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Mechanical Science Principles Lecture Notes Guide Ldsm04

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
423 views92 pages

Mechanical Science Principles Lecture Notes Guide Ldsm04

Uploaded by

mokuaisaiah769
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MECHANICAL SCIENCE PRINCIPLES

6.1 Introduction of the Unit of Learning / Unit of Competency


In this unit the competencies required by a trainee in order to apply a wide range of
Mechanical science principles in their work are addressed, while adhering to
occupational safety and health procedures relevant to specific workplace. The
following areas have been considered: determining forces in a system, demonstrating
knowledge of moments, understanding friction principles, understanding motions in
engineering, describing work, energy and power, performing machine calculations,
demonstrating gas principles, applying heat knowledge, applying density knowledge
and applying pressure principles.

This unit is a common unit that lays foundation to acquire knowledge, skill and
competence required in welding and fabrication. The resources required to implement
this unit of competence includes but not limited to; access to relevant workplace or
appropriately simulated environment, measuring tools and equipment and sample
materials. The trainee is expected to apply mechanical science principles in their field
of work.

6.2 Performance Standard


Apply a wide range of mechanical science principles as per the given work
specifications while observing safety as per workplace procedures and related OSHA
standards.

6.3 Learning Outcomes

6.3.1 List of Learning Outcomes


a. Determine forces in a system
b. Demonstrate knowledge of moments
c. Understand friction principles
d. Understand motions in engineering
e. Describe work, energy and power
f. Perform machine calculations
g. Demonstrate gas principles
h. Apply heat knowledge
i. Apply density knowledge
j. Apply pressure principles

Page 1
6.3.1.1 Learning Outcome No 1: Determine forces in a system
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Determine forces in a system

Learning Activities Special


Instructions

Activity 1; The trainee to carry out an experiment to verify


triangle and parallelogram law of forces with the help of
Gravesands’s apparatus Pans/weights
should not
Apparatus required; touch the
vertical board
Gravesand’s apparatus, paper sheet, weight, thread, pans, set
square, pencil, drawing pin etc There should
be only one
Procedure: central knot on
Refer to fig. 1.1 the thread
which should
be small

Fig. 1.1

Fix the paper sheet with drawing pin on the board set in a vertical
plane such that it should be parallel to the edge of board.

Page 2
Pass one thread over the pulleys carrying a pan at its each end.
Take a second thread and tie its one end at the middle of the first
thread and tie a pan at its other end.

Add weights in the pan in such a manner that the small knot
comes approximately in the centre.

Displace slightly the pans from their position of equilibrium and


note if they come to their original position of rest. This will
ensure the free movement of the pulleys.

Mark lines of forces represented by thread without disturbing the


equilibrium of the system and write the magnitude of forces,

i.e. Pan Weight + Added Weight.

Remove the paper from the board and produce the line to meet at
O.

and CA.

Select a suitable scale and draw the line ab parallel to force P and
cut it equal to the magnitude of P. From b draw the line bc
parallel to force Q and cut it equal to the magnitude of Q (Fig.
1.2).

Calculate the magnitude of ca i.e., R1 which will be equal to the


third force R which proves the triangle law of forces.

If R1 differs from original magnitude of R, the percentage error is


found as follows:

Percentage error =

TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES

Graphical Method

Fig. 1.2(b), draw ab parallel to force P in suitable scale with the


use of set square and then from b draw bc parallel to force Q. The
closing side of triangle represents the force R1 which should be
equal to force R. Note, the difference in R1 and R shows the
graphical error.

Page 3
(a) Space diagram (b) Vector diagram

Analytical Method

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

Graphical Method

Fig. 1.3, cut OA=P and OB=Q in suitable scale. From A draw AC

R1 represents the resultant of force P and Q. As the system is in


equilibrium it must be equal to R.

Note that R and R1 are in opposite direction.

Fig. 1.3 Analytical Method

1 and by using resultant formula, calculate R1

R2= (P2+Q2+2 PQ cosine 1)

Page 4
OBSERVATION

Information Sheet: 4.3.1.1


Introduction

By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to determine forces in
an engineering system.

Definition of force

Force changes or tends to change a body’s state of rest or state of uniform motion in a
straight line.

A force has the following characteristics;

Magnitude

Direction (line of action and sense)

Point of application

Force is a vector quantity since it possesses both magnitude and direction. It can be
represented by a straight line drawn to scale from the point of application along the
line of action of the force. An arrowhead is used to indicate the direction of the force.

Forces acting at a point

Terms frequently used in forces acting at a point;

Equilibrium

When two or more forces act at a point and are so arranged to balance each other, the
forces are said to be in equilibrium.

Resultant

The resultant of a number of forces acting at a point is that single force which would
have the same effect if it replaced those forces.
Equilibrant
The equilibrant is a single force which, if added to a system of forces acting at a point,
would produce equilibrium. The equilibrant neutralizes the other forces. The

Page 5
equilibrant is equal in magnitude and direction, but opposite in sense to the resultant.

Coplanar forces
These are forces which are all acting in the same plane.

Concurrent forces
These are forces whose lines of action meet at the same point.

Forces Theorems

Parallelogram of forces
If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant will be represented in both
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that point.
This is known as the parallelogram of forces rule,
which is a graphical means of determining the resultant of two forces acting at a point.

The method is illustrated by the following figure.

Page 6
Figure 59: Vector force diagram

Example 1. The forces on a cutting tool are 2600 N vertically downward and 2100 N
horizontally. Determine the resultant force acting on the tool and the angle at which it
acts.

Solution:

Choose a suitable scale and draw the vectors representing the forces acting at a point.
Complete the parallelogram.

Figure 60: Parallelogram diagram

Page 7
Resultant: Draw the diagonal through the point and measure it.
Resultant = 3340 N
Measure the angle of inclination to the horizontal with a protractor.
Angle at which resultant acts = 51° 5' to horizontal.

Triangle of forces
If three coplanar forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle taken in order. This is known as the
triangle of forces rule.

The words ‘taken in order’ mean that the direction of the forces follow each other
round each side of the triangle in either a clockwise or an anticlockwise order.

Suppose three forces, F\, F2 and F3, acting at a point O, are in equilibrium and
suppose the lines of action of these three forces to be as shown in the space diagram,
Fig. ( a) below.

Figure 61: Space Diagram Source: Zammit (1987)

The corresponding force (vector) diagram is shown, in Fig. (b) Which must be drawn
accurately to a suitable scale so that the sides of the triangle represent the magnitude
and direction of the three forces.
The sense of direction of each force is indicated by the arrowhead placed on the
respective vector.

Page 8
In the example above, notice that the force diagram has been drawn by taking the
forces in a clockwise cyclic order around the point O.

Example 2; An electric motor having a weight of 2000 N is suspended by two ropes,


OX and OY, attached to a horizontal beam at X and Y, 1.8 m apart. If the ropes OX
and OY make angles of 30° and 45° respectively with the beam, find graphically the
tension in each rope when the system is in equilibrium.

Solution;

Source: Zammit (1987)

The space diagram showing the load and the directions of the unknown forces
(tensions) in the ropes is drawn to a suitable scale e.g. 1 cm = 0.2 m, and the spaces
between the forces around the junction O are lettered in accordance with Bow’s
notation.

The force diagram, is drawn to a suitable scale e.g. 1 cm = 200 N and is constructed
as follows:
Draw vector ab vertically and 10 cm long to represent the magnitude and direction of
the force AB of 2000 N exerted by the load. Since the system is in equilibrium, the
vector triangle of forces must close.

Page 9
Hence, from b draw a line parallel to the line of action of force BC, and from a draw
another line parallel to the line of action of force CA so that the two lines meet at c.
Insert arrowheads in order round the triangle, as shown.

The magnitude of the forces BC and CA (i.e. the tensions in the ropes OX and OY)
can be found by measuring the sides be and caf respectively, of the vector triangle of
forces and multiplying by the scale factor.

By measurement, be = 7.3 cm and ea = 9.0 cm. Thus:


Tension in rope OX = 7.3 x 200 = 1460 N
Tension in rope OY = 9.0 x 200 = 1800 N

Bow’s notation

Bow’s notation is a system that ensures that the forces are taken in order.

The spaces between the forces in the space diagram are lettered with capital letters. A
force is then identified by the spaces to it, lower-case letters being used.

When the force diagram is drawn, the forces are drawn in order, going around the
point through which they act in a clockwise or an anticlockwise direction.

As each vector is drawn it is lettered so that the order of the letters will give the
direction in which the force acts on the body.

Polygon of forces

The polygon of forces rule is an extension of the triangle of forces rule. It states that,
if four or more coplanar forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order.

Page 10
Source: Zammit (1987)

If a system of several coplanar forces meets at a point and that system is not in
equilibrium, then the polygon does not close and the force required to produce
equilibrium in the system is represented by the vector which joins the open ends of
the incomplete polygon.

Page 11
Source Zammit (1987)

In the figure above, the equilibrant is represented by the vector a'a (dotted), its
direction being taken from a ' to a. Notice that the resultant of the force system is
represented by the same vector, but its direction
is from a to a’.

Example 3; Four coplanar forces act at a point as shown in below. Determine


their resultant in magnitude and direction.

Solution;

Using Bow’s notation, put capital letters in the spaces between the forces in the space
diagram, as shown in figure above.

Taking a suitable scale, say 1 cm represent 1 N, draw the force diagram, as shown if
figure below.

Start by drawing vector ab 4 cm long, parallel to and in the same direction as force
AB in the space diagram. Continue by drawing, in the same order, vectors be (8 cm

Page 12
long), cd (7 cm long) and da' (5 cm long) parallel to forces BC, CD and DA
respectively, as shown. Join aa’.

