Mechanical Science Principles Lecture Notes Guide Ldsm04
Mechanical Science Principles Lecture Notes Guide Ldsm04
This unit is a common unit that lays foundation to acquire knowledge, skill and
competence required in welding and fabrication. The resources required to implement
this unit of competence includes but not limited to; access to relevant workplace or
appropriately simulated environment, measuring tools and equipment and sample
materials. The trainee is expected to apply mechanical science principles in their field
of work.
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6.3.1.1 Learning Outcome No 1: Determine forces in a system
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 1: Determine forces in a system
Fig. 1.1
Fix the paper sheet with drawing pin on the board set in a vertical
plane such that it should be parallel to the edge of board.
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Pass one thread over the pulleys carrying a pan at its each end.
Take a second thread and tie its one end at the middle of the first
thread and tie a pan at its other end.
Add weights in the pan in such a manner that the small knot
comes approximately in the centre.
Remove the paper from the board and produce the line to meet at
O.
and CA.
Select a suitable scale and draw the line ab parallel to force P and
cut it equal to the magnitude of P. From b draw the line bc
parallel to force Q and cut it equal to the magnitude of Q (Fig.
1.2).
Percentage error =
Graphical Method
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(a) Space diagram (b) Vector diagram
Analytical Method
Graphical Method
Fig. 1.3, cut OA=P and OB=Q in suitable scale. From A draw AC
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OBSERVATION
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to determine forces in
an engineering system.
Definition of force
Force changes or tends to change a body’s state of rest or state of uniform motion in a
straight line.
Magnitude
Point of application
Force is a vector quantity since it possesses both magnitude and direction. It can be
represented by a straight line drawn to scale from the point of application along the
line of action of the force. An arrowhead is used to indicate the direction of the force.
Equilibrium
When two or more forces act at a point and are so arranged to balance each other, the
forces are said to be in equilibrium.
Resultant
The resultant of a number of forces acting at a point is that single force which would
have the same effect if it replaced those forces.
Equilibrant
The equilibrant is a single force which, if added to a system of forces acting at a point,
would produce equilibrium. The equilibrant neutralizes the other forces. The
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equilibrant is equal in magnitude and direction, but opposite in sense to the resultant.
Coplanar forces
These are forces which are all acting in the same plane.
Concurrent forces
These are forces whose lines of action meet at the same point.
Forces Theorems
Parallelogram of forces
If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant will be represented in both
magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that point.
This is known as the parallelogram of forces rule,
which is a graphical means of determining the resultant of two forces acting at a point.
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Figure 59: Vector force diagram
Example 1. The forces on a cutting tool are 2600 N vertically downward and 2100 N
horizontally. Determine the resultant force acting on the tool and the angle at which it
acts.
Solution:
Choose a suitable scale and draw the vectors representing the forces acting at a point.
Complete the parallelogram.
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Resultant: Draw the diagonal through the point and measure it.
Resultant = 3340 N
Measure the angle of inclination to the horizontal with a protractor.
Angle at which resultant acts = 51° 5' to horizontal.
Triangle of forces
If three coplanar forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle taken in order. This is known as the
triangle of forces rule.
The words ‘taken in order’ mean that the direction of the forces follow each other
round each side of the triangle in either a clockwise or an anticlockwise order.
Suppose three forces, F\, F2 and F3, acting at a point O, are in equilibrium and
suppose the lines of action of these three forces to be as shown in the space diagram,
Fig. ( a) below.
The corresponding force (vector) diagram is shown, in Fig. (b) Which must be drawn
accurately to a suitable scale so that the sides of the triangle represent the magnitude
and direction of the three forces.
The sense of direction of each force is indicated by the arrowhead placed on the
respective vector.
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In the example above, notice that the force diagram has been drawn by taking the
forces in a clockwise cyclic order around the point O.
Solution;
The space diagram showing the load and the directions of the unknown forces
(tensions) in the ropes is drawn to a suitable scale e.g. 1 cm = 0.2 m, and the spaces
between the forces around the junction O are lettered in accordance with Bow’s
notation.
The force diagram, is drawn to a suitable scale e.g. 1 cm = 200 N and is constructed
as follows:
Draw vector ab vertically and 10 cm long to represent the magnitude and direction of
the force AB of 2000 N exerted by the load. Since the system is in equilibrium, the
vector triangle of forces must close.
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Hence, from b draw a line parallel to the line of action of force BC, and from a draw
another line parallel to the line of action of force CA so that the two lines meet at c.
Insert arrowheads in order round the triangle, as shown.
The magnitude of the forces BC and CA (i.e. the tensions in the ropes OX and OY)
can be found by measuring the sides be and caf respectively, of the vector triangle of
forces and multiplying by the scale factor.
Bow’s notation
Bow’s notation is a system that ensures that the forces are taken in order.
The spaces between the forces in the space diagram are lettered with capital letters. A
force is then identified by the spaces to it, lower-case letters being used.
When the force diagram is drawn, the forces are drawn in order, going around the
point through which they act in a clockwise or an anticlockwise direction.
As each vector is drawn it is lettered so that the order of the letters will give the
direction in which the force acts on the body.
Polygon of forces
The polygon of forces rule is an extension of the triangle of forces rule. It states that,
if four or more coplanar forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in order.
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Source: Zammit (1987)
If a system of several coplanar forces meets at a point and that system is not in
equilibrium, then the polygon does not close and the force required to produce
equilibrium in the system is represented by the vector which joins the open ends of
the incomplete polygon.
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Source Zammit (1987)
In the figure above, the equilibrant is represented by the vector a'a (dotted), its
direction being taken from a ' to a. Notice that the resultant of the force system is
represented by the same vector, but its direction
is from a to a’.
Solution;
Using Bow’s notation, put capital letters in the spaces between the forces in the space
diagram, as shown in figure above.
Taking a suitable scale, say 1 cm represent 1 N, draw the force diagram, as shown if
figure below.
Start by drawing vector ab 4 cm long, parallel to and in the same direction as force
AB in the space diagram. Continue by drawing, in the same order, vectors be (8 cm
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long), cd (7 cm long) and da' (5 cm long) parallel to forces BC, CD and DA
respectively, as shown. Join aa’.
Then the vector aa' , taken in the sense from a to a’ , represents the resultant force. By
measurement, this is found to be 8.5 N acting in the direction 58° to the vertical, as
shown in the force diagram, figure below.
Self-Assessment
1. Which one of the following is not the condition for the equilibrium in three
dimensional system of axis.
a) ∑Fx=0 b) ∑Fy=0 c) ∑Fz=0 d) ∑F≠0
2 We first make equilibrium equations and then the free body diagram and then
solve the question.
a) True b) False
3. In the diagram given below, coordinates of D is (1, -2, 2), C (-2, 0, 0) and B are
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as shown. The dark region is the cables holding the weight of 600N at the origin.
