TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

KNS3433
DR ZAMRI BIN BUJANG

1 2

Introduction to Highway Capacity Manual

❑ Introduction to Highway Capacity Manual
❑ Capacity and Level of Service ▪ One of the most critical needs in Traffic Engineering is a clear
❑ Capacity Concept understanding of how much traffic a given facility can accommodate and
under what operating conditions.
❑ Level of Service Concept
▪ These important issues are addressed in highway capacity and level of
Outline ❑ Factors Affecting Level of Service service analysis.
❑ Capacity and LOS for Uninterrupted Flow – ▪ The basis for all capacity and level of service analysis is a set of analytical
Freeway System procedures that relate demand or existing flow levels, geometrics
❑ Freeway Free Flow Speed characteristics, and controls to measures of the resulting quality of
operations.
❑ Determining Flow Rate
❑ Determining LOS

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

3 4

1
 Introduction to Highway Capacity Manual Introduction to Highway Capacity Manual

What is Highway Capacity Manual (HCM)? ▪ The first edition of the HCM was published in 1950.
▪ HCM is a standard for capacity and level of service analyses. ▪ Its original objective was to provide a measure of consistency in design practice
▪ Published by the Transportation Research Board (TRB) of the National Academy for the nation’s rapidly expanding post war highway construction program.
of Engineering USA. ▪ The second edition was published in 1965.
▪ Its content is controlled by the committee on Highway Capacity and Quality of ▪ The second edition introduced significant new material on limited access
Service (HCQSC) of TRB. facilities and the level of service concept.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

5 6

Introduction to Highway Capacity Manual Introduction to Highway Capacity Manual

▪ The third edition of the HCM was published in 1985. ▪ The fourth edition of the HCM was published in 2000, which is generally referred
▪ It includes refined level of service concept and additional materials on transit to as HCM2000.
and pedestrian facilities. ▪ It includes new material on corridors and networks and updates of
▪ It was the first edition published in loose-leaf form, which allows two significant methodologies.
interim updates in 1994 and 1997. ▪ The fifth edition of the HCM was published in 2010.
▪ It was also the first that implemented software. ▪ It contained significant upgrades to existing methodologies in many areas and
additional materials on freeway interchange, and on multimodal analysis of
arterials.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

7 8

2
 Capacity and
Level of Service What is the
performance level of How good is the
▪ Often it is required to ascertain how much the system at operation of the
a transport facility can accommodate. various operating traffic facility?
▪ Such information is useful in the design of
Capacity conditions? or
traffic facility. and Level
▪ Capacity analysis helps in answering the of Service Capacities and level Level of Service
question. of services are analysis answers
therefore closely this question which
▪ Capacity is a quantitative assessment of related analysis of a is essentially a
the ability of a traffic facility to handle traffic facility. qualitative analysis.
vehicles or people for which it is designed.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

9 10

Capacity and Level of Service Capacity Concept

▪ Level of Service (LOS) answers how good is the present traffic situation on a
given facility. What is Capacity?
▪ LOS gives a qualitative measure of traffic, whereas capacity analysis gives a ▪ The Highway Capacity Manual
quantitative measure of a facility. (2010) defines the capacity of a
facility as the maximum hourly rate
▪ Capacity and LOS varies with the type of facility, prevailing traffic and road at which persons or vehicles can be
conditions and etc. reasonably expected to traverse a
point or a uniform section of a lane
or roadway during a given time
period under prevailing roadway,
traffic and control conditions.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

11 12

3
 Capacity Concept
Capacity Concept
▪ Capacity depend on the following conditions:
▪ Capacity is independent of the
• Roadway characteristics: This are associated with the geometric characteristics
demand.
and design elements of the facility, which include type of facility, number of
▪ It does not depend on the total lanes, lane width, shoulder width, horizontal and vertical alignments, lateral
number of vehicles demanding clearance, design speed, and availability of queuing space at intersections.
service.
• Control conditions: This primarily applies to surface facilities and includes the
▪ It speaks about the physical amount types of traffic control devices in operation, signal phasing, allocation of green
of vehicles and passengers a road time, cycle length, and the relationship with adjacent control measures.
can afford.
▪ It depend on the traffic composition
and the environmental conditions.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

