Chapter 1: Introduction to Food Science The Solution

● Maximize food utilization & minimize

Food wastage of produce
● anything taken into the body by mouth which ● Through...proper food selection, storage,
includes drinks, bubble gum, any substance handling, preparation, cooking & serving
or any ingredient need in the preparation of ● “Each person handling food has his
food (Chavez, et.al, 2005) hands the capacity to contribute in ways
● Drugs and medicines are not considered as great & small, to make food available
food where & when it is needed”

Definitions of Food Food and Civilization

● Physiological: Any substance which when ● 1.75 million years ago: eating & sharing
taken into the body provides energy, builds animals & plants with whole tribe
and repairs tissues and regulates body ● Discovery of fire: cook, make it more
processes digestible, sanitary & better tasting
● Biological: any substance when eaten ● Quest for foods: wander then settlement,
sustains life and the nourishes the body domesticate animals for cultivation of
● Socio-cultural: any substance that satisfies food
the human senses and emotional needs ● Drying of meat/fish, planting of seeds
● FDA 1838: any article whether simple, mixed (agriculture), Thailand (original rice
or compounded which is used as a food or growing area), bread making
drink, confectionery or condiment. It includes ● Glazed pottery: food could be baked,
articles used as components for such boiled in a liquid, fruits/grains could be
fermented
Criteria for Food ● Age of exploration: distribution of
● Safe produce from various regions (Spain),
● Provide nutrients tomato, corn, cacao, peanuts (Mexico &
● Provide pleasurable experience during South America)
consumption ● Green Revolution 1960’s: fertilizers,
● Satisfy hunger pesticides, cross breeding, gene
● Be affordable modification

Food Availability Developments in Biotechnology

● Geography ● Modification of food components to
● Soil provide
● Climate ● new/improved functional properties
● Production technology ● New processes for production of new
● Transport system flavors, removal of naturally occurring
● Storage & preservation facilities toxins or undesirable characteristics in
● Economic condition of community plants (ex. Removal of erucic acid, toxin
in rapeseed; caffeine from coffee)
Why is Food Availability Important?
Food Wastage
In the Philippines... ● History: food as part of religious rituals,
● weather variations causing different planting “no playing with food”
& harvest seasons of crops, allowing ● At present: use food in different ways
seasonal crops available all year round (ex. ● Wastage is common in food services
Mangoes in Luzon & Visayas)
● hot & humid – causing early spoilage in Food Science
produce (25- 40°C: where microorganisms ● The study of the chemical, physical and
grow best) microbiological and sensory aspects of
● Densely populated, increase in malnutrition food and any transformation that food
incidence, problem in food security undergoes as reflected in its changes in
 characteristics and properties from the time Nutrients & their Physiologic Functions
food is produced to the time food is
Nutrients Nutrients Nutrients for
consumed for providing regulating
● Use of scientific methods in the study of foods building & energy body
● Food preparation should conserve nutrients repairing processes
in food so these essential nutrients would still tissues
be in the food after cooking
Proteins Carbohydrates Minerals
● Knowledge in microbiology, improved food
preservation methods make foods safer Vitamins, Proteins Vitamins
Minerals
Kinds of Foods
● Classification of food according to source
(plant/animal; parts used) Water Fats Water
● Classification according to level of technology
applied: Minerals Protein
phosphate enzymes
○ Primary processed: derived basic
commodities from such operations as
milling, oil extraction or animal Dietary Guidelines
slaughter ● Food Guides – food pyramid, food plate
○ Preserved: foods that still retain the ● Nutritional Guidelines – NGF
natural form but are treated to ● Dietary Recommended Intakes (DRI) –
lengthen shelf life RENI, RDA
○ Manufactured: bears little or no
resemblance to the physical form of Advances in Food
the original food source 1. Functional foods
● Classification according to location ● provide additional physiological benefit
(Mediterranean, European, Chinese, etc.) beyond that of providing basic nutritional
● Classification by psycho-socio-cultural needs
(comfort food, ethnic food, traditional food, ● Japan 1980’s – Foods for specified
healthy food such as low carb, vegan, health use (FOSHU)
lactose- free, etc.) ● Examples: herbal teas, probiotics, etc.
● “designer foods”: food has been designed by
biotechnology in contrast to those 2. Food fortification
traditionally derived from natural form ● a law that requires manufacturers to
● Others: functional foods, nutraceuticals fortify specific foods with specific
vitamins/minerals (vit. A, iron, iodine)
Food and Health ● Sangkap Pinoy seals (for processed
The concept of food categorized in a hierarchy: foods, for staple foods)
● May 2005: 71 processed products with
First Survival
seal
Second Hunger satisfaction
Foods required to have mandatory
Third No adverse effect on fortification (RA 8976)
health
Commodity Required Fortificant
Fourth Health and maintenance
Milled rice Iron
Promotes better health &
Fifth reduce risk disease Flour Iron & Vitamin A