Then the vector aa' , taken in the sense from a to a’ , represents the resultant force. By
measurement, this is found to be 8.5 N acting in the direction 58° to the vertical, as
shown in the force diagram, figure below.

Source: Zammit (1987)

Self-Assessment
1. Which one of the following is not the condition for the equilibrium in three
dimensional system of axis.
a) ∑Fx=0 b) ∑Fy=0 c) ∑Fz=0 d) ∑F≠0

2 We first make equilibrium equations and then the free body diagram and then
solve the question.
a) True b) False

3. In the diagram given below, coordinates of D is (1, -2, 2), C (-2, 0, 0) and B are

Page 13
as shown. The dark region is the cables holding the weight of 600N at the origin.

Find the tension in the AD section.

900 N b) 693 N c) 646 N d) 0 N

4 In the diagram given below, coordinates of D is (1, -2, 2), C (-2, 0, 0) and B are as
shown. The dark region is the cables holding the weight of 600N at origin. Find the
tension in the AB section.

Page 14
900N b) 693N c) 646 N d) 0N

Page 15
5 Find the tension in the cable AC.

23.6N b) 55 N c) 89 N d) 29 N

6. Determine the value of the q, parallel to the z-axis. That is the point of intersection
of the projections of the points A, B and C parallel to the xy plane. With the distance
between the tri-section point and the points A, B and C be equal to 0.6m.

51.9 cm b) 51.9 mm c) 51.9 m d) 5.19 mm

Page 16
7 ∑Fx=0, ∑Fy=0 and ∑Fz=0 are vector equations.

a) True
b) False

8 When the body is in equilibrium then which of the following is true?


a) We equate all the components of the forces acting on the body equal to

their resultant vector’s magnitude


b) We equate all the components of the forces acting on the body equal to

their resultant vector’s magnitude square


c) We equate all the components of the forces acting on the body equal to

their resultant vector’s magnitude square root


d) We equate all the components of the forces acting on the body equal to

zero

1. Define and describe Forces in a system


2. Describe Forces theorems
3. Determine Resultant of coplanar forces.

Page 17
4. Two forces of 300 N and 500 N act at a point O and are inclined at 60° to each
other. Determine, graphically, the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
5. An electric motor having a weight of 2500 N is suspended by two ropes attached
to its lifting eyebolt. The ropes make angles of 30° and 25° with the horizontal
respectively. Find the tension in each rope.
6. Four members of a frame structure meet at a joint, as shown in the figure below.
If the joint is in equilibrium, determine graphically the magnitude of the forces X
and Y in the members shown.

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome

 Forces diagram chats and figures


 Scientific Calculators
 Relevant reference materials
 Stationeries
 Mechanical workshop
 Relevant practical materials
 Dice
 Computers with internet connection

References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical
engineering technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Page 18
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London

Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,

Calvert, M. A. (1967). The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore,


MD: John Hopkins Press.

Page 19
6.3.1.2 Learning Outcome No 2: Demonstrate knowledge of moments
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2; Demonstrate knowledge of moments

Learning Activities Special Instructions

The trainee to calculate values of the reaction at the support of a provide dimensions for
loaded beam and then conduct an experiment to compare the the loaded beam and
values. appropriate weights

Using the following apparatus, standard weights, a metre rule, Procedure


and a wooden beam of uniform section supported horizontally at
its ends on two ‘clock-type’ spring balances, determine Before placing any loads
experimentally the reactions at the supports of the loaded beam. on the beam, adjust the
spring balances so that
they both read zero. This
will eliminate the weight
of the beam.

The experiment can be repeated using three or more weights.

In each case check that;

(i) the sum of the spring balance readings is equal to the sum of
the

loads

(ii) the sum of the clockwise moments about a support is equal to


the

Page 20
sum of the anticlockwise moments about that support.

Information Sheet
Introduction

By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to define and calculate
moments, describe principles of moments and apply couples in engineering systems.

A beam is any structural member which is subjected to external forces along its
length. Usually the beam is horizontal and the external forces vertical; these forces
will consist of the loads applied to the beam and the reactions at the supports.

In general, the loads applied to a beam are the forces exerted by gravity on masses
supported by the beam, and hence will act downwards.

A uniform beam is one which has the same density of material and the same cross-
sectional area throughout its length. The weight of a uniform beam is considered to
act through its centre. The weight of a beam is usually small compared with the loads
it carries, and should therefore be neglected unless a definite value for it is given.

The moment of a force; is the turning effect of the force about a fixed point or
fulcrum and is measured as the product.

Moment of force = force x perpendicular distance from point to line of action of force

The direction of this turning effect should be specified, i.e. clockwise or


anticlockwise.

224

Page 21
In figure above the moment of force F applied at B about O is

F x x in a clockwise direction

In the figure above the moment of force F applied at B about O is

F x y in an anticlockwise direction

N.B. The moment is not F x p.

Units for moment of a force

225

Page 22
SI units: Nm.

The principle of moments

If a body is in equilibrium,

Then the sum of the clockwise moments acting on it about any point is equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moments about that point.

The resultant of all the forces on it is zero.

These two conditions of equilibrium are separate and both must be fulfilled if
equilibrium exists.

Consider a uniform beam to be pivoted at its centre on a fulcrum.

Suppose the beam is carrying point loads of W1, W2 and W3 at distances d1, d2 and d3
respectively from the fulcrum, as shown in figure above.

Now, for the resultant force on the beam to be zero, the upward force provided by the
reaction R at the fulcrum must equal the downward forces, i.e.

R = W1, +W2 + W3

For the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces to be zero, the total anticlockwise
moment produced by W1, andW2 about the fulcrum must equal the total clockwise
moment produced by W3 about the fulcrum.

Page 23
Thus, for equilibrium to be maintained,

W1d1 + W2d2 = W3d3

Example 1; A uniform horizontal lever is supported on a fulcrum and loaded as


shown in the figure below. Calculate:

( a ) the magnitude of the load W required to maintain equilibrium

( b ) the magnitude of the reaction R at the support.

Neglect the mass of the lever.

Solution

(a) Taking moments about the support, and working throughout in units of N and m,
Total anticlockwise moment = (200 x 0.3) + (300 x 0.1)
= 60 + 30 = 90 Nm
Total clockwise moment = (W x 0.25) + (100 x 0.4)
= (0.25 W + 40) Nm

For the lever to remain horizontal, the total anticlockwise moment about the support
must equal the total clockwise moment about the support. Thus:
90 = 0.25W + 40
or 0.25 W = 90 - 40
and W = 50/0.25 = 200N

(b) At equilibrium, the resultant vertical force must be zero. Hence,


the reaction at the support (acting upwards) must be equal to the sum of the
loads (acting downwards), i.e.

Page 24
R = 200 + 300 + 200 + 100 = 800 N

Answer: (a) Magnitude of load W = 200 N


(b) Reaction at the support = 800 N

Simply supported beams


A simply supported beam is one which rest on two knife-edge or roller supports and is
free to move horizontally. For a simply supported beam to be in equilibrium, both the
conditions in the principle of moments must be satisfied. The resultant force acting on
the beam must be zero, and the algebraic sum of the moments about either of the
supports must also be zero. These two facts enable the value of the reactions at the
supports to be determined when the loading of the beam is known.

Page 25
Example 2; A 3m girder rests on two supports, one at each end. A weight of 1 kN is
placed 1 m from one end. Calculate the reactions at the supports, neglecting the
weight of the girder.

Solution

The figure above shows the arrangement. Using the principle of moments, moments
may be taken about any point along the beam.

Usually the best point about which to take moments is one through which an unknown
force acts, as the moment for the unknown force about this point will then be zero.

Taking moments about A,


sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
1000 N x 1m = R B x 3m

1000 N x 1m = R B
3m

Page 26
∴ Reaction at B = R B = 333 N

To find RA take moments about B;


clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
RA x 3m = 1000 N x 2m

RA = 1000 N x 2m
3m
∴ Reaction at A = RA = 667 N

A check may be made, since the forces are in equilibrium and their resultant is zero;
consequently sum of vertically upward forces = sum of vertically downward forces

Upward forces:
RA+ RB = 667 N + 333 N = 1000 N
Downward forces:
applied load = 1000 N
Hence answers are correct.

Further reading and the experimental determination of beam reaction can be found on

Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London, pg 136

Self-Assessment
1. Determine the smallest force applied at R which creates the same moment about
P as by 75N.
a. 37.5N
b. 112.5N
c. 60N

Page 27
d. 0N

2. What does the moment of the force measure?


a) The tendency of rotation of the body along any axis
b) The moment of inertia of the body about any axis
c) The couple moment produced by the single force acting on the body
d) The total work is done on the body by the force

3. If a car is moving forward, what is the direction of the moment of the moment
caused by the rotation of the tires?
a) It is heading inwards, i.e. the direction is towards inside of the car
b) It is heading outwards, i.e. the direction is towards outside of the car
c) It is heading forward, i.e. the direction is towards the forward direction of the
motion of the car
d) It is heading backward, i.e. the direction is towards the back side of the motion of
the car

4. The tendency of rotation of the body along any axis is also called ___________
a) Moment of inertia
b) Moment of couple
c) Torque
d) Force

5. The moment of the force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
of the axis and the point of action of the force.