13 14

Capacity Concept Capacity Concept

▪ Capacity depend on the following conditions: ▪ Capacity under ideal conditions for uninterrupted flow facilities.
• Traffic conditions: Capacity is expressed in terms of units of some specific thing
(car, people, etc.), so it also does depend on the traffic conditions. The traffic
conditions are associated with the characteristics of the traffic stream on the
segment of the highway. These include the distribution of the different types of
vehicles in the traffic stream or traffic composition such as the mix of cars,
trucks, buses, etc. and the directional and lane distribution of the traffic volume
on the highway segment. Furthermore, it includes peaking characteristics,
proportions of turning movements at intersections, etc.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

15 16

4
 Level of Service Concept Level of Service Concept

What is Level of Service? ▪ It is related with the physical characteristics of the highway and the different
▪ Level of Service (LOS) of a traffic facility operating characteristics that can occur when the highway carries different
is a concept introduced to relate the traffic volumes.
quality of traffic service to a given flow ▪ Speed-flow-density relationships are the principal factor affecting the level of
rate. service of a highway segment under ideal conditions.
▪ Level of Service (LOS) qualitatively ▪ For a given road or facility, capacity could be constant. But actual flow will be
measures both the operating conditions different for different days and different times in a day itself.
within a traffic system and how these
▪ The intention of LOS is to relate the traffic service quality to a given flow rate of
conditions are perceived by drivers and
traffic. It is a term that designates a range of operating conditions on a particular
passengers.
type of facility.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

17 18

Level of Service Concept

▪ LOS A: This represents free-flow conditions where
traffic flow is virtually zero. Only the geometric design
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) provides features of the highway may limit the speed of the car.
some procedure to determine level of Comfort and convenience levels for road users are very
service. It divides the quality of traffic into
Level of six levels ranging from level A to level F.
high as vehicles have almost complete freedom to
manoeuvre.
Service
Concept Level A represents the best quality of traffic
▪ LOS B: Represents reasonable free-flow conditions.
where the driver has the freedom to drive
with free flow speed and level F represents Comfort and convenience levels for road users are still
the worst quality of traffic. relatively high as vehicles have only slightly reduced
freedom to manoeuvre. Minor accidents are
accommodated with ease although local deterioration
in traffic flow conditions would be more discernible
than in service A.
KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

19 20

5
 Level of Service Concept Level of Service Concept
▪ LOS C: Delivers stable flow conditions. Flows are at a ▪ LOS E: Represents the level at which the capacity of
level where small increases will cause a considerable the highway has been reached. Traffic flow conditions
reduction in the performance or ‘service’ of the are best described as unstable with any traffic incident
highway. There are marked restrictions in the ability to causing extensive queuing and even breakdown.
manoeuvre and care is required when changing lane. Levels of Basic Elements of comfort and convenience
The speed chosen by the driver is substantially affected are very poor, and all speeds are low if relatively
by that of the other vehicles. Driver comfort and uniform. LOS E
convenience have decreased perceptibly at this level.
▪ LOS F: Describes a state of breakdown or forced flow
▪ LOS D: The highway is operating at high-density levels,
with flows exceeding capacity. The operating
but stable flow still prevails. Small increases in flow
conditions are highly unstable with constant queuing
levels will result in significant operational difficulties
and traffic moving on a ‘stop-go’ basis.
on the highway. There are severe restrictions on a
driver’s ability to manoeuvre, with poor levels of
comfort and convenience.
LOS D LOS F
KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