Food & medicine have Cooking oil Vit. A

Sixth common origin
Sugar Vit. A

Salt Iodine
3. Nutritional Labeling 4.Water hardness
● part of the food label that contains nutrition ● amount of dissolved calcium and
information about its contents magnesium in water; hard – difficult to
● Consumers can use in planning their meals lather when washing hands and clothes;
● Mandatory causes scaling of cooking equipment like
● Recommended nutrition label format by in water kettles
Codex Alimentarius 5. Ionization of water
● See health claims that require nutrition label ● splitting of molecules into ions of
opposite charge; high H+ ions makes
4. Probiotic and Prebiotics solution acidic and high OH- makes
● probiotic foods are those which contain a live solution basic
microbiological culture either as a result of 6.pH
fermentation or as an intentional addition by ● presence of hydrogen ions
the manufacturer. They are cultures of
bacteria that are healthful for normal Water Activity
intestinal function. ● Describes the amount of water available
● Prebiotic is a nondigestible component which for hydration of materials
beneficially affects the host by selectively ● If zero – total absence of water
stimulating the growth and/or activity of ● Importance in food preservation
colonic bacteria thereby improving the health
of the host. These are nutrients that the Physical Aspects of Food
probiotic bacteria use as a fuel source like ● Food Dispersions
dietary fiber and CHO. ○ a mixture produced by scattering
one material in another
Chemical Structures and Composition of Food
● Chemical Substances Found in Foods are: Three Kinds of Dispersions
○ Carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins, minerals and water 1. True Solutions
● Examples: brine, syrup, carbonate
Water beverage, ready-to-drink coffee
● Biological solvent 2. Colloidal Dispersions
● Hydrogen bond cause water molecules to ● Examples: sauces and gravies,
group together in a 3-dimensional tetrahedral chocolate drink, gelatin, mayonnaise
arrangement 3. Suspensions
● Polar molecules ● Examples: raw starch in water, chopped
pickles in vinegar
Properties of Water

1.Freezing and Boiling point Colloidal Suspensions

● Boiling point – temperature when the
saturated vapor pressure of the liquid equals 1.Sol
the pressure of the atmosphere ● liquid gel; ex. Gelatin, gums dissolved in
hot water
2.Specific heat 2.Gel
● high; water can absorb lot of heat before it ● liquid begins to take a semisolid
gets hot; water is used as a source of heat character
and as a coolant in industries; regulates air 3.Emulsion
temperature ● mixtures of at least 2 immiscible liquids
3.Surface tension (oil and water)
● high; water molecules clump together to form ● Ex. Sauces, gravy
drops rather than spread out in a thin film; 4. Foam
water through the roots and blood through ● dispersion of gas in either liquid or solid
blood vessels ● Ex. Meringue, marshmallow
Heat in Food Preparation

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer:

1. Conduction
● Heat transfer occurs when thermal energy is
transferred from one molecule to an adjacent
molecule without change in relative positions
of the molecules
● Heating of a cooking pan by the heating coils
of an electric heater
2. Convection
● Restricted to liquids and gasses where
molecules are free to move about resulting in
the mixing of hot molecules and cold
molecules
● Heating faster than conduction
● Hot water rises, cold water falls
● Ex. Steaming
● Types:
○ Natural/Free
○ Forced – uses a fan/blower
3. Radiation
● An electromagnetic mechanism
● Ex. Grilling,microwave

Food Acceptance and Food Evaluation

Factors that Affect Food Choices and Acceptability

1. Genotype, physiology and age
2. Eating habits and past experience
3. Cultural, social and economic demographics
4. Attitudes and beliefs
5. Personality
6. Health and nutritional status

Sensory Attributes of Foods

● Appearance
● Flavor
● Odor/Aroma
● Taste
● Basic Tastes
● Mouthfeel – Tactile sense when food is in the
mouth
● Memory