4 In the diagram given below, coordinates of D is (1, -2, 2), C (-2, 0, 0) and B are as
shown. The dark region is the cables holding the weight of 600N at origin. Find the
tension in the AB section.
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900N b) 693N c) 646 N d) 0N
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5 Find the tension in the cable AC.
23.6N b) 55 N c) 89 N d) 29 N
6. Determine the value of the q, parallel to the z-axis. That is the point of intersection
of the projections of the points A, B and C parallel to the xy plane. With the distance
between the tri-section point and the points A, B and C be equal to 0.6m.
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7 ∑Fx=0, ∑Fy=0 and ∑Fz=0 are vector equations.
a) True
b) False
zero
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4. Two forces of 300 N and 500 N act at a point O and are inclined at 60° to each
other. Determine, graphically, the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
5. An electric motor having a weight of 2500 N is suspended by two ropes attached
to its lifting eyebolt. The ropes make angles of 30° and 25° with the horizontal
respectively. Find the tension in each rope.
6. Four members of a frame structure meet at a joint, as shown in the figure below.
If the joint is in equilibrium, determine graphically the magnitude of the forces X
and Y in the members shown.
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical
engineering technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
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Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London
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6.3.1.2 Learning Outcome No 2: Demonstrate knowledge of moments
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 2; Demonstrate knowledge of moments
The trainee to calculate values of the reaction at the support of a provide dimensions for
loaded beam and then conduct an experiment to compare the the loaded beam and
values. appropriate weights
(i) the sum of the spring balance readings is equal to the sum of
the
loads
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sum of the anticlockwise moments about that support.
Information Sheet
Introduction
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to define and calculate
moments, describe principles of moments and apply couples in engineering systems.
A beam is any structural member which is subjected to external forces along its
length. Usually the beam is horizontal and the external forces vertical; these forces
will consist of the loads applied to the beam and the reactions at the supports.
In general, the loads applied to a beam are the forces exerted by gravity on masses
supported by the beam, and hence will act downwards.
A uniform beam is one which has the same density of material and the same cross-
sectional area throughout its length. The weight of a uniform beam is considered to
act through its centre. The weight of a beam is usually small compared with the loads
it carries, and should therefore be neglected unless a definite value for it is given.
The moment of a force; is the turning effect of the force about a fixed point or
fulcrum and is measured as the product.
Moment of force = force x perpendicular distance from point to line of action of force
224
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In figure above the moment of force F applied at B about O is
F x x in a clockwise direction
F x y in an anticlockwise direction
225
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SI units: Nm.
If a body is in equilibrium,
Then the sum of the clockwise moments acting on it about any point is equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moments about that point.
These two conditions of equilibrium are separate and both must be fulfilled if
equilibrium exists.
Suppose the beam is carrying point loads of W1, W2 and W3 at distances d1, d2 and d3
respectively from the fulcrum, as shown in figure above.
Now, for the resultant force on the beam to be zero, the upward force provided by the
reaction R at the fulcrum must equal the downward forces, i.e.
R = W1, +W2 + W3
For the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces to be zero, the total anticlockwise
moment produced by W1, andW2 about the fulcrum must equal the total clockwise
moment produced by W3 about the fulcrum.
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Thus, for equilibrium to be maintained,
Solution
(a) Taking moments about the support, and working throughout in units of N and m,
Total anticlockwise moment = (200 x 0.3) + (300 x 0.1)
= 60 + 30 = 90 Nm
Total clockwise moment = (W x 0.25) + (100 x 0.4)
= (0.25 W + 40) Nm
For the lever to remain horizontal, the total anticlockwise moment about the support
must equal the total clockwise moment about the support. Thus:
90 = 0.25W + 40
or 0.25 W = 90 - 40
and W = 50/0.25 = 200N
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R = 200 + 300 + 200 + 100 = 800 N
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Example 2; A 3m girder rests on two supports, one at each end. A weight of 1 kN is
placed 1 m from one end. Calculate the reactions at the supports, neglecting the
weight of the girder.
Solution
The figure above shows the arrangement. Using the principle of moments, moments
may be taken about any point along the beam.
Usually the best point about which to take moments is one through which an unknown
force acts, as the moment for the unknown force about this point will then be zero.
1000 N x 1m = R B
3m
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∴ Reaction at B = R B = 333 N
RA = 1000 N x 2m
3m
∴ Reaction at A = RA = 667 N
A check may be made, since the forces are in equilibrium and their resultant is zero;
consequently sum of vertically upward forces = sum of vertically downward forces
Upward forces:
RA+ RB = 667 N + 333 N = 1000 N
Downward forces:
applied load = 1000 N
Hence answers are correct.
Further reading and the experimental determination of beam reaction can be found on
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London, pg 136
Self-Assessment
1. Determine the smallest force applied at R which creates the same moment about
P as by 75N.
a. 37.5N
b. 112.5N
c. 60N
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d. 0N
3. If a car is moving forward, what is the direction of the moment of the moment
caused by the rotation of the tires?
a) It is heading inwards, i.e. the direction is towards inside of the car
b) It is heading outwards, i.e. the direction is towards outside of the car
c) It is heading forward, i.e. the direction is towards the forward direction of the
motion of the car
d) It is heading backward, i.e. the direction is towards the back side of the motion of
the car
4. The tendency of rotation of the body along any axis is also called ___________
a) Moment of inertia
b) Moment of couple
c) Torque
d) Force
5. The moment of the force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
of the axis and the point of action of the force.
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a) True
b) False
a) 0Nm d) 200Nm
b) 350Nm
c) 100Nm
7. The moment axis is in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the force and the
distance.
a) True
b) False
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8 Find the moment along T.
a) 1200Nm
b) 600Nm
c) 0Nm
d) 1400Nm
9. If you are getting to know about the direction of the moment caused by the
force applied on the body by using your wrist and curling it in the direction of
the rotation then which of the following is not right?
a) The thumb represents the direction of the force
b) The thumb represents the direction of the moment
c) The fingers represent the direction of the force
d) The direction in which you curl your wrist is towards the direction of the
distance from point of contact of force to the axis of rotation.
10. The moment axis, force and the perpendicular distance in the moment of the
force calculation is lying in____________
a) Two planes perpendicular to each other
b) A single plane in the direction of the force
c) A single plane in the direction of the perpendicular distance
d) A single line in the direction of the force
11 State the two conditions necessary for the equilibrium of a body acted on by a
number of parallel forces.