21 22

Level of Service Concept

▪ Level of Service is defined
based on the measure of ▪ Therefore, speed and travel time are considered to be more effective in defining
effectiveness (MOE). LOS of a facility.
▪ Typically, three parameters are Level of ▪ Density gives the proximity of other vehicles in the stream. Since it affects the
used under this, and they are
speed and travel time, density, Service ability of drivers to manoeuvre in the traffic stream, it is also used to describe
LOS.
and delay. Concept ▪ Delay is a term that describes excess or unexpected time spent in travel. Many
▪ One of the important measures
specific delay measures are defined and used as MOE’s in the highway capacity
of service quality is the amount
of time spent in travel. manual.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

23 24

6
 Factors Affecting Level of Service

▪ One can derive from a road under different operating characteristics and traffic
volumes. The factors affecting level of service (LOS) can be listed as follows: ▪ Factors such as lane width, lateral
Factors obstruction, traffic composition, grade
and driver population also affect the
Speed and travel time
Affecting maximum flow on a given highway
Traffic interruptions/restrictions Level of segment.
Service ▪ The effect of each of these factors on
Freedom to travel with desired speed flow is discussed as follows:

Driver comfort and convenience

Operating cost
KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

25 26

Factors Affecting Factors Affecting Level of Service

Level of Service
• Lateral Obstruction: In general, when roadside or median objects are located
• Lane Width: Traffic flow tends to be too close to the edge of the pavement, motorists in lanes adjacent to the object
restricted when lane widths are tend to shy away from the object, resulting in reduced lateral distances between
narrower than 12 ft (3.65 m). This is vehicles. This lateral reduction in space also results in longer spacing’s between
because vehicles have to travel closer vehicles and a reduction in the maximum flow on the highway. This effect is
together in the lateral direction, and eliminated if the object is located at least 6 ft (1.8 m) from the edge of the
motorists tend to compensate for this roadway.
by driving more cautiously and by
increasing the spacing between
vehicles, thus reducing the maximum
flow on the highway.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

27 28

7
 • Traffic Composition: The presence of vehicles
other than passenger cars-such as trucks,
buses, and recreational vehicles in a traffic
stream reduces the maximum flow on the • Speeds, Space mean speed, are also used
highway because of their size, operating in level-of-service analysis because flow
has a significant effect on speed. Factors
Factors characteristics, and interaction with other
vehicles. Affecting
Affecting • Grade: The effect of a grade depends on both • Driver Population: Under ideal conditions, Level of
Level of the length and the slope of the grade. Traffic a driver population consisting primarily of
operations are significantly affected when weekday commuters is assumed. However, Service
Service grades of 3% or greater are longer than 1/4 mi it is known that other driver populations
(400 m) and when grades are less than 3% and do not exhibit the same behavior.
longer than l/2 mi (800 m). The effect of heavy
vehicles on such grades is much greater than
that for passenger vehicles.
KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

29 30

Factors Affecting Factors Affecting Level of Service

Level of Service
▪ Because these factors affect traffic operations
on the highway, it is essential that they be
considered in any LOS analysis.
operating speed

▪ Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) used travel

speed and volume by capacity ratio (v/c ratio)
to distinguish between various levels of
service.
▪ The value of v/c ratio can vary between 0 and
1. Depending upon the travel speed and v/c
ratio, HCM has defined six levels of service as Volume/Capacity Ratio

shown in the Figure 1. Figure 1

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

31 32

8
 Factors Affecting Capacity and LOS for Uninterrupted Flow
Level of Service – Freeway System
▪ These operating conditions can be expressed
graphically with reference to the basic speed-flow ▪ A freeway is a term used in HCM 2000 and is defined as a divided highway with
relationship. full control of access and two or more lanes for the exclusive use of traffic in each
▪ At the level of service A, speed is near its direction.
maximum value, restricted only by the geometry ▪ Freeway provides pure uninterrupted flow where no physical interruption such
of the road, and flows are low relative to the as traffic light junctions is allowed on the facility.
capacity of the highway, given the small number of
vehicles present. ▪ Operating conditions on a freeway is reflected by the interaction among vehicles
and drivers in the traffic stream and among vehicles, drivers, and the geometric
▪ At the level of service D, flows are maximized,
with speed at approximately 50% of its maximum characteristics of the freeway.
value.
▪ Level of service F denotes the ‘breakdown’
condition at which both speeds and flow levels
tend towards zero.
KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