Page 28
a) True
b) False

6. Determine the moment about the point T.

a) 0Nm d) 200Nm
b) 350Nm
c) 100Nm
7. The moment axis is in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the force and the
distance.
a) True
b) False

Page 29
8 Find the moment along T.

a) 1200Nm
b) 600Nm
c) 0Nm
d) 1400Nm

9. If you are getting to know about the direction of the moment caused by the
force applied on the body by using your wrist and curling it in the direction of
the rotation then which of the following is not right?
a) The thumb represents the direction of the force
b) The thumb represents the direction of the moment
c) The fingers represent the direction of the force
d) The direction in which you curl your wrist is towards the direction of the
distance from point of contact of force to the axis of rotation.

10. The moment axis, force and the perpendicular distance in the moment of the
force calculation is lying in____________
a) Two planes perpendicular to each other
b) A single plane in the direction of the force
c) A single plane in the direction of the perpendicular distance
d) A single line in the direction of the force

11 State the two conditions necessary for the equilibrium of a body acted on by a
number of parallel forces.

Page 30
12 Describe an experiment for determining the reactions of a simply supported beam.

13 A uniform beam, 4 m long, is simply supported at two points A and B, point A


being 0.5 m from the left-hand end and point B 1.5 m from the right-hand end. The
beam carries loads of 600 N at the left-hand end, 800 N at its centre and 400 N at the
right-hand end.

14 Determine the magnitude of the support reactions at A and B. At what point should
the load of 800 N be applied to make the support reactions equal?

15 A motor vehicle has a wheelbase of 3 m. The load on the front axle is 12 kN and
that on the rear axle is 16 kN. The vehicle rests on a simply supported bridge of span
7.5 m, the front axle being 1.5 m from the left-hand support. Calculate the magnitude
of the reactions of the bridge supports.

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome

 Weights/ masses
 Simply supported beams
 Scientific Calculators
 Relevant reference materials
 Stationeries
 Mechanical workshop
 Relevant practical materials

References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical
engineering technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical
engineering technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (200), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London
Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,
Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore,
MD: John Hopkins Press.

Page 31
6.3.1.3 Learning Outcome No 3: Understand friction principles
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3; Understand friction principles

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Trainee to perform an experiment to measure the Coefficient of surface


coefficients of static friction between several combinations frictions
of surfaces using a heavy block and a set of hanging
masses in the workshop.

The trainee to measure the coefficient of kinetic friction


between two of the combinations of surfaces used in the
static friction part of this experiment.

Equipment:

Wooden Flat Plane


Large Steel Block
Hanging Mass Set
Pulley
Alternative surfaces: Plastic/ Wood

Laptop

Information Sheet: 6.3.1.3


Introduction
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to calculate the force
to overcome friction on a plane.
Force of friction
Whenever one surface moves (or attempts to move) over another, a resisting force,
acting tangentially to the surfaces, is set up so as to oppose the motion. This resisting
force is called the force of friction.
The force of friction is usually slightly greater before one surface starts to move over
the other than after this movement has started. In other words, it requires a slightly
greater force to overcome the friction of rest, known as static friction, than it does to
overcome the friction of motion, known as sliding or dynamic friction.

Page 32
Laws of friction for dry surfaces
The sliding frictional force opposing motion, once motion has started, is directly
proportional to the normal force between the surfaces.

The sliding frictional force is dependent upon the nature of the surfaces in contact.

The sliding frictional force is dependent upon the physical properties of the materials
involved.

The sliding frictional force is independent of the area of the surfaces in contact.

For low speeds of relative motion of the surfaces, the frictional force is independent
of the speed of sliding.

Static friction

The figure above shows a body of mass m resting on a flat horizontal surface. The
weight W of the body (equal to mg) acts vertically downwards, for equilibrium, there
will be an equal and opposite reacting force N, acting vertically upwards. Suppose
now a horizontal force P is applied to the body, tending it to move to the right. A
frictional force F (equal to P) will be created between the surfaces to act in opposition
to P, i.e. to the left. As P is increased in magnitude, F also increases and will reach an
upper limiting value when the body is just about to move. This limiting or maximum
value of F is called the force of static friction between the surfaces under these
conditions.

Page 33
Sliding or dynamic friction

Once the body has started to move, it will be found that the magnitude of the applied
force P can be reduced slightly to keep the body moving at a steady speed along the
surface. This is because sliding or dynamic friction (i.e. the friction of motion) is less
than static friction (i.e. the friction of rest). This particular value of P is then equal to
the force of sliding friction.

The coefficient of friction

By the first law of friction given in above, the sliding frictional force is directly
proportional to the reaction force normal to the surfaces in contact. Thus:
FαN

or
F = Constant

The constant is called the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces concerned,
and is denoted by µ. (the Greek letter ‘mew’).

∴ Coefficient of friction, µ = F

N
Since the forces F and N are expressed in the same units, µ is just a number and has
no units of its own.

Advantages and disadvantages of friction

Advantageous application of friction include; in a motor vehicle when applied to such


units as tyres, clutches and brakes, in which instances the surfaces must be dry and
free from oil or grease.

However, it is disadvantageous in bearings and other moving parts, however, and


systems of lubrication must be used to reduce friction to a minimum.

Page 34
Example 1; A metal block lined with a ceramic material and having a mass of 4.8 kg
requires a horizontal pull of 17 N to move it at a steady speed along a horizontal steel
surface. Calculate the coefficient of friction for the ceramic material on steel.

Solution

Referring to the figure above,


Total weight of block, W = mg
= 4.8 [ kg ] x 9.81 [ m/s2] = 47.1 N

∴ Normal reaction N between ceramic and steel surface = 47.1 N


Since the block is moving at a steady speed, then:

Frictional force, F = Applied force, P


= 17 N

Coefficient of friction, µ =F

= 17(N) = 0.36

47.1 (N)

Answer: Coefficient for friction for the ceramic material on steel = 0.36.

The trainee is advised to do further reading on friction on an inclined surface.

Page 35
Self-Assessment
1. The maximum value of the frictional force is called _________

a. Limiting Friction
b. Non-Limiting Friction
c. Limiting Action Friction
d. Non-Limiting Action Friction

Answer: a
Explanation: The friction is the phenomena that define that there is a resistance which
is present there between the two surfaces. The two surfaces are in contact and the
friction applies at that surface only, resisting the motion of the surface. Thus the
maximum values are called as limiting friction.

2. When the body which is applied forces come in the stage of the limiting friction
then the body is termed as to come in ___________ equilibrium.
a) Unstable
b) Stable
c) Non-stable
d) Improper Stable

Answer: a
Explanation: As the limiting friction is the maximum value of the frictional forces.
Thus if more force is applied to the body then the body is going to move forward.
Because the two surfaces are in contact and the friction applies at that surface only,
resisting the motion of the surface. Thus the name unstable equilibrium.

3. The frictional force is directly proportional to the ____________


a) Applied load
b) Type of surface used
c) The normal force
d) The horizontal load

Answer: c
Explanation: The frictional force is directly proportional to the vertical force that is
being applied normal to the surface of the body. The force of friction is not dependent
on the type of the surface. Thus the only thing the frictional force does depend is the
normal force.

Page 36
4. The constant in the equation F = µN is called?
a) Knew
b) Proprietary Constant
c) Coefficient of dry friction
d) Coefficient of static friction

Answer: d
Explanation: The constant in the equation F = µN is known as the coefficient of static
friction. This is the proportionality constant and is generally used to express the
equation of the frictional force. The value of this constant is generally from 0 to
infinite, depending on the surface.

4. The coefficient of static friction does depend upon the surface on which the
body is being slid.
a) True
b) False

Answer: a
Explanation: The constant in the equation F = µN is known as the coefficient of static
friction. This is the proportionality constant and is generally used to express the
equation of the frictional force. The value of this constant is generally from 0 to
infinite, depending on the surface.

6. The coefficient of friction is generally determined by ____________


a) Written over the Body
b) Experiments
c) Weighing the body
d) Measuring length of the body

Answer: b
Explanation: The coefficient of friction is generally determined by the help of
experiments. Many experiments are done on the body. Try and error methods are
involved. And the final observations are being taken out. Then the average of all the
final answers resulted in the experiments is done.

7. We have two types of a coefficient of friction, one is coefficient of static friction


and the other one is the coefficient of the kinetic friction.
a) True
b) False

Page 37
Answer: a
Explanation: The constant in the equation F = µN is known as the coefficient of static
friction. This is the proportionality constant and is generally used to express the
equation of the frictional force. And in the same equation the constant is sometimes
called a coefficient of kinetic friction, when the limiting value of static friction is
passed over.

8. The angle of the inclination of wedge over which the block is sliding is determined
by which of the following trigonometric function?
a) Tangent Inverse
b) Cosine
c) Sine
d) Secant

Answer: a
Explanation: The angle of the wedge over which the block is being slided is generally
taken out by the help of the tangent inverse trigonometric function. It is the ratio of
the frictional force to the normal force. This ratio is kept inside the inverse function.

9. The coefficient of kinetic friction is ____________ than coefficient of static


friction.
a) Smaller
b) Larger
c) Significantly larger
d) Highly larger

Answer: a
Explanation: The coefficient of kinetic friction is smaller than the coefficient of static
friction. The main thing about the kinetic one is that it is applied by the surface when
the body is in motion. The static one is applied to the body when the body is static and
is about to move.

10. The kinetic friction is applied when the body is __________


a) Moving
b) Stopped
c) Just stopped
d) Just started to move

Page 38
Answer: a
Explanation: The kinetic friction is applied to the body by the surface when the body
is moving. This means there is friction present and the coefficient of that friction is
smaller than the static one. The main observation is that this is applied when the static
friction attends its maximum value.