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12 Describe an experiment for determining the reactions of a simply supported beam.
14 Determine the magnitude of the support reactions at A and B. At what point should
the load of 800 N be applied to make the support reactions equal?
15 A motor vehicle has a wheelbase of 3 m. The load on the front axle is 12 kN and
that on the rear axle is 16 kN. The vehicle rests on a simply supported bridge of span
7.5 m, the front axle being 1.5 m from the left-hand support. Calculate the magnitude
of the reactions of the bridge supports.
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Weights/ masses
Simply supported beams
Scientific Calculators
Relevant reference materials
Stationeries
Mechanical workshop
Relevant practical materials
References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical
engineering technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical
engineering technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (200), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London
Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,
Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore,
MD: John Hopkins Press.
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6.3.1.3 Learning Outcome No 3: Understand friction principles
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 3; Understand friction principles
Equipment:
Laptop
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Laws of friction for dry surfaces
The sliding frictional force opposing motion, once motion has started, is directly
proportional to the normal force between the surfaces.
The sliding frictional force is dependent upon the nature of the surfaces in contact.
The sliding frictional force is dependent upon the physical properties of the materials
involved.
The sliding frictional force is independent of the area of the surfaces in contact.
For low speeds of relative motion of the surfaces, the frictional force is independent
of the speed of sliding.
Static friction
The figure above shows a body of mass m resting on a flat horizontal surface. The
weight W of the body (equal to mg) acts vertically downwards, for equilibrium, there
will be an equal and opposite reacting force N, acting vertically upwards. Suppose
now a horizontal force P is applied to the body, tending it to move to the right. A
frictional force F (equal to P) will be created between the surfaces to act in opposition
to P, i.e. to the left. As P is increased in magnitude, F also increases and will reach an
upper limiting value when the body is just about to move. This limiting or maximum
value of F is called the force of static friction between the surfaces under these
conditions.
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Sliding or dynamic friction
Once the body has started to move, it will be found that the magnitude of the applied
force P can be reduced slightly to keep the body moving at a steady speed along the
surface. This is because sliding or dynamic friction (i.e. the friction of motion) is less
than static friction (i.e. the friction of rest). This particular value of P is then equal to
the force of sliding friction.
By the first law of friction given in above, the sliding frictional force is directly
proportional to the reaction force normal to the surfaces in contact. Thus:
FαN
or
F = Constant
The constant is called the coefficient of friction between the two surfaces concerned,
and is denoted by µ. (the Greek letter ‘mew’).
∴ Coefficient of friction, µ = F
N
Since the forces F and N are expressed in the same units, µ is just a number and has
no units of its own.
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Example 1; A metal block lined with a ceramic material and having a mass of 4.8 kg
requires a horizontal pull of 17 N to move it at a steady speed along a horizontal steel
surface. Calculate the coefficient of friction for the ceramic material on steel.
Solution
Coefficient of friction, µ =F
= 17(N) = 0.36
47.1 (N)
Answer: Coefficient for friction for the ceramic material on steel = 0.36.
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Self-Assessment
1. The maximum value of the frictional force is called _________
a. Limiting Friction
b. Non-Limiting Friction
c. Limiting Action Friction
d. Non-Limiting Action Friction
Answer: a
Explanation: The friction is the phenomena that define that there is a resistance which
is present there between the two surfaces. The two surfaces are in contact and the
friction applies at that surface only, resisting the motion of the surface. Thus the
maximum values are called as limiting friction.
2. When the body which is applied forces come in the stage of the limiting friction
then the body is termed as to come in ___________ equilibrium.
a) Unstable
b) Stable
c) Non-stable
d) Improper Stable
Answer: a
Explanation: As the limiting friction is the maximum value of the frictional forces.
Thus if more force is applied to the body then the body is going to move forward.
Because the two surfaces are in contact and the friction applies at that surface only,
resisting the motion of the surface. Thus the name unstable equilibrium.
Answer: c
Explanation: The frictional force is directly proportional to the vertical force that is
being applied normal to the surface of the body. The force of friction is not dependent
on the type of the surface. Thus the only thing the frictional force does depend is the
normal force.
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4. The constant in the equation F = µN is called?
a) Knew
b) Proprietary Constant
c) Coefficient of dry friction
d) Coefficient of static friction
Answer: d
Explanation: The constant in the equation F = µN is known as the coefficient of static
friction. This is the proportionality constant and is generally used to express the
equation of the frictional force. The value of this constant is generally from 0 to
infinite, depending on the surface.
4. The coefficient of static friction does depend upon the surface on which the
body is being slid.
a) True
b) False
Answer: a
Explanation: The constant in the equation F = µN is known as the coefficient of static
friction. This is the proportionality constant and is generally used to express the
equation of the frictional force. The value of this constant is generally from 0 to
infinite, depending on the surface.
Answer: b
Explanation: The coefficient of friction is generally determined by the help of
experiments. Many experiments are done on the body. Try and error methods are
involved. And the final observations are being taken out. Then the average of all the
final answers resulted in the experiments is done.
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Answer: a
Explanation: The constant in the equation F = µN is known as the coefficient of static
friction. This is the proportionality constant and is generally used to express the
equation of the frictional force. And in the same equation the constant is sometimes
called a coefficient of kinetic friction, when the limiting value of static friction is
passed over.
8. The angle of the inclination of wedge over which the block is sliding is determined
by which of the following trigonometric function?
a) Tangent Inverse
b) Cosine
c) Sine
d) Secant
Answer: a
Explanation: The angle of the wedge over which the block is being slided is generally
taken out by the help of the tangent inverse trigonometric function. It is the ratio of
the frictional force to the normal force. This ratio is kept inside the inverse function.
Answer: a
Explanation: The coefficient of kinetic friction is smaller than the coefficient of static
friction. The main thing about the kinetic one is that it is applied by the surface when
the body is in motion. The static one is applied to the body when the body is static and
is about to move.
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Answer: a
Explanation: The kinetic friction is applied to the body by the surface when the body
is moving. This means there is friction present and the coefficient of that friction is
smaller than the static one. The main observation is that this is applied when the static
friction attends its maximum value.
11. The angle of the inclination of wedge over which the block is sliding and is
experiencing the kinetic friction is determined by which of the following
trigonometric function?
a) Tangent Inverse
b) Cosine
c) Sine
d) Secant
Answer: a
Explanation: The angle of the wedge over which the block is being slided is generally
taken out by the help of the tangent inverse trigonometric function. Whether it may be
the static or the kinetic friction, the ratio is the frictional force to the normal force.
And this ratio is kept inside the inverse function.