33 34

Capacity and LOS for Uninterrupted Flow Capacity and LOS for Uninterrupted Flow
– Freeway System – Freeway System

▪ Freeways consists of ramps (at entries and exits), to allow movement without
interruption to the freeway traffic stream.
▪ No at-grade intersections (either signalized or unsignalized), no driveway access,
and no parking permitted within the right-of-way.
▪ Full control of access is provided.
▪ Freeways are classified by the total number of lanes provided in both directions
e.g. a six-lane freeway has three lanes in each direction.

Capacity elements for freeways

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

35 36

9
 Capacity and LOS for Uninterrupted Flow Capacity and LOS for Uninterrupted Flow
– Freeway System – Freeway System

Typical Freeway in Malaysia

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

37 38

Capacity and LOS for Uninterrupted Flow Freeway Free Flow Speed
– Freeway System Factors Affecting FFS

Land Width and Lateral Clearance

Number of Lanes

Interchange Density

Other Factors

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

39 40

10
 Freeway Free Flow Speed Freeway Free Flow Speed
Factors Affecting FFS Factors Affecting FFS

Lane Width and Lateral Clearance Number of Lanes

▪ According to HCM 2000, drivers are forced to travel closer to one another ▪ Number of lanes on a freeway segment influences FFS.
laterally when the lane width is less than 3.6 m. ▪ As the number of lane increases, the opportunity for drivers to overtake slow
▪ Drivers will reduce their speed to adjust for the reduced lane widths. moving vehicles also increases.
▪ Restricted lateral clearance is characterized by the close proximity of objects ▪ As the number of lanes decreases, the speed-flow-density of the freeway
from the edge of median and roadside lanes. segment also being affected.
▪ Drivers in these lane will tend to travel away laterally from them subsequently
reducing their speed.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

41 42

Freeway Free Flow Speed Freeway Free Flow Speed

Factors Affecting FFS Factors Affecting FFS

Interchange Density Other Factors

▪ Freeways traversing heavily developed urban areas tend to have closely spaced ▪ Design speed (horizontal and vertical alignment) of the freeway will affect the
interchanges. traveling speed.

▪ The FFS of vehicles along that particular freeway segment is less than vehicles ▪ If the freeway has significant horizontal and vertical conditions, it is
traveling along freeway with less frequent interchanges. recommended by the HCM 2000 to determine FFS from field observation and
field study.
▪ According to HCM 2000, the ideal average interchange spacing over a reasonably
long section of freeway is 3 km or greater.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

43 44

11
 Freeway Free Flow Speed
Required Input Data

Freeway Free Flow

Speed
Basic Freeway Segment
Methodology

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

45 46

Freeway Free Flow Speed

Base Conditions for Basic Freeway Segment

• Minimum lane widths of 3.6 m;

• Minimum right-shoulder lateral clearance between the edge of the travel lane
and the nearest obstacle or object that influences traffic behaviour of 1.8 m;
• Minimum median lateral clearance of 0.6 m;
• Traffic stream composed entirely of passenger cars;
• Five or more lanes for one direction (in urban areas only);
• Interchange spacing at 3 km greater; Freeway Free Flow Speed
• Level terrain, with grades no greater than 2 percent; and LOS
• A driver population composed principally of regular users of the facility.
These base conditions represent a high operating level, with a free-flow speed
(FFS) of 110 km/h or greater.
KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