Reference
De Leon, S.Y., Claudio, V.S. Chavez, L.L. and
Guzman, M.P. 2006.Basic Foods for
Filipinos. 4th ed. Manila: Merriam and
Webster.
 Chapter 2 : Sugar and Sugar Cookery Syrups
● Liquid containing varying amounts of
Sugars water
● General term for monosaccharides and ● Cane syrup – concentrated and
disaccharides in crystalline form heated sugarcane juice
● Sweet, soluble, organic compounds ● Maple syrup – 64-68% sucrose,
● Unless qualified, refers to sucrose (table glucose, fructose
sugar) commonly comes from sugar ● Corn syrup – hydrolyzed
cane/sugar beets (99% sucrose content) cornstarch w/ 30% dextrins, 32%
maltose, 18% glucose; less
Types according to Source sweet
● Cane – most common ● Molasses – refined cane/beet
● Maple – has distinct “maple” flavor and color sugar
● Beet ● Honey - produced by bees from
● Corn hydrolysis - cerelose nectar of flowers & stored in
honeycomb cells (35% glucose,
Types according to chemical form 40% fructose, 5% sucrose, 20%
1. Monosaccharides water)
● Glucose ● Refiner’s Sugar – liquor
● Fructose – does not crystallize remained after crystallization of
readily; sweetest sucrose (25% water, brown sugar
● among all sugars flavor)
● Galactose – component of lactose
2. Disaccharides Molasses
● Sucrose – glucose + fructose 1. Light/table molasses
● Lactose – glucose + galactose ● light molasses have more sugar
● Maltose (from grains/starch) – ● may be used for dessert toppings
glucose + glucose 2. Blackstrap molasses
● final residue obtained in refining
Market forms process of sugar
● Granulated/refined sugar ● does not contain sugar
● Brown Sugar – partially purified
● Raw brown sugar – unrefined; also called Physical and Chemical Properties
Muscovado/Kinugay 1. Sweetness
● Panutsa – sugar cane extract evaporated to ● Different sugars have different
brown syrupy concentrate then poured into degree of sweetness
coconut halves & allowed to dry to a solid ● Fructose (sweetest), lactose
● Confectioner’s Sugar/Extra Fine – mixed with (least sweet)
cornstarch to prevent “caking” 2. Solubility
● Sanding Sugar – decorative ● Inversely related to crystallization
● Superfine Sugar – rapid solution ● Directly related to hygroscopicity
● Lump Sugar – prepared by pressing wet & intensity of sweetness
sugar crystals
● Turbinado Sugar – “sugar in the raw” Factors affecting solubility
● Washed Sugar – most common sugar in the ● Nature of sugar (solute) – most to
Philippines least: fructose, sucrose, glucose,
maltose, lactose
● Degree of fineness – the finer,
the more soluble
● Temperature – highly soluble as
T° increases
● Concentration of sugar
● Agitation
 3. Hygroscopicity Functions of Sugar in Food Preparation
● Ability to absorb moisture 1. Sweetening agent
● from air ● Reduce tartness/acidity
● Has dehydrating effect on mcg useful ● Tones down saltiness
in food preservation 2. Main ingredient
● Directly related to sweetness ● In candy making
Dehydrating effect of sugar: 3. Volume & structure improver
● Stabilizes egg white foams ● In jelly making
● Substrate for fermentation by yeast in 4. Leavening agent
producing CO2 in yeast leavened ● When beaten or mixed has the
breads ability to incorporate air as when
● Facilitates precipitation of pectin to creaming with fat producing
form gel network better volume
4. Crystallization 5. Peptizing agent
● Formation of crystals from ● Together with fat: prevent gluten
concentrated sugar solutions particles from coalescing
● Important in candy making producing tender, fine-grain
● Inversely related to ease of solubility textured baked product
6. Tendering effect
Factors affecting crystallization: ● In custards/ starchy sauces/
● Nature of sugar puddings: sugar delays
○ Fructose – hardest to crystallize gelatinization
○ Lactose – easiest to crystallize 7. Color
● Nature of solution ● Due to caramelization & maillard
● Interfering substance – eg. Acids retard browning
crystallization 8. Inversion of sugar
● Agitation – hastens crystallization ● Like in stored fruit cake
5. Maillard browning ● More moist product
● Produced when sugars are heated w/ a
source of amino acids (milk/flour) Undesirable effects
6. Inversion/Hydrolysis 1. Loss of crispness on standing
● In the presence of acid, enzyme invertase or ● Like in cookies & meringues
alkalis - give equal amounts of glucose & ● Due to absorption of moisture
fructose (invert sugar) from air
● Hastened by high T° 2. Melting of candies
7. Caramelization ● Like in fondants
● Browning of sugar/sugar solutions when ● Due to inversion of sugar
heated above melting point at 210°C or 410°F 3. Shrinkage, shriveling & toughening of
causing removal of water from glucose & food cooked in sugar
fructose producing a caramel (a non- ● Like in fruits, beans
crystalline product) ● Due to dehydrating effect of
● Sugar melts at 186°C or 367°F sugar
8. Fermentation 4. Spontaneous crystallization of syrups
● Glucose is highly fermentable ● With high concentration of
9. Creaming sucrose
● Ability to incorporate air within crystals when
beaten (creamed) with plastic fat
10. Raises Boiling Point
● Lowers freezing points of liquids
11. Effect on MCG
● In small amounts: favor growth
● In high concentrations: preservative effect
 Sugar Cookery 1. Type of sugar & solubility
2. Temperature of cooking & concentration
According to method of production of sugar
● Crystalline ● Different confections can be
● Non-crystalline made
3. Interfering substances
According to predominant characteristic Examples: acid
1. Soft chewable 4. Agitation
● Often soft enough to be broken /cut by ● Vigorous stirring prevent
finger pressure alone complete crystallization in
● Caramels, fudge,pastillas amorphous or non-
2. Hard ● crystallization candies
● Usually sucked rather than chewed, 5. Exposure to air
except brittle types (crisp & easy to ● Highly hygroscopic, candies
break) absorb moisture from air
● Lollipops, lemon drops, tira-tira, producing sticky product
peanut brittle ● Should be wrapped/packaged
3. Aerated Candies immediately after they have
● Sponginess & fluffiness sufficiently cooled
● Derived from egg whites or synthetic foam ●
● Marshmallow Type of sugar & solubility
4. Jellies, gums 1. Most commonly used is sucrose
● Soft candies w/ added ingredients like (granulated)
pectin/gums (for jellies & gums) & finely ● Pulverized sugar: granules are of
prepared paste from nut meats for marzipans varying fineness
● Jelly beans, gum drops, masapan de pili ● Confectioner’s, powdered or
icing sugar: ultra-fine particles;
Types of Candy suitable for sugar flowers
1. Crystalline Candies 2. Invert Sugar
● Made from sugar mixtures which have ● Prevents unwanted
been allowed to form tiny crystals crystallization of sugar in candied
through the addition of interfering fruit
substances which serve as nuclei or ● Contains fructose (hardest to
“seeds” for crystal formation or crystallize among sugars)
through agitation or beating 3. Honey
● Characterized by development of fine, ● Has properties similar to invert sugar
smooth texture in candies (presence of equal amounts of glucose &
● Examples: fondant, fudge, cream fructose)
candies, sugar flowers, divinity, Conditions for Making Crystalline candies
marshmallow 1. Complete solution of sugar before boiling
● Fondant 2. Proper cooking temperature to obtain
● Divinity proper concentration of sugar
● Taffy 3. Proper degree of supersaturation
2. Non-crystalline candies 4. Securing the desired type of
● Made from thick syrups that do not crystallization
flow at room temperature Synthetic or Artificial Sweeteners
● Crystallization is prevented by ● Aspartame – 200 times sweeter
ingredients like acids, cream of tartar, ● Acesulfame K – 130 times sweeter
corn syrup called interfering agents, & ● Alitame – 2000 times sweeter
vigorous stirring ● Hernandulcin – 10,000 times sweeter
● Examples: taffy (tira-tira), caramel, ● Neotame
hard candies ● Thaumatin
Factors to Consider in Candy making ● Sucralose
 Chapter 3 : Desserts Difference from gelatin
● Agar-agar is a nondigestible
Molded Desserts carbohydrate while gelatin is a protein.
● Gelatin ● Agar-agar gels at room temperature
● Agar-agar/gulaman while gelatin requires low temperature.
● Agar-agar is firm & brittle breaks with
Nature of Gelatin sharp edges & is not clear.
● A by-product of the meat industry: from ● Agar-agar is soluble only in boiling water;
animal skin & bones gelatin dissolves in hot water.
● Obtained by hydrolyzing collagen ● Agar-agar is not affected by raw
● Made up of amino acids proline and glycine pineapple, papaya or kiwi fruits since
● Has increased affinity of water, thus useful in gulaman is a polysaccharide & not
gel formation protein.
● available in powder form ● Agar-agar gel may also be reversible.
● 1 T or 1 g of dried gelatin per half liter of water
● Sets at 10 to 16 C refrigerator temp Types of Agar-agar
● Plain or unflavored gulaman
Types of gelatin available ● Sweetened & artificially flavored &
● Plain types have no flavor & color (Example: colored gulaman
Knox) ● Powdered gulaman
● Sweetened types – artificially flavored & ● Bar gulaman
colored (example: Jello) ● Gulaman strips