11. The angle of the inclination of wedge over which the block is sliding and is
experiencing the kinetic friction is determined by which of the following
trigonometric function?
a) Tangent Inverse
b) Cosine
c) Sine
d) Secant

Answer: a
Explanation: The angle of the wedge over which the block is being slided is generally
taken out by the help of the tangent inverse trigonometric function. Whether it may be
the static or the kinetic friction, the ratio is the frictional force to the normal force.
And this ratio is kept inside the inverse function.

12.The value of a coefficient of friction is taken at that moment when the block is at

the verge of moving.


a) True
b) False

State any three laws which govern the effect of friction between dry surfaces.

A casting has a mass of 30 kg and requires a horizontal force of 70 N to drag it at


constant speed along a level surface. Determine:

(а ) the normal reaction between the casting and the surface

(b) The coefficient of friction.

13 Determine the maximum load that may be moved across a horizontal surface by
an effort of 175 N when the coefficient of friction between the materials in contact is
0.5.

Page 39
Kinetic and static friction coefficient detector: Devise a means of measuring the
coefficient of kinetic friction. It may be possible to modify the static coefficient
experiment to accomplish this project.

The trainee to measure the coefficient of kinetic friction between two of the
combinations of surfaces used in the static friction part of this experiment.

Equipment:

Wooden Flat Plane Pulley

Large Steel Block Alternative surfaces: Plastic/ Wood

Hanging Mass Set laptop

Normal Force = FN

Friction = FF

Tension = FT

To pulley→

Gravitational Force = F
g

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome

 Scientific Calculators  Relevant reference materials

Page 40
 Stationeries  Relevant practical materials
 Mechanical workshop

References (APA)

Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical


engineering technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London

Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,

Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore,


MD: John Hopkins Press.

Page 41
6.3.1.4 Learning Outcome No 4: Understand motions in engineering
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4; Understand motions in engineering

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Trainee to carry out a lab test analyse motion using a ticker


timer and present results in motion graphs.
It is important to
understand how the
ticker-tape timer
Set-up; works, and what
First, attach a pulley to the Ticker-Tape Motion edge of the each dot means on
lab tables. Use a string to tether together the motion cart your tickertape. The
and the hanging mass. Drape the string over the pulley as first important thing
shown. This will create a system that causes the cart to to remember is that
move when you drop the hanging mass from a certain each DOT on the
height above the ground. Finally, tape a long piece of ticker tape was made
“ticker-tape” to the motion cart, and allow this tape to be 1/60th of a second
pulled through a “ticker-tape timer”. This will allow after the previous
analysis of the motion of the motion cart and give valuable DOT.
data that can be used to create a motion graph.

Information Sheet: 6.3.1.4


Introduction

By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should have the ability to perform
calculations on motion.

Page 42
Linear motion

Linear motion is the motion a straight line and the movement in a direction where
forwards is positive and backwards is negative.

Kinematics is the section of physics which studies the motions of objects without
considering the effects that produce the motion. The study generally involves the
analysis of the position of an object in relation to time. Dynamics is the section of
physics which studies the causes of motion of an object.

Distance, d and Displacement, s

Distance, d is how far a body travels during a motion without considering any
particular direction or the length of the path of an object.

Distance is a scalar quantity and the value always positive.

The unit of distance is metre (m)

Displacement, s is distance traveled in a particular direction.

Displacement, s = final position – initial position Displacement is a vector quantity


and the value can be positive and negative depend on their directions. The unit of
displacement is meter (m)

Diagram below shows the difference between distance and displacement.

Page 43
Distance = Length of the road

Displacement = Length of the line AB

If the motion in a straight line and in one direction, the magnitude of distance is same
as the magnitude of displacement.

Speed and Velocity, v


Speed is the rate of change of distance. Speed = distance travelled
Time taken

Average speed = total distance traveled


Total time taken
Speed is a scalar quantity and the value always positive.
The unit of speed is meter per second (m s-1)

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Velocity = displacement


Time taken
v=s
t
Average velocity = total displacement
Total time taken

Page 44
Velocity is a vector quantity and the value can be positive and negative depend on
their directions. The unif of velocity is meter per second (m s-1)

If an object moves in a circle with constant speed, it has different velocities at


different points along the circle because the direction and hence the velocity of the
object is always changing as shown in the following diagram.

Acceleration, a and Deceleration (Retardation)


Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Acceleration = change in velocity time taken
Acceleration = final – initial (velocity) time taken
a=v-u
t
Negative acceleration is called as deceleration (retardation)
Acceleration is a vector quantity the unit of acceleration or deceleration is
Meter per second per second (ms-2)

Extra notes
uniform = constant = same
increasing velocity = acceleration
decreasing velocity (slow down) = deceleration
zero velocity = the object is stationary (at rest)
negative velocity = the object moves in opposite direction
uniform velocity = zero acceleration
negative acceleration = deceleration
(Retardation)

Example 1
A boy walks finish the following path AB.

Page 45
Find
total distance traveled
displacement

Example 2

Page 46
Figure above shows runner runs 500 m towards east in 2 minutes and 1200m towards
north in 4 minutes.
Calculate his
average speed
average velocity

Example 3
An object accelerates uniformly along a straight line from a velocity of 10 m s-1 until
25 m s-1 in 5 s.
Calculate
the acceleration of the object
the velocity of the object during the first 10 s of motion
the time taken to reach a final velocity 50 ms-1

Page 47
Analyzing motion graphs

The motion graphs is a useful method of summarizing the motion of an object. In the graph
the nature of the motion can be seen quite clearly.

Displacement – time graphs

Gradient = Velocity

Example 1

The following figure shows displacement – time graph of an object.

Page 48
Based on the graph:

Calculate the velocity of the object between

i. AB,
ii. BC,
iii. CD

Describe the motion of the object between

i. AB
ii. BC
iii. CD
Velocity – Time graphs

Gradient = acceleration

Area under the graph = displacement

Page 49
Newton’s laws of motion

Definition of force

Force is defined as anything that changes the state of rest or motion of an object moving in a
straight line.
Force is a vector quantity which has both direction and magnitude
The S.I. unit for force is N or kg ms-2
Force is measured by using a Spring Balance

The effects of a force

A force can

i. move a stationary object


ii. stop a moving object
iii. accelerate a moving object
iv. decelerate a moving object
v. change the direction of a moving object
vi. alters the size of the object
vii. alters the shape of the object

NEWTON‘S LAWS OF MOTION

Newton’s First Law:

An object will remain at rest or continue with a constant speed in a straight line unless acted
on by an unbalanced force.

Newton’s Second Law:

The acceleration of a body, a, is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, F, and
inversely proportional to its mass, m.

Newton’s Third Law:

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The relationship between the acceleration, a, the net


force, F and the mass, m.
Based on the Newton’s Second Law of motion,
aF
a1

Page 50
we obtain aF

a=kF
m
F = k ma
In S.I. units , the definition of a force of 1 N is given as the amount of force which is applied
on a mass of 1 kg and which
causes it to experience an acceleration of 1 ms-2
Thus,

1 N = k ( 1 kg ) ( 1 ms-2 )
Thus k = 1
Therefore F = ma
Where F = net force
m = mass
a = acceleration

Self-Assessment
1. If a block moves from a height h above the ground then the work done is given by_______

a)
b)
c)

d)

2.If any external conservative force also is applied on the distributed loading then?
a) The net force will act at the centroid of the structure only
b) The net load will not be formed as all the forces will be cancelled
c) The net force will act on the base of the loading horizontally
d) The net force will not to be considered, there would be a net force of the distribution, rest
will be the external forces

3. Which object has more inertia and why? A bowling ball at rest or a high-speed soccer ball?
a. Soccer ball. Because it is moving with a high velocity
b. Soccer ball. Because it has a greater volume than the bowling ball.
c. Bowling ball. Because it is not moving
d. Bowling ball. Because it is more massive

Page 51
4. According to Newton's __________ law of motion, an object with less mass will experience
a greater acceleration if a constant force is applied to the object
a. First
b. Second
c. Third
d. Fourth

5. A 1.50 kg ball is kicked and accelerates at a rate of 4.25 m/s2. What is the force that
was applied to the ball?
a. 5.75 N
b. 2.83 N
c. 6.38 N
d. 0.353 N

5. A car accelerates from rest to 25 m s-1 in 4 s. Find the acceleration of the car.
Plan three simple experiments using objects you have test relationships between mass,
acceleration, and force.

6. Design an experiment to test the relationship between mass and acceleration. What will be
the independent variable in your experiment? What will be the dependent variable? What
controls will you put in place to ensure force is constant?

7. Design a similar experiment to test the relationship between mass and force. What will be
the independent variable in your experiment? What will be the dependent variable? What
controls will you put in place to ensure acceleration is constant?

8. Design a similar experiment to test the relationship between force and acceleration.
What will be the independent variable in your experiment? What will be the dependent
variable? Will you have any trouble ensuring that the mass is constant?

9. A construction worker accidentally knocks a brick from a building so that it falls in 4 s


to the ground. Calculate:
the velocity of the brick as it hits the ground

the distance fallen of the brick

Page 52
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Scientific Calculators Mechanical workshop

Relevant reference materials Relevant practical materials

Stationeries

References (APA)
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London

Internet, https://www.yuhuaphysics.com/notes

Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,

Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore, MD:


John Hopkins Press.

6.3.1.5 Learning Outcome No 5: Describe work, energy and power


Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 5; Describe work, energy and power

Learning Activities Special Instructions

The trainee to perform an experiment to determine the


work done on a frictionless cart and show that;
Make sure you understand
The work done is equal to the increase in kinetic energy of and have checked the
the cart; operation of the photo gate
timers.
The increase in energy of the cart is equal to the decrease in
potential energy of the falling weight that supplies the force
on the cart.
To simulate a frictionless
system, tip the track until the
cart rolls toward the pulley at
Apparatus a constant speed. (No forces
A cart accelerated along a linear track should be acting on the cart!)