47 48

12
 Freeway Free Flow Speed Freeway Free Flow Speed
Base Conditions for Basic Freeway Segment Base Conditions for Basic Freeway Segment

For 90 ≤ FFS ≤ 120 and

vp ≤ (3100 − 15FFS),
S = FFS

For 90 ≤ FFS ≤ 120 and for flow rate (vp)

(3100 − 15FFS) < vp ≤ (1800 + 5FFS),
2.6
1 𝑣𝑝 + 15FFS − 3100
𝑆 = FFS − (23FFS − 1800)
28 20FFS − 1300
KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

49 50

Freeway Free Flow Speed Freeway Free Flow Speed

Determining FFS Determining FFS

▪ According to the HCM 2000, FFS is the mean speed of passenger cars measured ▪ If field measurement data are used, no adjustments are made to the free-flow
during low to moderate flows (up to 1,300 pc/h/ln). speed.
▪ For the range of flows up to 1,300 pc/h/ln and for a specific segment of freeway, ▪ The speed study should be conducted along the typical segment when flows and
speeds are almost constant. densities are low (flow rates may be up to 1,300 pc/h/ln).
▪ There are two methods of determining FFS: field measurement and estimation ▪ The speed study should measure passenger-car speeds across all lanes.
procedure. ▪ According to the HCM 2000, a sample of at least 100 passenger-car speeds
should be obtained.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

51 52

13
 Freeway Free Flow Speed Freeway Free Flow Speed
Estimation of FFS Estimation of FFS

FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − fN − fID ▪ Adjustment for Lane Width

where: • The base condition for lane width is 3.6 m or greater.
FFS = free-flow speed (km/h); • For lane width less than 3.6 m, the FFS is adjusted using values in Exhibit 23-4
BFFS = base free-flow speed, 110 km/h (urban) or 120 km/h (rural); (HCM 2000).

fLW = adjustment for lane width from Exhibit 23-4 (km/h);

fLC = adjustment for right-shoulder lateral clearance from Exhibit 23-5 (km/h);
fN = adjustment for number of lanes from Exhibit 23-6 (km/h);
fID = adjustment for interchange density from Exhibit 23-7 (km/h).

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

53 54

Freeway Free Flow Speed

Freeway Free Flow Speed Estimation of FFS
Estimation of FFS
▪ Adjustment for Lane Width ▪ Adjustment for Lateral Clearance
• According to HCM 2000, base lateral clearance is 1.8 m or greater on the right
side and 0.6 m or greater on the median or left side, measured from the edge of
the paved shoulder to the nearest edge of the traveled lane.
• For Malaysian left-hand driving rules, the values should be adjusted accordingly.
• When the right-shoulder lateral clearance is less than 1.8 m the BFFS is reduced
according to Exhibit 23-5.
• No adjustment is made for the effect of median lateral clearance less than 0.6 m.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

55 56

14
 Freeway Free Flow Speed
Freeway Free Flow Speed Estimation of FFS
Estimation of FFS
▪ Adjustment for Number of Lanes
▪ Adjustment for Lateral Clearance
• In HCM 2000, base number of lanes is defined as five or more lanes (in one
direction).
• When fewer lanes are present, the BFFS is reduced according to Exhibit 23-6
(HCM 2000).
• In determining number of lanes, both basic and auxiliary lanes should be
considered.
• However, HOV lanes should not be included.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

57 58

Freeway Free Flow Speed

Estimation of FFS Freeway Free Flow Speed
Estimation of FFS
▪ Adjustment for Number of Lanes
▪ Adjustment for Number of Lanes
• According to HCM 2000, number of lane correction factor is only for urban and
suburban freeway only.
• No correction for number of lanes should be done on rural freeways (which
typically carries only 2 lanes in each direction).
• For rural freeway, fN = 0.0

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

59 60

15
 Freeway Free Flow Speed Freeway Free Flow Speed
Estimation of FFS Estimation of FFS

▪ Adjustment for Interchange Density ▪ Adjustment for Interchange Density

• According to HCM 2000, an interchange is defined as having at least one-ramp. • The interchange density becomes significant for speed estimation purposes only
• Interchanges that have only off-ramps should not be considered in determining when the density exceeds 0.5 interchanges per kilometer (an average spacing of
interchange density. 2 km or less).