Factors affecting gel formation FROZEN DESSERTS

1. Acid
● Lowers temperature at which gel will form Types of Frozen Desserts
hence longer time to gel
● Weakens gel 1. Ice Cream
2. Raw Pineapple ● 10% butter fat, 20% milk solids, sugar,
● Prevents gel formation flavoring, egg or gelatin as stabilizer.
● Bromelin hydrolyzes gelatin molecules 2. Mellorine
● Bromelin is destroyed by heat ● imitation ice cream using vegetable fat
3. Milk instead of butter fat
● Increases gel strength due to salts in milk 3. Sherbet
thus hard water produces Milk firmer gel ● 2% butter fat, milk, sugar, fruit
4. Sugar 4. Ices
● Retards setting resulting in weaker gel ● no fat; flavoring, water, sugar
5. Mousse
Agar-Agar/Gulaman ● sweetened whipped cream and gelatin
● A gel forming extractive from algae or
seaweeds, obtained by a series of extraction Nature of Frozen Desserts
with water & sulfuric acid 1. Frozen desserts are mixtures of ice crystals
● Grelidium, Gracilaria species floating or suspended in syrup in
● Sold in dried form in bars, strips, flakes which air bubbles had been incorporated.
● 5-6 grams of dried gulaman per half Liter of 2. Frozen desserts are a type of suspension or
water emulsion, a solution or a foam.
● Sets at room T (40C) 3. Characteristics of frozen desserts.
a. “Body” refers to firmness or resistance
to rapid melting
b. Texture is related to size of crystals
and distribution of ice crystals
c. Flavor – depends on the ingredients
used
 d. Overrun or swell – air incorporated during Freezing the Product
the preparation; usually 30-40% or 80-
100% for commercial ice cream. 1. Principle involved
● When pure water is cooled to 4C heat is
Factors Influencing the Characteristics of Frozen removed, expansion of water molecules
Desserts occurs resulting in an increase in volume
and at 0C, crystallization of water occurs.
A, Sugar influences flavor and texture; it lowers ● In an ice cream mixture, as the ice
freezing point of water, hence it slows down crystals begin to form at -2C to 5C water
crystallization. is removed from the syrup, the
● Crystals are kept smaller while the amount of concentration of sugar in the syrup
liquid which remains unfrozen is increases, and the temperature at which
higher = smooth and firm the remaining water crystallizes,
● Lactose crystallizes readily and precipitates becomes progressively lower
in cold water = sandy ● Volume is also increased by
● Sugar also reduces overrun incorporating air thru agitation.