A cord

Page 53
Mass

Photo gate timers spaced along the track

Information Sheet: 6.3.1.5


Introduction

By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to solve problems related to
work, energy and power.

Work
Work is said to be done when a force is applied to a body and causes it to move in the
direction of the force. If the applied force is constant, the amount of work done is measured
by the product of that force and the distance moved by the body.
Let a constant force F act on a body through a distance s. Then:
Work done = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
i.e. Work done = Fs
The unit of work is the joule (J), and this is defined as the amount of work done when a force
of one newton acts through a distance of one metre in the direction of its application.

Hence, one joule is equal to one newton metre of work. In symbols, 1 J = 1 N m.

Work done in lifting objects


When an object is lifted at a steady speed, the direct force applied to raise the object is simply
the upward ‘force to overcome the downward gravitational pull on the object, which is the
weight of the object.
The gravitational force acting on an object of mass m kg is mg newtons, where g is the
acceleration due to gravity having the value of 9.81 m/s2.

When the object is lifted through a certain height, the work done is given by the product of
the force to
overcome the downward gravitational pull and the vertical distance moved by the object.

Example 1; Find the amount of work done by a hydraulic hoist in lifting a vehicle of mass
1500 kg to a height of 2 m.

Solution
Force to overcome when lifting the vehicle
= mg
= 1500 [kg] x 9.81 [m/s2]
= 14 715 N
Work done = Force x Vertical distance moved
= 14715 [N] x 2 [m]

Page 54
= 29 430 J = 29.43 kJ
Work done in lifting vehicle = 29.43 kJ

Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work, and is measured in the same unit, i.e. the
joule (J).

It exists in many forms such as mechanical energy, electrical energy, heat energy, chemical
energy and
so on.

Potential energy (PE)


The potential energy of a body is the energy it possesses due to its position in a gravitational
field, i.e. due to its height above the ground (or any convenient reference level).
If a body of mass m kg is lifted through a vertical distance of h metres above the ground,
work is done because the body is being lifted against the gravitational force which acts on the
body.

Figure 62: Mgh

Source Zammit (1987)

Work done = Force x Vertical distance


= mg x h

Page 55
= mgh joules

This amount of work done will be stored in the body as potential energy by virtue of its
position relative to the ground. In other words, the body will be capable of doing mgh joules
of work if allowed to fall back to the ground. Thus, energy is transferred to a body when it is
lifted.
Potential energy (PE) = mgh joules

Kinetic energy (KE)


The kinetic energy of a body is the energy it possesses due to its velocity. This energy can be
made available to do work against a resistance if the moving body is brought to rest.
Kinetic energy (KE) =½mv2 joules

Where m is mass of the body in kg and v is velocity in m/s.

Work is the process by which energy is transferred to a body, and the energy thus gained by
the body could be in the form of either potential energy or kinetic energy.

Example 2; A body of mass 5 kg is supported 12 m above the ground. Determine


the potential energy possessed by the body due to its position with
respect to the ground.

Solution
PE possessed by body = mgh
where m = 5 kg; g = 9.81 m/s2 ; h = 12 m
PE = 5 x 9.81 x 12 = 588.6 J

Example 3
A motor vehicle of mass 2 tonne is travelling at 50.4 km/h. Determine the kinetic energy of
the vehicle at this speed.

Solution
KE of vehicle =½mv2
where m = 2 tonne = 2000 kg
v =50.4 km/h = 14 m/s
KE =½ x 2000 X 142 = 196000 J = 196 kJ

Principle of conservation of energy


The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. Energy can be readily converted from one form to another, but it is found that a
loss of energy in any one form is always
accompanied by an equivalent increase in another form. In all such conversions, therefore,

Page 56
the total amount of energy remains constant.

There are many cases in which the potential energy of a body is converted into kinetic energy
(and vice versa). When a motor vehicle freewheels down an incline, it gives up some of its
potential energy but at the same time, it gains an equal amount of kinetic energy. Hence, the
total energy possessed by the vehicle at any instant on ( he incline remains constant. In
practice, friction is always present and work has to be done in overcoming the frictional
resistances (this amount of work done is dissipated as heat). In such cases:

Final energy = Initial energy - Work done against friction

Let us consider again the body of mass m kg raised to the height h metres above the ground.
We have seen that the potential energy possessed by the body due to its position with respect
to the ground is mgh joules. If the body is allowed to fall freely from that height until it is just
about to strike the ground, all its available potential energy will be given up. Assuming no
external work is done on or by the body during its time of fall then, by the principle of
conservation of energy, the body will gain kinetic energy equal in amount to the initial
potential energy.

Suppose the body reaches a speed of v m/s just before contact with the ground. Then, since
energy is conserved, we may write:
KE on reaching the ground = Initial PE

Power
Power is defined as the rate of transfer of energy. If the energy transfer is in the form of
mechanical work, then:

Power = Work done


Time taken

= Force x Distance moved


Time taken
But Distance moved is the velocity of the body. Hence;
Time taken
Power = Force x Velocity = Fv

The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the rate of doing one joule of work every second.
Thus:

1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N m/s

Page 57
Example 4; A vehicle hauls a trailer at 72 km/h when exerting a steady pull of 800 N at the
tow-rope. Calculate the power required.

Solution
Power required = Force x Velocity
= F x v from equation
where F = 800 N and v = 72 km/h = 20 m/s
Power required = 800 [N] x 20 [m/s ]
= 16 000 W = 16 kW

Page 58
Self-Assessment
1.Principle of virtual work was developed by mohr. State whether the above sentence is

true or false.
a) True
b) False

2. What is the relation between work done by external loads and work done by internal
loads.
a) They are unequal
b) They are equal
c) Can’t say
d) Depends upon load

3. Dummy unit load method and virtual work method are two different approaches.
State whether the above statement is true or false.
a) True
b) False

4. The total energy of the universe is constant.


a) True
b) False

5. How much mass is converted into energy per day in Tarapur nuclear power plant operated
at 107 kW?
a) 10g
b) 9g
c) 9.6g
d) 2g

6. A machine gun fires 60 bullets per minute, with a velocity of 700m/s. If each bullet has a
mass of 50g, find the power developed by the gun.
a) 1225W
b) 12250W
c) 122.5W
d) 122W

7. For a collision to occur, the actual physical contact is necessary.


a) True
b) False

Page 59
8. Which of the following is an example for inelastic collision?
a) Collision between two vehicles
b) Collision between glass balls
c) A bullet fired into a wooden block
d) Collision between two railway compartments

9. Mud thrown on a wall and sticking to it is an example for


a) Inelastic collision
b) Elastic collision
c) Super elastic collision
d) Perfectly inelastic collision

10. Collision between two carom coins is an example for


a) Oblique collision
b) Perfectly inelastic collision
c) Inelastic collision
d) Elastic collision

11. The maximum fluctuation of speed is the


a) difference of minimum fluctuation of speed and the mean speed
b) difference of the maximum and minimum speeds
c) sum of the maximum and minimum speeds
d) variations of speed above and below the mean resisting torque line

12. The coefficient of fluctuation of speed is the _________ of maximum fluctuation of


speed and the mean speed.
a) product
b) ratio
c) sum
d) difference

13. In a turning moment diagram, the variations of energy above and below the mean
resisting torque line is called
a) fluctuation of energy
b) maximum fluctuation of energy
c) coefficient of fluctuation of energy
d) none of the mentioned

14. If E = Mean kinetic energy of the flywheel, CS = Coefficient of fluctuation of speed


and Δ E = Maximum fluctuation of energy, then
a) ΔE = E / CS
b) ΔE = E2 × CS
c) ΔE = E × CS
d) ΔE = 2 E × CS

Page 60
15. List four forms in which energy can exist, illustrating your answer by reference to the
energy forms at work in the welding workshop.
16. Calculate the work done when a casting is moved 15 m along a workshop floor by a
force of 3.5 kN.

17. In a drop-forging operation, the top die and its holder, which have a combined mass of
50 kg, fall freely on to the bottom die. Calculate:
i. the kinetic energy of the top die just before striking the bottom die if its velocity at that
instant is 7.8 m/s
ii. the height through which the top die has fallen

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Scientific Calculators Mechanical workshop

Relevant reference materials Relevant practical materials

Stationeries

References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London

Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,

Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore, MD:


John Hopkins Press.

Page 61
6.3.1.6 Learning Outcome No 6: Perform machine calculations
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6; Perform machine calculations

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Trainee to carry out an experiment in the workshop on a


simple lifting machine to find the effort P required to
overcome a load W and plot a graph of P against W for the Safety precautions need to
various load values obtained to determine the relationship be adhered to where lifting
between the effort and the load. in the workshop

Information Sheet: 6.3.1.6


Introduction

A simple machine is a device which enables a small force (the effort) acting at a point to
overcome a large force (the load) acting at some other point. Examples of simple machines
are pulley systems, screw jacks, gear systems and levers. By the end of this learning outcome,
the trainee should be able to perform simple machine calculations.

Terms used in simple machine theory

Force ratio or mechanical advantage


A machine is usually designed so that the load is overcome by means of a considerably
smaller effort.
The ratio of the load to the effort is called the force ratio or the mechanical advantage of the
machine. Hence:

Mechanical advantage (MA) = Load


Effort
Since mechanical advantage is a ratio of two forces, it has no units and is only a number
which varies with the load.