12.The value of a coefficient of friction is taken at that moment when the block is at
State any three laws which govern the effect of friction between dry surfaces.
13 Determine the maximum load that may be moved across a horizontal surface by
an effort of 175 N when the coefficient of friction between the materials in contact is
0.5.
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Kinetic and static friction coefficient detector: Devise a means of measuring the
coefficient of kinetic friction. It may be possible to modify the static coefficient
experiment to accomplish this project.
The trainee to measure the coefficient of kinetic friction between two of the
combinations of surfaces used in the static friction part of this experiment.
Equipment:
Normal Force = FN
Friction = FF
Tension = FT
To pulley→
Gravitational Force = F
g
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Page 40
Stationeries Relevant practical materials
Mechanical workshop
References (APA)
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman
Group UK Ltd, London
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6.3.1.4 Learning Outcome No 4: Understand motions in engineering
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 4; Understand motions in engineering
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should have the ability to perform
calculations on motion.
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Linear motion
Linear motion is the motion a straight line and the movement in a direction where
forwards is positive and backwards is negative.
Kinematics is the section of physics which studies the motions of objects without
considering the effects that produce the motion. The study generally involves the
analysis of the position of an object in relation to time. Dynamics is the section of
physics which studies the causes of motion of an object.
Distance, d is how far a body travels during a motion without considering any
particular direction or the length of the path of an object.
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Distance = Length of the road
If the motion in a straight line and in one direction, the magnitude of distance is same
as the magnitude of displacement.
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Velocity is a vector quantity and the value can be positive and negative depend on
their directions. The unif of velocity is meter per second (m s-1)
Extra notes
uniform = constant = same
increasing velocity = acceleration
decreasing velocity (slow down) = deceleration
zero velocity = the object is stationary (at rest)
negative velocity = the object moves in opposite direction
uniform velocity = zero acceleration
negative acceleration = deceleration
(Retardation)
Example 1
A boy walks finish the following path AB.
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Find
total distance traveled
displacement
Example 2
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Figure above shows runner runs 500 m towards east in 2 minutes and 1200m towards
north in 4 minutes.
Calculate his
average speed
average velocity
Example 3
An object accelerates uniformly along a straight line from a velocity of 10 m s-1 until
25 m s-1 in 5 s.
Calculate
the acceleration of the object
the velocity of the object during the first 10 s of motion
the time taken to reach a final velocity 50 ms-1
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Analyzing motion graphs
The motion graphs is a useful method of summarizing the motion of an object. In the graph
the nature of the motion can be seen quite clearly.
Gradient = Velocity
Example 1
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Based on the graph:
i. AB,
ii. BC,
iii. CD
i. AB
ii. BC
iii. CD
Velocity – Time graphs
Gradient = acceleration
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Newton’s laws of motion
Definition of force
Force is defined as anything that changes the state of rest or motion of an object moving in a
straight line.
Force is a vector quantity which has both direction and magnitude
The S.I. unit for force is N or kg ms-2
Force is measured by using a Spring Balance
A force can
An object will remain at rest or continue with a constant speed in a straight line unless acted
on by an unbalanced force.
The acceleration of a body, a, is directly proportional to the net force acting on it, F, and
inversely proportional to its mass, m.
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we obtain aF
a=kF
m
F = k ma
In S.I. units , the definition of a force of 1 N is given as the amount of force which is applied
on a mass of 1 kg and which
causes it to experience an acceleration of 1 ms-2
Thus,
1 N = k ( 1 kg ) ( 1 ms-2 )
Thus k = 1
Therefore F = ma
Where F = net force
m = mass
a = acceleration
Self-Assessment
1. If a block moves from a height h above the ground then the work done is given by_______
a)
b)
c)
d)
2.If any external conservative force also is applied on the distributed loading then?
a) The net force will act at the centroid of the structure only
b) The net load will not be formed as all the forces will be cancelled
c) The net force will act on the base of the loading horizontally
d) The net force will not to be considered, there would be a net force of the distribution, rest
will be the external forces
3. Which object has more inertia and why? A bowling ball at rest or a high-speed soccer ball?
a. Soccer ball. Because it is moving with a high velocity
b. Soccer ball. Because it has a greater volume than the bowling ball.
c. Bowling ball. Because it is not moving
d. Bowling ball. Because it is more massive
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4. According to Newton's __________ law of motion, an object with less mass will experience
a greater acceleration if a constant force is applied to the object
a. First
b. Second
c. Third
d. Fourth
5. A 1.50 kg ball is kicked and accelerates at a rate of 4.25 m/s2. What is the force that
was applied to the ball?
a. 5.75 N
b. 2.83 N
c. 6.38 N
d. 0.353 N
5. A car accelerates from rest to 25 m s-1 in 4 s. Find the acceleration of the car.
Plan three simple experiments using objects you have test relationships between mass,
acceleration, and force.
6. Design an experiment to test the relationship between mass and acceleration. What will be
the independent variable in your experiment? What will be the dependent variable? What
controls will you put in place to ensure force is constant?
7. Design a similar experiment to test the relationship between mass and force. What will be
the independent variable in your experiment? What will be the dependent variable? What
controls will you put in place to ensure acceleration is constant?
8. Design a similar experiment to test the relationship between force and acceleration.
What will be the independent variable in your experiment? What will be the dependent
variable? Will you have any trouble ensuring that the mass is constant?
Page 52
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Scientific Calculators Mechanical workshop
Stationeries
References (APA)
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London
Internet, https://www.yuhuaphysics.com/notes
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
A cord
Page 53
Mass
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to solve problems related to
work, energy and power.
Work
Work is said to be done when a force is applied to a body and causes it to move in the
direction of the force. If the applied force is constant, the amount of work done is measured
by the product of that force and the distance moved by the body.
Let a constant force F act on a body through a distance s. Then:
Work done = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
i.e. Work done = Fs
The unit of work is the joule (J), and this is defined as the amount of work done when a force
of one newton acts through a distance of one metre in the direction of its application.
When the object is lifted through a certain height, the work done is given by the product of
the force to
overcome the downward gravitational pull and the vertical distance moved by the object.
Example 1; Find the amount of work done by a hydraulic hoist in lifting a vehicle of mass
1500 kg to a height of 2 m.
Solution
Force to overcome when lifting the vehicle
= mg
= 1500 [kg] x 9.81 [m/s2]
= 14 715 N
Work done = Force x Vertical distance moved
= 14715 [N] x 2 [m]
Page 54
= 29 430 J = 29.43 kJ
Work done in lifting vehicle = 29.43 kJ
Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work, and is measured in the same unit, i.e. the
joule (J).
It exists in many forms such as mechanical energy, electrical energy, heat energy, chemical
energy and
so on.