• The base interchange density is 0.3 interchange per kilometer, or 3.3 km • Interchange density is determined over a 10-km segment of freeway (5 km
interchange spacing. upstream and 5 km downstream) in which the freeway segment is located.

• Base free flow speed is reduced using Exhibit 23-7 when interchange density
becomes greater.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

61 62

Determining Flow Rate

Freeway Free Flow Speed
Estimation of FFS
𝑉
▪ Adjustment for Interchange Density 𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝

Where:
vp = 15-min passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pc/h/ln),
V = hourly volume (veh/h),
PHF = peak-hour factor,
N = number of lanes,
fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor,
fp = driver population factor.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

63 64

16
 Determining Flow Rate Determining Flow Rate
Peak-Hour Factor (PHF) Heavy Vehicle Adjustments

▪ Typical range of PHF on Freeway range from 0.80 to 0.95. 1

𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1 + 𝑃𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 + 𝑃𝑅 (𝐸𝑅 − 1)
▪ Estimation of PHF, for congested condition, PHF = 0.95.
Where:
▪ PHF = 0.92 for urban areas.
ET, ER = passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and recreational vehicles (RVs)
▪ PHF = 0.88 for rural areas.
in the traffic stream, respectively;
PT, PR = proportion of trucks/buses and RVs in the traffic stream, respectively;
fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

65 66

Determining Flow Rate Determining Flow Rate

Equivalents for Extended Freeway Segments Equivalents for Specific Grades

▪ Extended Freeway segment is defined as a single uniform segment of freeway ▪ Exhibits 23-9 and 23-10 give values of ET and ER for upgrade segments.
where no one grade of 3 percent or greater is longer than 0.5 km or where no ▪ These factors vary with the percent of grade, length of grade, and the proportion
one grade of less than 3 percent is longer than 1.0 km. of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream.
▪ Whenever extended segment analysis is used, the terrain of the freeway must be ▪ The equivalents decrease as the number of heavy vehicles increases, because
classified as level, rolling, or mountainous. these vehicles tend to form platoons and have operating characteristics that are
more uniform as a group than those of passenger cars.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

67 68

17
 Determining Flow Rate
Equivalents for Specific Grades

▪ In general, if the downgrade does not cause trucks to shift into a low gear, they
may be treated as if they were level terrain segments, and passenger-car
equivalents are selected accordingly.
▪ Where more severe downgrades occur, trucks must often use low gears to avoid
gaining too much speed and running out of control.
▪ In such cases, their effect is greater than it would be on level terrain.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

69 70

Determining Flow Rate Determining Flow Rate

Equivalents for Specific Grades Driver Population Factor

▪ Exhibit 23-11 gives values of ET. For RVs, downgrades may be treated as level ▪ The value of fp range from 0.85 to 1.00.
terrain.
▪ For commuter drivers (i.e., familiar users), use fp = 1.00.

▪ For weekend or recreational drivers = 0.85.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

71 72

18
 Determining LOS

▪ Once the basic freeway segment has been

defined and the appropriate FFS has been
identified, an appropriate speed-flow curve of
Determining LOS the similar shape as Exhibit 23-3 (HCM 2000)
is constructed.
▪ The average passenger car speed, S, is
obtained from the speed-flow curve on the
basis of the flow rate, vp.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

73 74

Determining LOS Determining LOS

▪ Then, calculate the density as follows:

𝑣𝑝
𝐷=
𝑆
Where:
D = density (pc/km/ln),
vp = flow rate (pc/h/ln),
S = average passenger-car speed (km/h)

▪ LOS of the basic freeway segment is determined by comparing the calculated

density with the density ranges in Exhibit 23-2 of HCM 2000.