Movement ratio or velocity ratio


The ratio of the distance moved by the effort to that moved by the load (in the same time) is
called the movement ratio or the velocity ratio of the machine. Hence:

Page 62
Velocity ratio (VR) = Distance moved by effort
Distance moved by load

Velocity ratio is a dimensionless quantity.


The velocity ratio depends solely upon the construction of the machine, and is constant for
any particular machine.

It can be found experimentally simply by moving the machine and measuring the distances
moved by the points of application of the effort and the load and dividing the former by the
latter, or it can be determined by
calculation from the relevant details or dimensions of the machine.

Efficiency of a machine
The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the useful work done by the machine to
the actual work put into the machine. Thus:

Efficiency = Work output


Work input

or Efficiency = Work done on load


Work done by effort

A useful relationship exists between mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency.

Since work done = force x distance, then;

Efficiency = Load x Distance moved by load


Effort x Distance moved by effort

= Load x Distance moved by load

Effort x Distance moved by effort

= Mechanical advantage

Velocity ratio

Page 63
The efficiency is usually stated as a percentage, and the above expression should therefore be
multiplied by 100 to give a percentage value.
It should be noted that since the velocity ratio of a given machine is constant, the efficiency is
directly proportional to the mechanical advantage.

The law of a machine


If an experiment is carried out on a simple machine to find the effort CP) required to
overcome a load ( W ) and a graph of P against W is plotted for various load values, then a
straight line graph, similar to that shown in figure below, would be obtained. The relationship
between the effort P and the load W is therefore of the form:

P=aW+b

where a and b are constants whose value depends on the particular machine concerned. This
equation is called the law of the machine.

After it has been determined by experiment, it can then be used to estimate the effort which
would be required to raise any load on the machine.

The value of the constant b represents the effort required to overcome the frictional
resistances when there is no load on the machine, and is the intercept on the effort-load graph.
The value of the constant a is the slope of the effort-load graph ( V/H), and depends on the
mechanical advantage of the machine.

Page 64
Limiting efficiency of a machine

The mechanical advantage of a machine varies with the load, but the velocity ratio is constant
and cannot be altered without making a change to the arrangement of the machine. Since
efficiency is obtained by dividing the mechanical advantage by the velocity ratio, it follows
that efficiency will depend upon the load; in fact, it will be found to increase with increase of
load. However, this increase in efficiency with load does not continue indefinitely, and a
limiting efficiency is eventually reached.

Levers

A lever is a simple machine which operates on the principle of moments. It is simply a rigid
bar, straight or cranked, which can be turned about a pivot or fulcrum. The lever may be
either one of three types or ‘orders’, depending on the relative positions of the fulcrum, the
load and the effort.

A lever of the first order has the fulcrum situated between the effort and the load, as shown in
Fig. (a).

A lever of the second order has the load placed between the fulcrum and the effort, as shown
in Fig. (b).

A lever of the third order has the effort applied between the fulcrum and the load, as shown in
Fig. (c)

In all cases, if the lever is in equilibrium, the clockwise moment about the fulcrum is equal to
the anticlockwise moment about the same point.

Effort x a = Load x b

⸫ Load = a = Mechanical advantage

Effort b

Page 65
Figure 59: Levers

Source: Zammit (1987)

Page 66
Self-Assessment
1. Mechanical advantage is the ratio of effort to load.
a) True
b) False

2. Leverage is the ratio of load arm to effort arm.


a) True
b) False
Answer: b
Explanation: Leverage is the ratio of effort arm to load arm.

3. The distance between fulcrum and dead weights is 100mm. Dead weights are of 2945.2N.
An effort of 294.52N acts on the other hand. Find the distance between the fulcrum and
other end of the lever.
a) 1000mm
b) 100mm
c) 10mm
d) 10000mm

4. A right angled bell-crank is designed to raise a load of 5kN at short arm whose length is
100mm. Longer arm is of length 500mm. Calculate the reaction or force acting on the
fulcrum.
a) 5.1
b) 5.8
c) 6.1
d) 6.8

5. A right angled bell-crank is designed to raise a load of 5kN at short arm whose length is
100mm. Also longer arm is of length 500mm. If permissible bearing pressure on pin is
10N/mm² and diameter of the 20mm, find the length of the pin.
a) 35.5mm
b) 25.5mm
c) 20mm
d) 30mm

6. A right angled bell-crank is designed to raise a load of 5kN at short arm whose length is
100mm. Also longer arm is of length 500mm. If permissible bearing pressure on pin is
10N/mm² and diameter of the 20mm, find the shear stress in the pin.
a) 8.12
b) 8.51
c) 9.12
d) 9.51

Page 67
7. How many classes of levers are there?
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5

8. A bottle opener belongs to which class of the levers.


a) Effort in the middle
b) Fulcrum in the middle
c) Resistance in the middle
d) None of the mentioned

9. Fulcrum can be located at one end of the lever.


a) True
b) False

10. Give reasons why the efficiency of a machine can never be 100 per cent.
11. During an experiment on a lifting machine, the following values of the effort P to lift a
load W were recorded:

i. Plot these values to show that the law of the machine is of the form P = aW + b, and
determine suitable values for the constants a, and b.
ii. For each load, calculate the mechanical advantage and the efficiency of the machine.
Plot the graphs of mechanical advantage and efficiency on a base of load. The velocity
ratio of the machine is 32.

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
 Scientific Calculators  Mechanical workshop
 Relevant reference materials  Relevant practical materials
 Stationeries

References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London

Page 68
6.3.1.7 Learning Outcome No 7: Demonstrate gas principles
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7; Demonstrate gas principles

Learning Activities Special Instructions

The trainee to construct a simple mercury barometer in Precautions on Boyle’s Law:


the laboratory.
After changing the pressure of
the trapped air wait a minute or
two before reading the pressure
or volume, to allow the air to
reach room temperature.

When reading volume make sure


your eye is level with the
Mercury Meniscus.

Make sure air is connected


tightly to oil reservoir inlet.

If a hand suction pump is


available you will be able to
reduce the pressure of the gas
below atmospheric pressure. You
can then take a future series of
values of p and V include them
in the table and graph.

Source: Rajput (2000)


Precautions on Charles’s Law;

The trainee to carry out an experiment to verify Boyle’s Be sure that the Erlenmeyer flask
law together with the clamp around
its neck can be easily removed
from the rest of the assembly.

Apparatus;

A Boyle’s Law Apparatus,

Air Pump,

Hand Vacuum Pump.

273

Page 69
Source: Hurlow and lake (1969)

The trainee to carry out an experiment to verify


Charles’s law

Page 70
Apparatus;

Clean paper towel

Erlenmeyer flask.

Marking pen

beaker

wire gauze

tripod and clamp

Bunsen burner

Page 71
Information Sheet: 6.3.1.7
Introduction

By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to apply gas principles in
engineering systems.

Certain important laws governing the behaviour of perfect gases under varying conditions of
temperature and pressure have been established from experimental results.

Pressure of a gas

Any quantity of a gas, if placed into a vessel of larger volume than itself, will at once fill
every part of the vessel. The rapidly moving molecules of the gas continually collide with the
walls of its container and produce forces distributed all over the inside of the vessel.

The amount of the force exerted on unit area of the surface of the container is defined as the
pressure of the gas.

The unit of pressure is the newton per square metre (N/m2).

This unit has a special name, the pascal (symbol Pa).

An alternative unit of pressure in the bar, where:

1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa

Atmospheric pressure

The earth’s atmosphere above its surface exerts a pressure due to the mass of air. At sea level
atmospheric pressure is about 101.3 kPa (101.3 kN/m2 or 1.013 bar). Atmospheric pressure
decreases with altitude Atmospheric pressure varies slightly from day to day and is recorded
by means of a barometer in which the height of a column of mercury is used as a measure of
the pressure.

Gas laws

Boyle's law

Boyle’s law gives the relationship between pressure and volume of a quantity of gas under
constant temperature conditions. It states that:
‘The absolute pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely as its volume when the
temperature of the gas remains constant.’

Page 72
Thus, if the absolute pressure of a given mass of gas is doubled, its volume is halved, or if the
absolute pressure is halved, the volume will be doubled.
Hence, if p = absolute pressure of gas
and V = volume of gas
then, Boyle’s law may be expressed as follows:

p α 1

⸫ p = 1xC

Or pV = C, a constant.

Charles' law

Charles’ law gives the relationship between volume and temperature of a quantity of gas
when the pressure is kept constant. It states that:
‘The volume of a given mass of gas varies directly as it thermodynamic or absolute
temperature when the pressure is kept constant’.
Thus, at double the absolute temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is doubled; at
three times the absolute temperature, the volume is trebled, and so on.
Hence, if V = volume of gas

and T = absolute temperature of gas

then, Charles’ law may be expressed as follows:

VαT
V=TxC

or V =C, a constant

V1 = V2

Page 73
T1 T2

It should here be emphasized that in problems dealing with the gas laws, all temperatures
must be converted to absolute temperatures.

Thus, if Ɵ is the temperature of the gas in degrees Celsius and T the absolute temperature in
kelvins, then;

T K = Ɵ °C + 273

The general gas equation

A given mass of gas may undergo simultaneous changes in pressure, volume and
temperature. When this change occurs in the state of the gas, neither Boyle’s law, which
assumes constant temperature, nor Charles’ law, which assumes alteration of temperature
with constant pressure, can be applied. However, this change of state may be regarded as
taking place in two stages:
(1) a change according to Boyle’s law; and
(2) a change according to Charles’ law.
The resulting change will then be according to the laws of Boyle and Charles combined.