Page 55
= mgh joules
This amount of work done will be stored in the body as potential energy by virtue of its
position relative to the ground. In other words, the body will be capable of doing mgh joules
of work if allowed to fall back to the ground. Thus, energy is transferred to a body when it is
lifted.
Potential energy (PE) = mgh joules
Work is the process by which energy is transferred to a body, and the energy thus gained by
the body could be in the form of either potential energy or kinetic energy.
Solution
PE possessed by body = mgh
where m = 5 kg; g = 9.81 m/s2 ; h = 12 m
PE = 5 x 9.81 x 12 = 588.6 J
Example 3
A motor vehicle of mass 2 tonne is travelling at 50.4 km/h. Determine the kinetic energy of
the vehicle at this speed.
Solution
KE of vehicle =½mv2
where m = 2 tonne = 2000 kg
v =50.4 km/h = 14 m/s
KE =½ x 2000 X 142 = 196000 J = 196 kJ
Page 56
the total amount of energy remains constant.
There are many cases in which the potential energy of a body is converted into kinetic energy
(and vice versa). When a motor vehicle freewheels down an incline, it gives up some of its
potential energy but at the same time, it gains an equal amount of kinetic energy. Hence, the
total energy possessed by the vehicle at any instant on ( he incline remains constant. In
practice, friction is always present and work has to be done in overcoming the frictional
resistances (this amount of work done is dissipated as heat). In such cases:
Let us consider again the body of mass m kg raised to the height h metres above the ground.
We have seen that the potential energy possessed by the body due to its position with respect
to the ground is mgh joules. If the body is allowed to fall freely from that height until it is just
about to strike the ground, all its available potential energy will be given up. Assuming no
external work is done on or by the body during its time of fall then, by the principle of
conservation of energy, the body will gain kinetic energy equal in amount to the initial
potential energy.
Suppose the body reaches a speed of v m/s just before contact with the ground. Then, since
energy is conserved, we may write:
KE on reaching the ground = Initial PE
Power
Power is defined as the rate of transfer of energy. If the energy transfer is in the form of
mechanical work, then:
The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the rate of doing one joule of work every second.
Thus:
1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N m/s
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Example 4; A vehicle hauls a trailer at 72 km/h when exerting a steady pull of 800 N at the
tow-rope. Calculate the power required.
Solution
Power required = Force x Velocity
= F x v from equation
where F = 800 N and v = 72 km/h = 20 m/s
Power required = 800 [N] x 20 [m/s ]
= 16 000 W = 16 kW
Page 58
Self-Assessment
1.Principle of virtual work was developed by mohr. State whether the above sentence is
true or false.
a) True
b) False
2. What is the relation between work done by external loads and work done by internal
loads.
a) They are unequal
b) They are equal
c) Can’t say
d) Depends upon load
3. Dummy unit load method and virtual work method are two different approaches.
State whether the above statement is true or false.
a) True
b) False
5. How much mass is converted into energy per day in Tarapur nuclear power plant operated
at 107 kW?
a) 10g
b) 9g
c) 9.6g
d) 2g
6. A machine gun fires 60 bullets per minute, with a velocity of 700m/s. If each bullet has a
mass of 50g, find the power developed by the gun.
a) 1225W
b) 12250W
c) 122.5W
d) 122W
Page 59
8. Which of the following is an example for inelastic collision?
a) Collision between two vehicles
b) Collision between glass balls
c) A bullet fired into a wooden block
d) Collision between two railway compartments
13. In a turning moment diagram, the variations of energy above and below the mean
resisting torque line is called
a) fluctuation of energy
b) maximum fluctuation of energy
c) coefficient of fluctuation of energy
d) none of the mentioned
Page 60
15. List four forms in which energy can exist, illustrating your answer by reference to the
energy forms at work in the welding workshop.
16. Calculate the work done when a casting is moved 15 m along a workshop floor by a
force of 3.5 kN.
17. In a drop-forging operation, the top die and its holder, which have a combined mass of
50 kg, fall freely on to the bottom die. Calculate:
i. the kinetic energy of the top die just before striking the bottom die if its velocity at that
instant is 7.8 m/s
ii. the height through which the top die has fallen
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Scientific Calculators Mechanical workshop
Stationeries
References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London
Page 61
6.3.1.6 Learning Outcome No 6: Perform machine calculations
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 6; Perform machine calculations
A simple machine is a device which enables a small force (the effort) acting at a point to
overcome a large force (the load) acting at some other point. Examples of simple machines
are pulley systems, screw jacks, gear systems and levers. By the end of this learning outcome,
the trainee should be able to perform simple machine calculations.
Page 62
Velocity ratio (VR) = Distance moved by effort
Distance moved by load
It can be found experimentally simply by moving the machine and measuring the distances
moved by the points of application of the effort and the load and dividing the former by the
latter, or it can be determined by
calculation from the relevant details or dimensions of the machine.
Efficiency of a machine
The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the useful work done by the machine to
the actual work put into the machine. Thus:
A useful relationship exists between mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency.
= Mechanical advantage
Velocity ratio
Page 63
The efficiency is usually stated as a percentage, and the above expression should therefore be
multiplied by 100 to give a percentage value.
It should be noted that since the velocity ratio of a given machine is constant, the efficiency is
directly proportional to the mechanical advantage.
P=aW+b
where a and b are constants whose value depends on the particular machine concerned. This
equation is called the law of the machine.
After it has been determined by experiment, it can then be used to estimate the effort which
would be required to raise any load on the machine.
The value of the constant b represents the effort required to overcome the frictional
resistances when there is no load on the machine, and is the intercept on the effort-load graph.
The value of the constant a is the slope of the effort-load graph ( V/H), and depends on the
mechanical advantage of the machine.
Page 64
Limiting efficiency of a machine
The mechanical advantage of a machine varies with the load, but the velocity ratio is constant
and cannot be altered without making a change to the arrangement of the machine. Since
efficiency is obtained by dividing the mechanical advantage by the velocity ratio, it follows
that efficiency will depend upon the load; in fact, it will be found to increase with increase of
load. However, this increase in efficiency with load does not continue indefinitely, and a
limiting efficiency is eventually reached.
Levers
A lever is a simple machine which operates on the principle of moments. It is simply a rigid
bar, straight or cranked, which can be turned about a pivot or fulcrum. The lever may be
either one of three types or ‘orders’, depending on the relative positions of the fulcrum, the
load and the effort.
A lever of the first order has the fulcrum situated between the effort and the load, as shown in
Fig. (a).
A lever of the second order has the load placed between the fulcrum and the effort, as shown
in Fig. (b).