B. Fat from milk or cream influences texture and 2. Freezing the mixture
flavor. ● The freezing apparatus – may be manual
● It acts as barriers to deposition of water or electrical; consists of can with cover-
molecules on ice crystals = smooth and firm dasher; bucket; crank
● Fats rupture air bubbles in agitation, ● The brine: use of salt and ice
decreasing overrun and influencing viscosity. ○ The ice absorbs heat from the
● Ice creams made with18% milk fat has finer mixture. Salt ionizes and lowers
texture the freezing point of ice. Coarse
● Homogenized milk is more effective in salt is used because fine salt
producing finer texture “cakes.”
● Ice creams made with evaporated milk are ○ Ratio of salt to ice: 1 to 8 for slow
finer freezing --- 1 to 4 for fast freezing
or ripening.
C. Milk solids influence body and texture.
● Milk solids limit the size of crystals = fine 3. Equalizing the temperature of the mixture
texture inside the can by agitation.
● Milk solids increase the viscosity of the
mixture and favor the incorporation of air 4. Slow freezing with rapid agitation as
bubbles during agitation crystallization starts to develop at 140 rpm,
● Milk thickened with egg or gelatin before freezing end point is when it is difficult to turn the
freezing = smaller ice crystals crank any more; mixture is only partially frozen
● However too much milk solids crowd out (30%)
water, thus less crystals are formed, frozen
product is heavy 5. Rapid freezing without agitation or ripening
occurs when mixture is allowed to harden fast at
D. Emulsifiers or stabilizers influence the body. temp. of -10C to -12C; 70-100%
E. Egg white influences the body.
F. Agitation
● When the mixture begins to freeze, agitation
favors development of small
crystals.
 F. Do not pour unused milk back into original
Chapter 4 : Milk and Dairy Food Lecture container
G. Close container so milk will not absorb flavors
I. What is milk? H. Canned milk - store in cool, dry place; rotate
A. 87% water and turn cans upside
B. 13% solids { fat and fat-soluble vitamins it down in storage every few months.
contains and the solids not fat, include I. Store dry milk in a cool, dry place. Humidity
carbohydrates, protein, water- soluble causes milk to lump and
vitamins and minerals. may change color and flavor - throw out.
C. Our most nearly perfect food. J. Freezing milk changes consistency and not
D. No other single food can substitute for milk nutritional value. Refrigerate to thaw.
in diet and give a person the same nutrients
that you get from a glass of milk. V. Processing of milk
E. Adults 2 cups} Teenagers 4 cups} per day A. Pasteurization
Children 3 cups} ● is the process of heating raw milk to at
least 145° and holding continuously for at
II. Nutrients least 30 minutes or to at least 161° and
A. Protein - body building and repair holding for at least 15 seconds in
B. Carbohydrates - energy and warmth approved and properly operated
C. Fats - energy and warmth, carries fat-soluble equipment. The milk is then cooled
vitamins ADEK promptly to 45° or lower. Milk’s keeping
D. Vitamins - Growth, prevents diseases quality is improved, but nutrient value is
1. Vitamin D - bones and teeth, prevents not significantly changed.
rickets B. Homogenization
2. Vitamin A - aids growth, prevents night ● is the process of breaking up milk fat into
blindness smaller globules which disperses them
3. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) - regulates permanently in a fine emulsion
production of energy from dietary fat, throughout milk. This is done in a
carbohydrates and protein. homogenizer where milk is forced under
E. Minerals - strong bones and teeth, body high pressure through very tiny
regulation openings. Nothing is added or removed.
1. Calcium - bones and teeth, prevents Homogenization results in the formation
osteoporosis of a softer curd during digestion.
2. Phosphorus - bones and teeth C. Fortified
● is the addition of one or more vitamins
III. Shopping pointers (s), minerals (s) or proteins (s) not
A. Product name naturally present in a food. The term,
B. Pasteurized fortified, also applies when added
C. Homogenized nutrients include one or more naturally
D. Ingredients, if any are added present in the food.
E. Pull date - date on container, indicates that the D. Ultra-pasteurization
milk should stay fresh 5 - 7 days after the date ● is the process of heating raw milk for two
stamped on carton to four seconds at 275 to 300 °, then
aseptically packaging it to stay fresh from
IV. Storage tips 60 to 90 days. The product should be
A. Pick up as one of the last items in store kept under refrigeration. After opening it
B. Refrigerate as soon as possible will hold only as long as any other milk.
C. Use milk in order of purchase from individual
refrigerators at home (Put freshest milk in the back
and use the oldest first)
D. Chill UHT milk before serving. Refrigerate after
opening.
E. Dry milk should be refrigerated after reconstituted
VI. Forms of Milk J. Sweetened condensed milk
A. Raw milk ● is a canned whole milk concentrate,
● fresh, unpasteurized milk straight from the prepared by evaporating enough water,
cow. under vacuum, from fresh whole milk to
B. Whole milk reduce the volume by half. It is
● contains not less than 3.25% milkfat. It must pasteurized and sugar added to prevent
contain not less than 8.25% solids-not-fat. spoilage.
Almost all whole milk marketed is also K. Whipping cream
fortified with vitamin D. ● is the fat of whole milk. Heavy cream
C. Low Fat milk contains a minimum of 36 percent fat,
● has had sufficient milk fat removed to bring while light whipping cream contains 30 to
the levels between 0.5 and 2%. It also 36 percent fat.
contains at least 8.25% solids-not-fat. It must L. Half-and-half
contain 2000 IU of vitamin A per quart. ● a blend of milk and cream has 10 to 12
Vitamin A is added to offset its loss caused percent fat.
