• Emotional Dependence
The user is emotionally attached to the drug & develops a craving for the drug whenever it is taken. Withdrawal symptoms are not
physical but normally emotional. E.g. loss of temper, headaches and nausea.
Drugs that cause emotional dependence include nicotine

• Physical Dependence
The user develops physical withdrawal symptoms when the drug is withdrawn. This from of dependence is called Addiction and the
withdrawal symptoms include; violent shaking, hallucinations, nausea, headaches.
Drugs that leads to this condition include; cocaine, heroine etc

Drug Abuse
Mostly this is done with drugs that affect the nervous system, mainly the brain.
144

Stimulants
These are drugs that speed up the reactions of the nervous system & make the user more alert, e.g. nicotine, caffeine, cocaine,
amphetamines.

Depressants / Sedative
They slow down the reactions of the nervous system & the brain and cause one to become sleepy. They suppress the brain & cause relief
from emotional tension & anxiety e.g. alcohol, valium etc.

Hallucinogens
These are drugs that make one to hear, feel or see things that do not really exist e.g. cannabis (marijuana), LSD, inhalants like glue.

ALCOHOL
Alcohol is one of the most abused drugs. It a depressant, i.e. it slows down brain activity & lowers blood pressure. It slows down brain
activity & lowers blood pressure. It slows down transmission of nerve impulses thereby;
• Increasing reaction time.
• Affects coordination of all senses e.g. sight (double vision), feeling (false sensation of warmth due to dilation of arteries below skin).
• Inability to perform activities requiring skill, e.g. writing

Alcohol destroys the liver on a long term basis & result in a disease called Liver Cirrhosis. Then the liver will no longer detoxify, deaminate
& balance blood glucose. This leads to death. It also affects the kidneys.

Social Implications
• Impoverish families because a lot of money is used to buy alcohol.
145

• Loss of social dignity

Allergic Reactions
An allergic reaction is an unusual reaction to any substance. A substance that causes an allergic reaction is called an allergen. Example
allergens are drugs, food, dust particles, pollen grains.

Symptoms of Allergic Reactions

• Running nose
• Breathing difficulties
• Rash
• Oedema (unexplained swellings)

Drug Tolerance
Frequent use of a drug causes the body to develop resistance to the effect of the drug. This leads to the use of increased dosages of the drug
to get the same effect & eventually culminate in drug dependence. Drug dependence builds up to drug tolerance.