A lever of the third order has the effort applied between the fulcrum and the load, as shown in
Fig. (c)
In all cases, if the lever is in equilibrium, the clockwise moment about the fulcrum is equal to
the anticlockwise moment about the same point.
Effort x a = Load x b
Effort b
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Figure 59: Levers
Page 66
Self-Assessment
1. Mechanical advantage is the ratio of effort to load.
a) True
b) False
3. The distance between fulcrum and dead weights is 100mm. Dead weights are of 2945.2N.
An effort of 294.52N acts on the other hand. Find the distance between the fulcrum and
other end of the lever.
a) 1000mm
b) 100mm
c) 10mm
d) 10000mm
4. A right angled bell-crank is designed to raise a load of 5kN at short arm whose length is
100mm. Longer arm is of length 500mm. Calculate the reaction or force acting on the
fulcrum.
a) 5.1
b) 5.8
c) 6.1
d) 6.8
5. A right angled bell-crank is designed to raise a load of 5kN at short arm whose length is
100mm. Also longer arm is of length 500mm. If permissible bearing pressure on pin is
10N/mm² and diameter of the 20mm, find the length of the pin.
a) 35.5mm
b) 25.5mm
c) 20mm
d) 30mm
6. A right angled bell-crank is designed to raise a load of 5kN at short arm whose length is
100mm. Also longer arm is of length 500mm. If permissible bearing pressure on pin is
10N/mm² and diameter of the 20mm, find the shear stress in the pin.
a) 8.12
b) 8.51
c) 9.12
d) 9.51
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7. How many classes of levers are there?
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
10. Give reasons why the efficiency of a machine can never be 100 per cent.
11. During an experiment on a lifting machine, the following values of the effort P to lift a
load W were recorded:
i. Plot these values to show that the law of the machine is of the form P = aW + b, and
determine suitable values for the constants a, and b.
ii. For each load, calculate the mechanical advantage and the efficiency of the machine.
Plot the graphs of mechanical advantage and efficiency on a base of load. The velocity
ratio of the machine is 32.
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Scientific Calculators Mechanical workshop
Relevant reference materials Relevant practical materials
Stationeries
References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London
Page 68
6.3.1.7 Learning Outcome No 7: Demonstrate gas principles
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 7; Demonstrate gas principles
The trainee to carry out an experiment to verify Boyle’s Be sure that the Erlenmeyer flask
law together with the clamp around
its neck can be easily removed
from the rest of the assembly.
Apparatus;
Air Pump,
273
Page 69
Source: Hurlow and lake (1969)
Page 70
Apparatus;
Erlenmeyer flask.
Marking pen
beaker
wire gauze
Bunsen burner
Page 71
Information Sheet: 6.3.1.7
Introduction
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to apply gas principles in
engineering systems.
Certain important laws governing the behaviour of perfect gases under varying conditions of
temperature and pressure have been established from experimental results.
Pressure of a gas
Any quantity of a gas, if placed into a vessel of larger volume than itself, will at once fill
every part of the vessel. The rapidly moving molecules of the gas continually collide with the
walls of its container and produce forces distributed all over the inside of the vessel.
The amount of the force exerted on unit area of the surface of the container is defined as the
pressure of the gas.
Atmospheric pressure
The earth’s atmosphere above its surface exerts a pressure due to the mass of air. At sea level
atmospheric pressure is about 101.3 kPa (101.3 kN/m2 or 1.013 bar). Atmospheric pressure
decreases with altitude Atmospheric pressure varies slightly from day to day and is recorded
by means of a barometer in which the height of a column of mercury is used as a measure of
the pressure.
Gas laws
Boyle's law
Boyle’s law gives the relationship between pressure and volume of a quantity of gas under
constant temperature conditions. It states that:
‘The absolute pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely as its volume when the
temperature of the gas remains constant.’
Page 72
Thus, if the absolute pressure of a given mass of gas is doubled, its volume is halved, or if the
absolute pressure is halved, the volume will be doubled.
Hence, if p = absolute pressure of gas
and V = volume of gas
then, Boyle’s law may be expressed as follows:
p α 1
⸫ p = 1xC
Or pV = C, a constant.
Charles' law
Charles’ law gives the relationship between volume and temperature of a quantity of gas
when the pressure is kept constant. It states that:
‘The volume of a given mass of gas varies directly as it thermodynamic or absolute
temperature when the pressure is kept constant’.
Thus, at double the absolute temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is doubled; at
three times the absolute temperature, the volume is trebled, and so on.
Hence, if V = volume of gas
VαT
V=TxC
or V =C, a constant
V1 = V2
Page 73
T1 T2
It should here be emphasized that in problems dealing with the gas laws, all temperatures
must be converted to absolute temperatures.
Thus, if Ɵ is the temperature of the gas in degrees Celsius and T the absolute temperature in
kelvins, then;
T K = Ɵ °C + 273
A given mass of gas may undergo simultaneous changes in pressure, volume and
temperature. When this change occurs in the state of the gas, neither Boyle’s law, which
assumes constant temperature, nor Charles’ law, which assumes alteration of temperature
with constant pressure, can be applied. However, this change of state may be regarded as
taking place in two stages:
(1) a change according to Boyle’s law; and
(2) a change according to Charles’ law.
The resulting change will then be according to the laws of Boyle and Charles combined.
The combination of Boyle’s and Charles’ laws, is known as the general gas equation. It may
be expressed in the form:
pV = C, a constant
Pressure law
The pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly as its thermodynamic or absolute
temperature when the volume is kept constant.
This is exactly analogous with the volume change with temperature at constant pressure, and
can therefore be applied to pressure changes at constant volume in a similar manner to the
volume changes at constant pressure.
Page 74
Self-Assessment
1. A mole of a substance has a mass equal to the molecular weight of the substance.
a) true
b) false
1. According to Avogadro’s law, volume of a g mol of all gases at the pressure of ____ and
temperature of ____ is same.
a) 760 mm Hg, 100 degree Celsius
b) 760 mm Hg, 0 degree Celsius
c) 750 mm Hg, 100 degree Celsius
d) 750 mm Hg, 0 degree Celsius
5. If two properties (out of p,v,T) of a gas are known, the third can be evaluated.
a) true
b) false
Page 75
c) 0.083 litre-atm/gmol K
d) all of the mentioned
9. For which of the following gases, does the product (pv) when plotted against p gives
depends only on temperature?
a) nitrogen
b) hydrogen
c) air and oxygen
d) all of the mentioned
10. For the ideal gas equation, what assumptions are made?
a) there is little or no attraction between the molecules of the gas
b) the volume occupied by the molecules is negligibly small compared to the volume of
the gas
c) both of the mentioned
d) none of the mentioned
11. When does a real gas obey the ideal gas equation closely?
a) at high pressure and low temperature
b) at low pressure and high temperature
c) at low pressure and temperature
d) at high pressure and temperature
12. The real gases deviate from the ideal gas equation when the pressure increases.
a) true
b) false
14. A given mass of gas is enclosed in a vessel. Explain briefly how the pressure measured
at the wall of the vessel is produced by the gas molecules.