The combination of Boyle’s and Charles’ laws, is known as the general gas equation. It may
be expressed in the form:

pV = C, a constant

Pressure law

The pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly as its thermodynamic or absolute
temperature when the volume is kept constant.
This is exactly analogous with the volume change with temperature at constant pressure, and
can therefore be applied to pressure changes at constant volume in a similar manner to the
volume changes at constant pressure.

Page 74
Self-Assessment
1. A mole of a substance has a mass equal to the molecular weight of the substance.
a) true
b) false

1. According to Avogadro’s law, volume of a g mol of all gases at the pressure of ____ and
temperature of ____ is same.
a) 760 mm Hg, 100 degree Celsius
b) 760 mm Hg, 0 degree Celsius
c) 750 mm Hg, 100 degree Celsius
d) 750 mm Hg, 0 degree Celsius

2. At NTP, the volume of a g mol of all gases is(in litres)


a) 22.1
b) 22.2
c) 22.3
d) 22.4

3. Which of the following statement is true?


a) number of kg moles of a gas = mass / molecular weight
b) molar volume = total volume of the gas / number of kg moles
c) both of the mentioned
d) none of the mention

4. The equation of state is a functional relationship between


a) pressure
b) molar or specific volume
c) temperature
d) all of the mentioned

5. If two properties (out of p,v,T) of a gas are known, the third can be evaluated.
a) true
b) false

6. Which of the following statement is true about a gas?


a) lim(pv) with p tending to 0 is independent of the nature of gas
b) lim(pv) with p tending to 0 depends only on the temperature
c) this holds true for all the gases
d) all of the mentioned

7. Universal gas constant is given by


a) lim(pv) / 273.16
b) R

Page 75
c) 0.083 litre-atm/gmol K
d) all of the mentioned

8. The equation of state of a gas is lim(pv)=RT .


a) true
b) false

9. For which of the following gases, does the product (pv) when plotted against p gives
depends only on temperature?
a) nitrogen
b) hydrogen
c) air and oxygen
d) all of the mentioned

10. For the ideal gas equation, what assumptions are made?
a) there is little or no attraction between the molecules of the gas
b) the volume occupied by the molecules is negligibly small compared to the volume of
the gas
c) both of the mentioned
d) none of the mentioned

11. When does a real gas obey the ideal gas equation closely?
a) at high pressure and low temperature
b) at low pressure and high temperature
c) at low pressure and temperature
d) at high pressure and temperature

12. The real gases deviate from the ideal gas equation when the pressure increases.
a) true
b) false

13. The corrected gas equation is given by


a) (p+a/(v2))(v+b)=RT
b) (p-a/(v2))(v-b)=RT
c) (p-a/(v2))(v+b)=RT
d) (p+a/(v2))(v-b)=RT

14. A given mass of gas is enclosed in a vessel. Explain briefly how the pressure measured
at the wall of the vessel is produced by the gas molecules.
15. Describe a laboratory experiment to verify Boyle’s law. Include a sketch of the
apparatus used.
16. Describe a laboratory experiment to verity Charles’ law. Include a sketch of the
apparatus used.

Page 76
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome

 Scientific Calculators  Mechanical workshop


 Relevant reference materials  Relevant practical materials
 Stationeries

References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London

Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,

Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore, MD:


John Hopkins Press.

6.3.1.8 Learning Outcome No 8: Apply heat knowledge


Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 8; Apply heat knowledge

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Trainee to carry out an experiment to determine the specific Measured quantities should
heat capacity of a solid by the method of mixtures. be repeated and averaged
Equipment/ Materials/ Apparatus
The calorimeter should be
Solid (e.g. metal ball) of reasonable size kept in its insulating
jacket.
Calorimeter with an insulation, outer jacket and stirrer
Thermal equilibrium
Thermometer (reading up to 0.1oC) should be achieved before
Heater the final temperature is
taken.
Thread
Water should be collected
Sensitive balance and placed near
calorimeter 1hour before
Beaker
the experiment in order to

Page 77
Experimental Setup for determining the specific heat capacity ensure the same
of a metal ball. temperature.

Information Sheet: 6.3.1.8


Introduction

By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should have the ability to solve simple
problems on heat energy.

Thermometer

Solid

Water

Outer jacket

Heat

Heat energy

When a body is capable of doing work, it is said to possess energy. Heat is one form of
energy and, therefore, it provides this capacity for doing work.

Heat can be defined as that kind of energy which is transferred from one body to another
when there is a temperature difference between them.

Unit of heat energy

Since heat is a form of energy then, in common with all other types of energy, it is measured
in joules (J). The joule is a small unit and in practice, kilojoules (kJ), or even megajoules
(MJ), are often used as the unit of heat energy.

1 MJ = 105 kJ = 106 J

Page 78
Temperature

Temperature is the term used to refer to the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin, (K) and the derived unit is the degree Celsius (°C) .
1°C = 1K of temperature difference.
Kelvin temperature = Celsius temperature + 273; i.e. K=°C+273

Specific heat capacity

The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K is called


the specific heat capacity of the substance.
This is denoted by c.
The basic unit for specific heat capacity is the joule per kilogram kelvin (J/kg K).
The quantity of heat given out or received by a substance is equal to the product of the mass
of the substance, the specific heat capacity of the substance and its change in temperature.
Hence, if m = mass of substance, in kilograms
c = specific heat capacity, in J/kg K
σT = change in temperature, in kelvins
Q = quantity of heat given out or received, in joules
then Q = m x c x σT

Sensible heat

This is the heat energy which when given to a substance causes a temperature rise. When a
susbstance cools, sensible heat has been withdrawn from it.

Heat energy transfer


Heat may be transferred from a hot body to a cooler body in one or more of the following
ways;

Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Conduction
Conduction of heat takes place between bodies in actual contact, if they are at different
temperatures.
Convection
Convection is the conveyance of heat by the actual movement of a hot fluid which may be a
liquid or a gas.

Page 79
Radiation
Radiation is the transmission of heat by wave or vibratory motion in the space between the
source and the body on which waves impinge.

Expansion
Most substances expand when they are heated and contract when cooled. With solids, we are
usually concerned with their linear expansion, whereas with liquids we are concerned with
their change in volume.

Trainee to do more reading on linear expansion from Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle
engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK Ltd, London, page 215.

Self-Assessment
1. The transfer of heat between a wall and a fluid system in motion is called
a) radiation
b) convection
c) conduction
d) none of the mentioned

2. For solids and liquids, specific heat


a) depends on the process
b) is independent of the process
c) may or may not depend on the process
d) none of the mentioned

3. The specific heat of the substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise a unit
mass of the substance through a unit rise in temperature.
a) true
b) false

4. Heat and work are


a) path functions
b) inexact differentials
c) depend upon the path followed
d) all of the mentioned

5. Latent heat is taken at


a) constant temperature
b) constant pressure
c) both of the mentioned
d) none of the mentioned

Page 80
6. The sun shines on a 150 m2 road surface so it is at 45°C. Below the 5cm thick asphalt
(average conductivity of 0.06 W/m K), is a layer of rubbles at 15°C. Find the rate of heat
transfer to the rubbles.
a) 5300 W
b) 5400 W
c) 5500 W
d) 5600 W

7. A pot of steel (conductivity 50 W/m K), with a 5 mm thick bottom is filled with liquid
water at 15°C. The pot has a radius of 10 cm and is now placed on a stove that delivers
250 Was heat transfer. Find the temperature on the outer pot bottom surface assuming the
inner surface to be at 15°C.
a) 15.8°C
b) 16.8°C
c) 18.8°C
d) 19.8°C

8. A water-heater is covered with insulation boards over a total surface area of 3 m2. The
inside board surface is at 75°C and the outside being at 20°C and the conductivity of
material being 0.08 W/m K. Find the thickness of board to limit the heat transfer loss to
200 W ?
a) 0.036 m
b) 0.046 m
c) 0.056 m
d) 0.066 m

9. On a winter day with atmospheric air at −15°C, the outside front wind-shield of a car has
surface temperature of +2°C, maintained by blowing hot air on the inside surface. If the
wind-shield is 0.5 m2 and the outside convection coefficient is 250 W/Km2, find the rate
of energy loss through front wind-shield.
a) 125 W
b) 1125 W
c) 2125 W
d) 3125 W

10. A large heat exchanger transfers a total of 100 MW. Assume the wall separating steam
and seawater is 4 mm of steel, conductivity 15 W/m K and that a maximum of 5°C
difference between the two fluids is allowed. Find the required minimum area for the heat
transfer.
a) 180 m2
b) 280 m2
c) 380 m2
d) 480 m2

Page 81
11. The transfer of heat between two bodies in direct contact is called
a) radiation
b) convection
c) conduction
d) none of the mentioned

12. Heat flow into a system is taken to be ____, and heat flow out of the system is taken as
____
a) positive, positive
b) negative, negative
c) negative, positive
d) positive, negative

13. In the equation, dQ=TdX


a) dQ is an inexact differential
b) dX is an exact differential
c) X is an extensive property
d) all of the mentioned

Answer: d
Explanation: This is because heat transfer is a path function.

14. Describe briefly an experiment that you have carried out in the laboratory to determine the
specific heat capacity of a metal by the method of mixtures.
15. Calculate the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 3 kg of copper
from 25 °C to 75 °C if the specific heat capacity is 390 J/kg K.
16. Conduct an experiment to determine specific heat capacity of a solid metal block using
various methods

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
 Scientific Calculators  Mechanical workshop
 Relevant reference materials  Relevant practical materials
 Stationeries

References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London

Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Page 82
Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,

Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore, MD:


John Hopkins Press.