by removal of some of the milkfat. You can M. Sour cream
find milk in this category labeled: ● with 18 percent fat, is cream that has
1. lowfat been soured by lactic-acid bacteria.
2. 2 % milk N. Yogurt
3. 1% milk ● is a milk product with a custard-like
D. Skim milk consistency. It is made by fermenting
● also called nonfat milk, has had sufficient milk partially skimmed milk with special acid-
fat removed to bring the level to less than forming bacteria.
0.5%. It must contain not less than 8.25%
solids-not-fat and must be fortified with VII. Grades of Milk
vitamin A. A. Grade A
E. Chocolate milk ● has the lowest bacterial count and is the
● is made by adding chocolate or cocoa and grade sold in retail stores.
sweetener to 2% milk. It must be fortified with B. Grade B
Vitamin A and addition of vitamin D is ● safe and wholesome.
optional. C. Grade C
F. Eggnog ● safe and wholesome.
● is a mixture of milk, eggs, sugar and cream. 1. The grade does not indicate its
It may also contain added flavorings such as richness, but applies only to its degree of
rum extract, nutmeg or vanilla. It’s a seasonal sanitation.
product most readily available during the
holidays. VIII. Uses of milk
G. Nonfat dry milk A. Beverage
● is the product obtained by removal of water ● It requires no preparation other than
only from pasteurized skim milk. chilling. It can be served hot or cold with
H. Buttermilk meals, as snacks, and as party foods.
● is made by adding a special bacterial culture B. Milk as an ingredient
to milk to produce the desirable acidity, body, ● Milk contributes to the nutritive value,
flavor and aroma characteristic of this flavor, texture, consistency, and
product. browning quality of food products. Milk in
I. Evaporated milk all forms can be used as an ingredient in
● is a canned whole milk concentrate, prepared a variety of recipes.
by evaporating enough water, under vacuum,
from fresh whole milk to reduce the volume
by half. This concentrate is then
homogenized, fortified with vitamin D, packed
in cans, sealed and sterilized by heat.
IX. Principles of Milk Cookery XII. Reducing fat content in recipes calling
A. Prevent film or scum formation for milk products
1. Using a covered container A. Use skim or 2% milk for whole milk
2. Stirring the milk during heating B. Use yogurt for mayonnaise
3. Beating the mixture with a rotary beater to
form a layer of foam on the surface XIII. Sauces
B. Prevent boiling over A. Flavored liquids that have been thickened.
1. The formation of the film on the boiled milk B. Thickeners:
is the principal reason for the boiling over of 1. flour
milk. A pressure develops under the scum 2. cornstarch
which forces the milk to break through the film 3. tapioca
and boil over the sides of the pan. 4. eggs
C. Prevent scorching of milk 5. vegetables
1. When milk is heated, some of its protein C. Most thickeners cannot be added by
tends to settle out (coagulate) on the sides themselves to hot food. They will cook into
and bottom of the pan and can scorch easily lumps.
unless the milk is heated on a very low heat. 1. Add small amount to another food
2. Stirring the milk while it heats helps to thin (sugar or cold liquid)
out the film. 2. Cook over low heat
3. Use a double boiler to avoid scorching. 3. Don’t overcook (may lose thickening
D. Prevent curdling of milk power)
1. When acid is added to milk, the protein D. White Sauce
settles out in white clumps, or curds, and 1. By varying its thickness and flavor, the
separates from the whey causing curdling. sauce can be used for a
(Example: acids in tomatoes can cause milk variety of things.
protein to separate as in tomato soup) 2. The secret to making a smooth white
2. Thicken with starch either the milk or the sauce is using the right amount of flour
food to be added to the milk. (Example: and in the proper blending of the butter
tomato soup - thicken milk with four and then and flour. Measure accurately and mix
add the tomato, or thicken the tomato and quickly.
then add the milk) a. thin - vegetable
3. Cook at a low temperature b. medium - cheese sauce,
4. Use very fresh milk (Milk with a high acid casseroles, soups, gravy
content will curdle when heated; acids can c. thick - croquettes
develop from improper storage)
E. Recipe
X. Milk Substitutes
medium thin thick
A. Cheese, ice cream, can replace part of milk in diet
- but at added cost and they have more calories butter 2 Tbs. 1 Tbs. 3 Tbs.
B. Cheese and cottage cheese - larger containers
cost less flour 2 Tbs. 1 Tbs. 4 Tbs.
C. Yogurt and ice cream - cost as much as three salt 1⁄4 tsp. 1⁄4 tsp. 1⁄4 tsp.
times a glass of milk
pepper dash dash dash
XI. Stretching the Milk Dollar
milks 1 cup 1 cup 1 cup
A. Buy milk larger than quart size
B. Buy quantity containers
C. Home delivery cost more
D. Use evaporated milk in cooking
E. Nonfat dry milk in cooking and as a beverage
 MILK PROCESSING TECHNIQUES:
Milk Processing
● Milk is one of the most basic of all foods. Milk From the time it is milked from the animal to the
constitutes a complete diet and even for time of sale, milk has to undergo processing to
adults, cow’s milk includes many essential improve the keeping quality and to make it fit for
nutrients particularly calcium. consumption. The various stages are:
● Source: Mankind from time immemorial has 1. Collection
used the milk of animals. The milk of cow, ● Milk is brought to the dairy in clean
buffalo and goat is generally used. In some sterilized vessels, preferably stainless
countries milk of sheep, mare and camel is steel.
also used. 2. Holding tanks
● Milk represents a major ingredient in our diet- ● The milk is immediately transferred to
poured over cereals, drunk in glasses, in tea holding tanks and is held at 10°C to keep
and coffee- but it also enters the composition it safe.
of many dishes especially desserts such as ● Cooling is done either in a tank, jacketed