15. Describe a laboratory experiment to verify Boyle’s law. Include a sketch of the
apparatus used.
16. Describe a laboratory experiment to verity Charles’ law. Include a sketch of the
apparatus used.
Page 76
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London
Trainee to carry out an experiment to determine the specific Measured quantities should
heat capacity of a solid by the method of mixtures. be repeated and averaged
Equipment/ Materials/ Apparatus
The calorimeter should be
Solid (e.g. metal ball) of reasonable size kept in its insulating
jacket.
Calorimeter with an insulation, outer jacket and stirrer
Thermal equilibrium
Thermometer (reading up to 0.1oC) should be achieved before
Heater the final temperature is
taken.
Thread
Water should be collected
Sensitive balance and placed near
calorimeter 1hour before
Beaker
the experiment in order to
Page 77
Experimental Setup for determining the specific heat capacity ensure the same
of a metal ball. temperature.
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should have the ability to solve simple
problems on heat energy.
Thermometer
Solid
Water
Outer jacket
Heat
Heat energy
When a body is capable of doing work, it is said to possess energy. Heat is one form of
energy and, therefore, it provides this capacity for doing work.
Heat can be defined as that kind of energy which is transferred from one body to another
when there is a temperature difference between them.
Since heat is a form of energy then, in common with all other types of energy, it is measured
in joules (J). The joule is a small unit and in practice, kilojoules (kJ), or even megajoules
(MJ), are often used as the unit of heat energy.
1 MJ = 105 kJ = 106 J
Page 78
Temperature
Temperature is the term used to refer to the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin, (K) and the derived unit is the degree Celsius (°C) .
1°C = 1K of temperature difference.
Kelvin temperature = Celsius temperature + 273; i.e. K=°C+273
Sensible heat
This is the heat energy which when given to a substance causes a temperature rise. When a
susbstance cools, sensible heat has been withdrawn from it.
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction
Conduction of heat takes place between bodies in actual contact, if they are at different
temperatures.
Convection
Convection is the conveyance of heat by the actual movement of a hot fluid which may be a
liquid or a gas.
Page 79
Radiation
Radiation is the transmission of heat by wave or vibratory motion in the space between the
source and the body on which waves impinge.
Expansion
Most substances expand when they are heated and contract when cooled. With solids, we are
usually concerned with their linear expansion, whereas with liquids we are concerned with
their change in volume.
Trainee to do more reading on linear expansion from Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle
engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK Ltd, London, page 215.
Self-Assessment
1. The transfer of heat between a wall and a fluid system in motion is called
a) radiation
b) convection
c) conduction
d) none of the mentioned
3. The specific heat of the substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise a unit
mass of the substance through a unit rise in temperature.
a) true
b) false
Page 80
6. The sun shines on a 150 m2 road surface so it is at 45°C. Below the 5cm thick asphalt
(average conductivity of 0.06 W/m K), is a layer of rubbles at 15°C. Find the rate of heat
transfer to the rubbles.
a) 5300 W
b) 5400 W
c) 5500 W
d) 5600 W
7. A pot of steel (conductivity 50 W/m K), with a 5 mm thick bottom is filled with liquid
water at 15°C. The pot has a radius of 10 cm and is now placed on a stove that delivers
250 Was heat transfer. Find the temperature on the outer pot bottom surface assuming the
inner surface to be at 15°C.
a) 15.8°C
b) 16.8°C
c) 18.8°C
d) 19.8°C
8. A water-heater is covered with insulation boards over a total surface area of 3 m2. The
inside board surface is at 75°C and the outside being at 20°C and the conductivity of
material being 0.08 W/m K. Find the thickness of board to limit the heat transfer loss to
200 W ?
a) 0.036 m
b) 0.046 m
c) 0.056 m
d) 0.066 m
9. On a winter day with atmospheric air at −15°C, the outside front wind-shield of a car has
surface temperature of +2°C, maintained by blowing hot air on the inside surface. If the
wind-shield is 0.5 m2 and the outside convection coefficient is 250 W/Km2, find the rate
of energy loss through front wind-shield.
a) 125 W
b) 1125 W
c) 2125 W
d) 3125 W
10. A large heat exchanger transfers a total of 100 MW. Assume the wall separating steam
and seawater is 4 mm of steel, conductivity 15 W/m K and that a maximum of 5°C
difference between the two fluids is allowed. Find the required minimum area for the heat
transfer.
a) 180 m2
b) 280 m2
c) 380 m2
d) 480 m2
Page 81
11. The transfer of heat between two bodies in direct contact is called
a) radiation
b) convection
c) conduction
d) none of the mentioned
12. Heat flow into a system is taken to be ____, and heat flow out of the system is taken as
____
a) positive, positive
b) negative, negative
c) negative, positive
d) positive, negative
Answer: d
Explanation: This is because heat transfer is a path function.
14. Describe briefly an experiment that you have carried out in the laboratory to determine the
specific heat capacity of a metal by the method of mixtures.
15. Calculate the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 3 kg of copper
from 25 °C to 75 °C if the specific heat capacity is 390 J/kg K.
16. Conduct an experiment to determine specific heat capacity of a solid metal block using
various methods
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Scientific Calculators Mechanical workshop
Relevant reference materials Relevant practical materials
Stationeries
References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Page 82
Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,
Page 83
6.3.1.9 Learning Outcome No 9: Apply density knowledge
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 9; Apply density knowledge
Definition of density
Activity: Determine the Density of a Gas for various materials
Place a beaker inside a bath filled with water so that the beaker is
about ½ filled with water and the other ½ air.
(you might have to let some air out by tilting the beaker.)
Add water to the bath.
What happens to the water level inside the beaker?
Has any air escaped the beaker? Has the amount of air inside the
beaker changed?
What happens to the density of the air inside the beaker when
you add the water?
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should have the ability to solve simple
problems on density.
The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 or 1 g/cm3 and 1 kg of water has a volume of 10-3 m 3
(1 dm3 or 1 litre).
density of substance
density of water
Since it is a ratio, relative density has no units.
Page 84
Example 1; A small component has a mass of 22 kg, and its volume is found to be 2000 cm3.
Determine the density of the material.
