INTERNAL ENERGY

The total kinetic energy and potential energy of all atoms or

molecules in a material is called internal energy. When the
temperature of the material increase the movement of atoms
or molecules inside the material increases and the kinetic
energy of the atoms increases, so internal energy of the
material increases.
Heat capacity
The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy that
is needed to raise its temperature by 1°C. It is measured in J/°C

Specific heat capacity

The specific heat capacity of a substance is amount of heat
energy needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of the
substance by 1°C.
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/(kg°C).
We can use following equation to calculate the specific heat
capacity of a substance.
Energy required = mass × specific heat capacity × increase in
temperature
∆E = mc∆𝜽
Note: ∆𝜃 = higher temperature – lower temperature
Example:
A domestic hot water tank contains 200kg of water at 20°C.
How much energy must be supplied to heat this water to
70°C?
(specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg°C).
Ans: ∆E = mc∆𝜃
= 200 × 4200 × (70−20)
= 42 000 000 J

EXERCISES ON PAGE 179

MELTING
It is the process during which heat is absorbed from the
surrounding to change the state of a substance from the solid
state to the liquid state. The temperature of a substance
remains constant until all the solid has changed to liquid.

Melting point
The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid is called
melting point.
BOILING
Boiling is the process during which heat is absorbed from the
surrounding to change the state of a substance from the liquid
state to vapor or gaseous state. The temperature of the
substance remains constant until all the liquid changes to gas.
Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas is
called boiling point.
CONDENSATION
Condensation is the process in which a substance changes from the
gaseous state to the liquid state by cooling it below its boiling point. The
temperature of the substance remains constant until all the gas changes to
liquid.
For example water vapor condenses to liquid water below 100℃.

FREEZING / SOLIDIFICATION
Solidification is the process in which a substance changes from the
liquid state to the solid state by cooling it. The temperature of the
substance remains constant until all the liquid changes to solid.
For example water liquid water freezes to ice below 0℃
HEATING CURVE
When a solid is heated for a sufficiently long time, it melts
and eventually boils. A heating curve of a solid is shown in
the figure below.

Temperature D E

Mixture of liquid and

Mixture of solid gas
and liquid
liquid

B C

solid

Time
COOLING CURVE
The figure below shows a cooling curve of a gas when
energy is flowing out at a constant rate from the gas. The
curve can be divided into four regions as shown

Temperature

gas

C liquid
Mixture of liquid
B and solid

Mixture of gas
and liquid
D E

Time
Difference between boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
Boiling takes place at a Evaporation take place at
definite temperature. (boiling any temperature below the
point) boiling point.
Boiling takes place Evaporation take place on
throughout the liquid. the surface of the liquid.
Bubbles are formed in Bubbles are not formed in
boiling evaporation.
LATENT HEAT
Energy must be supplied to a substance to melt or to boil it –
in other words to make it change state. This energy does not
increase the substance’s temperature, and for this reason it is
known as latent heat (the word ‘latent’ means ‘hidden’).
The latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change
the state of a substance without changing temperature.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

The specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed
to change the state of 1 kg of a substance without
changing temperature.
We can use following equation to calculate the specific heat
capacity of a substance.
Thermal energy = mass × specific latent heat
E=m×l
The unit latent heat is J/kg
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
The specific latent heat of vaporization is amount of heat
energy required to change 1kg of a substance from the liquid
state to the gaseous state at its boiling point.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

The specific latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy
required to change 1kg of a substance from the solid state to
liquid at its melting point.
Example:
In an experiment to find latent heat of fusion of a 15kg metal,
520000J of heat energy was required to melt a solid to a liquid.
Calculate the latent heat of fusion of metal.
E=m×l
l = E/m = 52000/15 = 34666.7 J/kg

PROBLEM! Assumption?
 THERMAL EXPANSION
Most substances – solids, liquids and gases expand when
they are heated. When a substance is heated it causes its
molecules to vibrate more vigorously. As the vibrations
become larger, the molecules are pushed further apart and
the substance expands in all directions.
The reverse happens when the substance is cooled. The
vibration become smaller and the substance contracts as its
molecules are pulled closer together by force of attraction
between them.
Generally, gases expands more than liquids and liquids
expand more than solids
The chart below shows how much one meter length
of different materials expands when their
temperature goes up by 100°C. For greater lengths
and higher temperature increase, the expansion is
higher.
USES OF THERMAL EXPANSION
• Liquid - in – glass thermometers make use of the expansion of
liquids.
• Metal rods can be fitted into metal wheels, by heating wheel. As
the wheel cools, it contracts and pulls the rod and wheel tightly
together.

• A metal lid or cap may stick on a glass jar or a bottle. Heating the
lid (for example, by running hot water over it) cause it to expand
(the glass expand much less), so the lid loosens and can be
removed.

• The bimetallic strips used in fire alarms, thermostat and

bimetallic thermometers.
Fire alarm
When the bimetallic strip in the fire alarm heated up it
expands and torches with contact, so current flows through
the circuit. As a result bell rings.
Bimetal Thermostat
The bimetal thermostat are devices which control
temperature. They are fitted to immersion heaters, ovens,
and refrigerators and to some room heaters. There are
several different designs but bimetal type is very common.
The diagram below shows thermostat that controls an electric
heater. As the rooms warms up, the bimetal strip expands
(brass expand more than invar), so two electrical contacts
separate. This switches of the heater. And when room cools
down the bimetal contract and aging torches the contact, so
circuit completes and switch on the heater. Temperature can
adjust by turning control knob.
The bimetal flashing indicator
The indictor bulbs on a car flash on and off because of
movements made by tiny bimetal strip. The basic arrangement
is shown below. When we turn on the indicator switch, a small
electric current passes through the bulb and through the
heating coil wound around the bimetal strip. The current is too
small to light up the bulb, but it does heat up the bimetal strip.
This bend up wards as a result.
When the contact touch, the current stops flowing through the
heating coil. It takes the easier route straight along the bimetal
strip. The bimetal strip now connects bulb directly to the
battery, so bulb lights up at full brightness.
with no current passing through heating coil, the bimetal strip
cools and straightens and contact separate. The current once
more has to pass through the heating coil, so the bulb dims as
a result. In this way bulb continues on and off.
 CONSEQUENCES OF THERMAL EXPANSION

The expansion of materials can cause problems. For

example, metal bridges and railway lines expand on hot
days, and there is a danger that they might buckle. To avoid
this, bridges in sections, with expansion joints between the
sections as shown below. On hot day bridge expands and
section between gap decrease.
Railway lines are now usually made from metallic alloy that
expands very little.
Thermal expansion of gases
Gases expand when they are heated, just like solids and
liquids. We can understand this by using the kinetic model of
matter. The diagram below shows some gas in a cylinder
fitted with a piston. At first the gas is cold and its particles
press weakly on the piston. When the gas is heated, its
particles moves faster. Now they push greater force on the
piston and push it upwards. The gas has expanded.
The upward force of the gas is balanced by
downward force of the piston. So in this situation,
the pressure of the gas is remained constant as it
has expanded.
So for a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure,
the volume gas is directly proportional to the
increasing temperature of the gas. This is called
Charles’s law.
If the piston did not move, the volume of the gas
remains constant when it was heated but its
pressure would increase.