Page 83
6.3.1.9 Learning Outcome No 9: Apply density knowledge
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 9; Apply density knowledge

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Definition of density
Activity: Determine the Density of a Gas for various materials

A gas can be compressed so the density of a gas changes.

Place a beaker inside a bath filled with water so that the beaker is
about ½ filled with water and the other ½ air.
(you might have to let some air out by tilting the beaker.)
Add water to the bath.
What happens to the water level inside the beaker?
Has any air escaped the beaker? Has the amount of air inside the
beaker changed?
What happens to the density of the air inside the beaker when
you add the water?

Information Sheet: 6.3.1.9


Introduction

By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should have the ability to solve simple
problems on density.

Density is the mass per unit volume of material,

i.e. density = mass


volume
SI unit: kg/m3

The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 or 1 g/cm3 and 1 kg of water has a volume of 10-3 m 3
(1 dm3 or 1 litre).

Relative density or specific gravity of a substance is the ratio:

density of substance
density of water
Since it is a ratio, relative density has no units.

Page 84
Example 1; A small component has a mass of 22 kg, and its volume is found to be 2000 cm3.
Determine the density of the material.

Solution

Volume = 2000 x 10-6 m3


Density = mass = 22 kg
volume 2000 x 10-6 m3

= 11 x 103 = 11 000 kg/m3 = 11 g/cm3

Example 2; An oil has a density of 850 kg/m3. What will be the mass of 50 litres?

Solution

Volume of oil = 50 litre = 50 x 10-3 m3


Mass = volume x density
= 50 xl0 m x 850 kg/m3
-3 3

= 42,500 x10-3 kg
= 42.5 kg

Self-Assessment

1.A cube of ice is floating on water surface and when it completely melts, the level of water
would _______
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remains unchanged
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: c
Explanation: There is no change in the volume of the water as the space occupied by the ice
inside the water body is filled with it.

2.An object is once immersed in oil and once in water. The loss in weight would be
a) More in water
b) More in oil
c) Equal in both oil and water

Page 85
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: b
Explanation: Density of oil is more than water so there will be more buoyancy force.

3.Volume of the petroleum products changes with temperature so __________ is used to


measure specific gravity.
a) Density
b) Specific volume
c) API gravity
d) None of the mentioned

Answer: c
Explanation: Volume of the petroleum products changes with temperature so API gravity
is used to measure specific gravity.

4. ___________ is measured in Hydrometer scale.


a) API gravity
b) Specific gravity
c) Density
d) None of the mentioned

5. If a block has dimensions 6 x 8 x 9 cm and the specific gravity is 2.3.


What is the density?
a) 2.3 gm/cm3
b) 0.256 gm/cm3
c) 2.659 gm/cm3
d) .00568 gm/cm3

6. What is the mass of the block?


a) 99.36 Kg
b) 9.996 Kg
c) 0.9936 Kg
d) None of the mentioned

7. A substance has a mass of 20 kg and volume of 40 m3. The specific gravity of the
substance is 0.80 kg/cm3. What is the reference density (Kg/m3)?
a) 0.25
b) 0.50
c) 0.75
d) 1.00
8. Answer: a
Explanation: Specific gravity = density of the substance / Reference density.

Page 86
9. A material have a mass of 2 gms and volume of 4 cm3. The material would _____ on
water surface.
a) Completely Float
b) Completely Sink
c) Partially Sink
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b
Explanation: Specific gravity of the material is less than one.

10. A liquid is filled in a cylinder of height 5 cm. mass of the filled liquid is 40 gms.
Specific gravity of the liquid is
a) 10 gm/cm3
b) 20 gm/cm3
c) 30 gm/cm3
d) 40 gm/cm3

11. A block of wood has a mass of 8 g and occupies a volume of 10 cm3. What is its
density?
12. A certain oil has a density of 860 kg/m3. Find the mass of 2.5 litres of the oil.
13. Determine the mass of a lead plate having a volume of 2500 cm3, if the density of
lead is 11.4 g/cm3.
14. Design an experiment for determining density the goal of this experiment is to
determine the density of a small white ball of unknown composition. Available
equipment: Small white ball, graduated cylinder, beaker, water, meter stick, string,
digital balance.

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Scientific Calculators Mechanical workshop

Relevant reference material Relevant practical material

Stationeries

References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London
Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,
Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore, MD:
John Hopkins Press.

Page 87
6.3.1.10 Learning Outcome No 10: Apply pressure principles
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 10; Apply pressure principles

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Definition of pressure to
different materials
Activities; In the workshop, the trainee is to do two
experiments involving Archimedes’ principle involving metal
block submerged in water and

Equipment: Vertical long rod, clamp, force sensor, metal


block + string, plastic beaker, balance plastic cup, small
weight, He tank (machine shop), water.

Information Sheet: 6.3.1.10


Introduction

By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to solve simple problems on
pressure.

Liquids and gases exist in abundance on earth. The existence of life is intimately related to
the characteristics of matter in these phases. So consequently, the physics of liquids and gases
is not just another topic but is basic to life itself.

Page 88
A fluid is either a gas or a liquid
Liquids are nearly incompressible whereas gas is easily compressed

Pressure is the amount of force per unit area upon which the force acts,

i.e. pressure = force

area

SI units; N/m2, sometimes called pascal (Pa); another useful unit is the bar (bar or b).

1N/m2=1Pa

1 bar = 105 N/m2

= 10 N/cm2

1 atm = 1.01325 x 105 Pa

1 psi = 6.89 x 103 Pa

• Measuring device: fluid pushes against “spring”, deduce force from displacement
• Pressure exists at all points, not just walls (like tension in string)
• Pressure is same in all directions at a point
• Pressure increases with depth in liquid (not in gas)

Causes of Pressure
• Difference in pressure between liquids and gases due to (in) compressibility
• compare 2 jars containing mercury liquid and gas: without gravity (outer space) and with
gravity
• 2 contributions to pressure:
(i) Gravitational: fluid pulled down, exerts forces on bottom and side
(ii) Thermal: collisions of gas molecules with walls

Pressure in Gases
• For lab. -size container, gravitational contribution negligible  pressure is same at all
points
• increases with density (more collisions with wall)

Atmospheric pressure

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• Density decreases as we go away from earth’s surface  atmospheric pressure decreases•
At sea-level: 101, 300 Pa = 1 atm. (not SI unit)

• Fluid exerts pressure in all directions net force = 0 (“sucking” force due to no air on one
side)

Pressure in liquids

• Gas fills entire container (compressible) vs. liquid fills bottom, exerting force: gravitational
contribution dominant

• Pressure at depth d (assuming density constant: not for gas):

mg + p0A = pA

m = ρA

p = p0 + ρgd

Connected liquid rises to same height in all open regions of container

Pressure same at all points on horizontal line

Pascal’s principle: change in pressure same at all points;

p = p0 + ρgd → p1 = p1 +ρgd

(change in pressure at surface)

⇒ ∆p = p1 − p0 for all d

Measuring Pressure

• Manometer (for gas pressure):

• Barometer (for atmospheric pressure)

1 atm. = 101.3 k Pa h = 760 mm of mercury

Hydraulic Lift

• Use pressurized liquids for work (based on Pascal’s principle): increase pressure at one
point by pushing piston...at another point, piston can push upward

Page 90
Buoyancy: Archimedes’ principle

• Buoyant force: upward force of a fluid

• Buoyant force, FB = weight of displaced fluid, ρfVf g

Trainees are encouraged to do further reading on fluids and pressure.

Self-Assessment
1. If the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 7.5 N/cm2, determine the pressure at a height
of 3000m assuming the pressure variation follows isothermal law. The density of air is
given as 1.2 km/m3.
a) 4.68 N/cm2
b) 9.37 N/cm2
c) 2.34 N/cm2
d) None of the mentioned

2. The barometric pressure at sea level is 760 mm of Mercury while that on a mountain top
is 715 mm. If the density of air is assumed constant at 1.2 kg/m3 , what is the elevation
of the mountain top?
a) 510 m
b) 1020 m
c) 255 m
d) 128 m

3. Calculate the pressure at a height of 6500m above the sea level if the atmospheric
pressure is 10.145 N/cm2 and temperature is 25℃ assuming air is incompressible. Take
density of air as 1.2 kg/m3. Neglect variation of g.
a) 4.98 N/cm2
b) 2.49 N/cm2
c) 1.24 N/cm2
d) None of the mentioned

4. Calculate the pressure of air at a height of 3500m from sea level where pressure and
temperature of air are 10 N/cm2 and 25℃ respectively. The temperature lapse rate is
given as 0.0065 ℃ /m. Take density of air at sea level equal to 1.2 kg/m3.
a) 19.7 N/cm2
b) 9.85 N/cm2
c) 4.93 N/cm2
d) 6.24 N/cm2

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5. Pressure variation for compressible fluid is maximum for which kind of process?
a) Isothermal
b) Adiabatic
c) Quasi Static
d) None of the mentioned

6. Why can’t the density be assumed as constant for compressible fluids?


a) It shows variation with temperature and pressure
b) It remains constant with temperature and pressure
c) It becomes almost constant at very high temperature
d) None of the mentioned

7. If your mass is 70 kg and the total area of the soles of your feet is 0.2 m2, what
pressure would you exert on the ground?
8. If the density of sea water is ρ = 1, 030 kg m−3, what is the pressure at 10 m below
sea level?
9. Perform and experiment to show that pressure in liquids increases with depth

Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome

 Scientific Calculators  Mechanical workshop


 Relevant reference materials  Relevant practical materials
 Stationeries

References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow

Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London

Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,

Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore, MD:


John Hopkins Press.

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