Solution
Example 2; An oil has a density of 850 kg/m3. What will be the mass of 50 litres?
Solution
= 42,500 x10-3 kg
= 42.5 kg
Self-Assessment
1.A cube of ice is floating on water surface and when it completely melts, the level of water
would _______
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Remains unchanged
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c
Explanation: There is no change in the volume of the water as the space occupied by the ice
inside the water body is filled with it.
2.An object is once immersed in oil and once in water. The loss in weight would be
a) More in water
b) More in oil
c) Equal in both oil and water
Page 85
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b
Explanation: Density of oil is more than water so there will be more buoyancy force.
Answer: c
Explanation: Volume of the petroleum products changes with temperature so API gravity
is used to measure specific gravity.
7. A substance has a mass of 20 kg and volume of 40 m3. The specific gravity of the
substance is 0.80 kg/cm3. What is the reference density (Kg/m3)?
a) 0.25
b) 0.50
c) 0.75
d) 1.00
8. Answer: a
Explanation: Specific gravity = density of the substance / Reference density.
Page 86
9. A material have a mass of 2 gms and volume of 4 cm3. The material would _____ on
water surface.
a) Completely Float
b) Completely Sink
c) Partially Sink
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b
Explanation: Specific gravity of the material is less than one.
10. A liquid is filled in a cylinder of height 5 cm. mass of the filled liquid is 40 gms.
Specific gravity of the liquid is
a) 10 gm/cm3
b) 20 gm/cm3
c) 30 gm/cm3
d) 40 gm/cm3
11. A block of wood has a mass of 8 g and occupies a volume of 10 cm3. What is its
density?
12. A certain oil has a density of 860 kg/m3. Find the mass of 2.5 litres of the oil.
13. Determine the mass of a lead plate having a volume of 2500 cm3, if the density of
lead is 11.4 g/cm3.
14. Design an experiment for determining density the goal of this experiment is to
determine the density of a small white ball of unknown composition. Available
equipment: Small white ball, graduated cylinder, beaker, water, meter stick, string,
digital balance.
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
Scientific Calculators Mechanical workshop
Stationeries
References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London
Bigelow, J. 1829. Elements of Technology. Boston: Boston Press,
Calvert, M. A. 1967. The Mechanical Engineer in America, 1830-1910. Baltimore, MD:
John Hopkins Press.
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6.3.1.10 Learning Outcome No 10: Apply pressure principles
Learning Activities
Learning Outcome No 10; Apply pressure principles
Definition of pressure to
different materials
Activities; In the workshop, the trainee is to do two
experiments involving Archimedes’ principle involving metal
block submerged in water and
By the end of this learning outcome, the trainee should be able to solve simple problems on
pressure.
Liquids and gases exist in abundance on earth. The existence of life is intimately related to
the characteristics of matter in these phases. So consequently, the physics of liquids and gases
is not just another topic but is basic to life itself.
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A fluid is either a gas or a liquid
Liquids are nearly incompressible whereas gas is easily compressed
Pressure is the amount of force per unit area upon which the force acts,
area
SI units; N/m2, sometimes called pascal (Pa); another useful unit is the bar (bar or b).
1N/m2=1Pa
= 10 N/cm2
• Measuring device: fluid pushes against “spring”, deduce force from displacement
• Pressure exists at all points, not just walls (like tension in string)
• Pressure is same in all directions at a point
• Pressure increases with depth in liquid (not in gas)
Causes of Pressure
• Difference in pressure between liquids and gases due to (in) compressibility
• compare 2 jars containing mercury liquid and gas: without gravity (outer space) and with
gravity
• 2 contributions to pressure:
(i) Gravitational: fluid pulled down, exerts forces on bottom and side
(ii) Thermal: collisions of gas molecules with walls
Pressure in Gases
• For lab. -size container, gravitational contribution negligible pressure is same at all
points
• increases with density (more collisions with wall)
Atmospheric pressure
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• Density decreases as we go away from earth’s surface atmospheric pressure decreases•
At sea-level: 101, 300 Pa = 1 atm. (not SI unit)
• Fluid exerts pressure in all directions net force = 0 (“sucking” force due to no air on one
side)
Pressure in liquids
• Gas fills entire container (compressible) vs. liquid fills bottom, exerting force: gravitational
contribution dominant
mg + p0A = pA
m = ρA
p = p0 + ρgd
p = p0 + ρgd → p1 = p1 +ρgd
⇒ ∆p = p1 − p0 for all d
Measuring Pressure
Hydraulic Lift
• Use pressurized liquids for work (based on Pascal’s principle): increase pressure at one
point by pushing piston...at another point, piston can push upward
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Buoyancy: Archimedes’ principle
Self-Assessment
1. If the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 7.5 N/cm2, determine the pressure at a height
of 3000m assuming the pressure variation follows isothermal law. The density of air is
given as 1.2 km/m3.
a) 4.68 N/cm2
b) 9.37 N/cm2
c) 2.34 N/cm2
d) None of the mentioned
2. The barometric pressure at sea level is 760 mm of Mercury while that on a mountain top
is 715 mm. If the density of air is assumed constant at 1.2 kg/m3 , what is the elevation
of the mountain top?
a) 510 m
b) 1020 m
c) 255 m
d) 128 m
3. Calculate the pressure at a height of 6500m above the sea level if the atmospheric
pressure is 10.145 N/cm2 and temperature is 25℃ assuming air is incompressible. Take
density of air as 1.2 kg/m3. Neglect variation of g.
a) 4.98 N/cm2
b) 2.49 N/cm2
c) 1.24 N/cm2
d) None of the mentioned
4. Calculate the pressure of air at a height of 3500m from sea level where pressure and
temperature of air are 10 N/cm2 and 25℃ respectively. The temperature lapse rate is
given as 0.0065 ℃ /m. Take density of air at sea level equal to 1.2 kg/m3.
a) 19.7 N/cm2
b) 9.85 N/cm2
c) 4.93 N/cm2
d) 6.24 N/cm2
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5. Pressure variation for compressible fluid is maximum for which kind of process?
a) Isothermal
b) Adiabatic
c) Quasi Static
d) None of the mentioned
7. If your mass is 70 kg and the total area of the soles of your feet is 0.2 m2, what
pressure would you exert on the ground?
8. If the density of sea water is ρ = 1, 030 kg m−3, what is the pressure at 10 m below
sea level?
9. Perform and experiment to show that pressure in liquids increases with depth
Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials for the specific learning outcome
References (APA)
Hurlow J W & Lake J (1969), Examples in engineering science for mechanical engineering
technicians, Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Zammit S.J (1987), Motor vehicle engineering science for technicians, Longman Group UK
Ltd, London
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