ice cream, custard, pancakes, rice puddings with pipes in which runs a brine solution.
etc. it is particularly high in calcium, but it is Else the milk is run over very cold water
also fairly in fat. pipes.
● COMPOSITION: Whole milk – that is, milk 3. Filtration
comes from the cow- is composed of water ( ● The milk is passed through a series of
88%), milk fat ( 3.25 %), other milk solids( screens and filters to remove sediment
protein, lactose and minerals)- 8.25%. and floating particles.
● There are many types of milk consumed 4. Pasteurization
though mostly it is cow’s milk, goat’s milk and ● It is the process of heating milk to 63.7°C
sheep’s milk. and holding it at that temperature for 30
minutes.
HISTORY OF MILK ● This is known as the “Holder Process of
● Milk can be defined as a white opaque slightly Pasteurization”.
sweet nutritious liquid secreted by the ● Nowadays, Flash Pasteurization is more
mammary glands. commonly used. It is also called the
● Milk has always been a symbol of fertility and HTST or High Temperature Short Time
wealth since biblical times and the promised method, where the milk is heated to
land was described to be flowing with milk 71.6°C for only 15 seconds.
and honey. ● Pasteurization makes milk safe for
● In India and Asia, zebus and water-buffalo’s human consumption by destroying
milk were considered sacred while the pathogenic germs (pathogens). It also
Romans and the Greeks were partial to the helps to increase the shelf life. Flavor of
goat’s and ewe’s milk; they also drank mares, the milk remains unaffected at
camels, and asses milk. pasteurization temperature.
● Milk has a flourishing population of microbes. 5. Homogenization
This is vital for natural coagulation of milk, but ● At a temperature of 60°C, milk is passed
it can be harmful that is why various methods under high pressure through a small
are used to pasteurize or sterilize the milk, opening of a machine called
thus avoiding deterioration and prolonging homogenizer.
the length of time if it can be stored. ● The main purpose is to subdivide the fat
globules in milk and disperse them
evenly in the entire mass. Fat has a low
density and tends to rise to the surface
during heating.
● Homogenization prevents this by first
breaking up the fat into tiny particles and
then dispersing them throughout the
 milk. This adds to the flavor and results in a ● flavor and color added. Treated with a
better body. high temperature of 100oC for about 15
6. Bottling mins, so that they may be kept later at
● The bottles of selected and uniform size have room temperature.
to be sterilized by steam and hot water and 7. Untreated milk
then they are filled with milk, which are ● it retains its entire natural flavor. It is
capped automatically. advised to boil for 15 minutes before
● Nowadays milk is filled in plastic pouches and using. It remains good in the refrigerator
these are more economical, easily for 24 hrs.
transported and save storage space. Plastic 8. Pasteurized milk
pouches are easily disposed of and are safe ● To kill bacteria by heating milk or other
to handle. liquids to moderately high temperatures
7. Sterilization for a short period of time. Milk must be
● The sealed bottles are now heated for 30 to heated to at least 145°F for not less than
40 minutes at temperatures ranging from 30 minutes or at least 161°F for 15
104-110°C in steam chambers called seconds, and then rapidly cooled to 40°F
autoclaves and then allowed to cool. or lower.
● Milk can also be sterilized before bottling. It is
subjected to temperatures of 135-150°C for TONED MILK
just 1 second. This is called the UHT or Ultra ● toning is done to make buffalo milk
Heat Treatment. This process kills off all resemble in appearance and flavor to
microorganisms and the very short holding cow’s milk. It is done by dilution and
temperature reduces the changes in color addition of skimmed milk powder. 40 %
and is lined with aluminum foil. Milk is then of skimmed milk is added to 60 % of
distributed through various outlets. buffalo milk. The addition of skimmed
milk powder makes up for the dilution of
Various types of milk: the nutrients, the fat content remains
diluted and equal to that of cow’s milk.
1. Untreated milk
● it retains its entire natural flavor. It is advised Concentrated milk
to boil for 15 minutes before using. It remains 1. Evaporated milk
good in the refrigerator for 24 hrs. ● unsweetened milk, evaporated under
2. Pasteurized milk reduced pressure and reduced to 60%
● To kill bacteria by heating milk or other liquids and canned.
to moderately high temperatures for a short 2.Sweetened milk
period of time. ● same as above but sugar is added
● Milk must be heated to at least 145°F for not before processing. Sugar acts as
less than 30 minutes or at least 161°F for 15 preservatives also.
seconds, and then rapidly cooled to 40°F or 3. Milk powder
lower. ● This is the whole milk from which the
3. Sterilized milk water is removed by either spray drying
● is homogenized milk, heated to about 112oC or by drying processes
under pressure for 15 mins in a sealed bottle.
The bottle is rapidly pulled to 80oC and then CULTURED DAIRY PRODUCTS
allows reaching lower temperature. ● Cultured dairy products such as yogurt,
4. Skimmed milk buttermilk, and sour cream are produced
● This is milk without any fat. Basically it is a fat by adding specific bacterial cultures to
buster, low calorie produce fluid diary products. The bacteria convert
5. Fortified milk the lactose to lactic acid, giving the
● extra nutrients are added to make the milk products their body, and tangy and
more nutritious. Usually vitamin B is used. unique flavor.
6. Flavored milk
USES OF MILK
● Used in soups & sauces.
● Used in vegetable preparation.
● Used for making puddings, cakes & sweet
dishes.
● It is used for the preparation of non-alcoholic
drinks such as milk shakes
● Used in preparation of hot drink such as tea,
coffee, hot chocolates etc