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

75 76

19
 Example 1 Solution
Step 1 – Determine the correction factors using the appropriate Tables.
A 3-lane (one direction) urban freeway has the following characteristics
BFFS = base free-flow speed, 112 km/h
3.31 m lane width; 0.9 m lateral clearance (right side); and a total ramp
density of 0.9 per km. What is the free-flow speed of this freeway, if the FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − fN − fID

base free-flow speed is 112 km/h? fLW = adjustment for lane width (Exhibit 23-4)
Determine the level of service for the freeway section if the flow rate is fLC = adjustment for right-shoulder lateral clearance (Exhibit 23-5)

725 pc/h/ln during the peak 15-minute period? fN = adjustment for number of lanes (Exhibit 23-6)
fID = adjustment for ramp density (Exhibit 23-7)

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

77 78

79 80

20
 Solution Solution
Step 2 – Substitute adjustment values into free-flow equation. Step 3 – Use the relationship between speeds, flow and density to
calculate the density in pc/km/ln.
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − fN − fID Since 3100 − 15FFS = 3100 − 15(94.2) = 1687

= 112 – 3.0 – 1.90 – 4.8 – 8.1 1687 > vp = 725, so S = FFS

= 94.2 km/h 𝑣𝑝 725

𝐷= = = 7.70 pc/km/ln
𝑆 94.2

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

81 82

Example 2
94.2 km/h
Determine the number of lanes required for a new suburban freeway to
provide LOS D during the peak hour, with the following design features;
• 4,000 veh/h (one direction)
• Level terrain
• 15% trucks
• 3.6 m lane width
• 0.85 PHF
• 0.9 interchanges per kilometer
• 3% RVs

725 pc/h/ln • 1.8 m lateral clearance

Using Exhibit 23-3 to determine LOS; the LOS is B

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

83 84

21
 Solution Solution
Assume commuter traffic, fp = 1.00. Find fHV (use Exhibit 23-8).
Assume BFFS of 120 km/h. 1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
Assume that the number of lanes affects free-flow speed, since the 1 + 𝑃𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 + 𝑃𝑅 (𝐸𝑅 − 1)
freeway is being designed in a suburban area.

(Flow rate, speed, density, and LOS are calculated starting with a four-
lane freeway and then increasing the number of lanes to six, eight, and so
forth until LOS D is achieved)
1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = = 0.925
1 + 0.15 1.5 − 1 + 0.03 (1.2 − 1)

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

85 86

Solution Solution
Convert volume (veh/h) to flow rate (pc/h/ln). Checking for capacity using Exhibit 23-3.
For four-lane option: The four-lane option is not acceptable since 2,544 pc/h/ln exceeds
capacity of 2,400 pc/h/ln.
𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝 Try six-lane option.
4000
4000 𝑣𝑝 = = 1696 pc/h/ln
𝑣𝑝 = = 2544 pc/h/ln 0.85 × 3 × 0.925 × 1.00
0.85 × 2 × 0.925 × 1.00

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

87 88

22
 Solution Solution
Calculate free-flow speed for a six-lane freeway (use Exhibits 23-4, 23-5, Calculate the density using,
23-6, 23-7).
FFS = BFFS − fLW − fLC − fN − fID 𝑣𝑝 1696
𝐷= = ≈ 16 pc/km/ln
FFS = 120 − 0.0 − 0.0 − 4.8 − 8.1 𝑆 107.1
FFS = 107.1 km/h Density = 16 pc/km/ln

KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

89 90

Solution Solution
Checking for LOS using Exhibit 23-3.

107 km/h
Six-lane will be ok at:
Speed = 107 km/h
Density = 16 pc/km/ln
LOS C

1696 pc/h/ln
KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING KNS3433 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

91 92

23
 THANK YOU

93

24