Notes : WHOLE MILK: It comes as pasteurized & has

fat content of 3.9 %.
 CREAM 4. Clotted Cream
Cream ● contains not less than 55% butterfat. It is
● Cream is the butter fat content of whole cow’s already very thick so it can be used as it
milk, separated from the water. is and not whipped.
● Cream is commercially separated from milk in 5. Soured Cream
a creamery, by means of a mechanical ● These are single creams which contain
separator. about 20% butterfat, but have a souring
● The milk is first heated to between 32-49°C culture in them, and they are matured.
(90-120°F) before being run into the 6. Half and Half
separator which operates like centrifugal ● is a mixture of milk and cream in equal
machine, rotating at very high speed and quantities and contains about 10-12%
forcing the milk, which is heavier, to the butterfat.
outside; while the cream, which is lighter,
remains at the center. The cream and the Note: Cream should be whipped at around 4oC.
skimmed milk are drained out through And for this it will be helpful to chill the bowls also
separate outlets and by means of a control so as to allow little dissipation of heat.
valve, the fat content is adjusted. The
skimmed milk is then heated to 79.5°C Manufactured Cream
(175°F) to kill off any harmful bacteria before 1. Reconstituted Cream
being further processed into dried milk etc. 2. It is made by emulsifying butter with
● The principal difference between the various skimmed milk or skimmed milk powder.
types of cream -single cream, double cream, This is not true cream, but a substance
whipping cream, clotted cream and soured which resembles it in appearance.
cream - is the balance between water and 3. Imitation or Synthetic Cream
butterfat. This will make them liquid or of a 4. It is made by the emulsification of
very thick consistency. vegetable fats with dried egg and gelatin,
● Other differences are in the way they have and then sugar and flavorings are added.
been made and their time for maturing which It is a product which is frequently used in
results in different tastes. Cream has a slight catering and baking trade, but which is
yellow or ivory color and is more viscous than very easily contaminated and liable to
milk. cause food-poisoning.
● Cream is used in the kitchen to give flavor Uses of Cream
and body to sauce, soups and desserts. 1. To serve with hot or cold coffee and
chocolate.
1. Single Cream 2. To serve as an accompaniment (fruit
● contains not less than 18% butterfat. It cannot based salad).
be whipped due to their being too little 3. To be used for decorative purposes in
butterfat. cakes and gateaux and for garnishes in
2. Double cream soups and desserts.
● contains not less than 45% butterfat. It can be 4. As a main ingredient in certain desserts
whipped but not too much as it will turn to such as ice-cream and custards.
butter. It can be used to enrich sauces, but Storage of Cream
may curdle if boiled along with acid ● Fresh cream must be treated in the same
ingredients. way as fresh milk, as far as storage is
3. Whipping Cream concerned. Whipped cream must be
● containing not less than 38% butterfat. It is covered and stored in sterilized
perfect for whipping as its name indicates. containers in the refrigerator and used on
After whipping you will find a difference in the same day.
texture and a change in volume. ● Reconstituted and intimation cream must
● Sweetened or unsweetened cream can be be refrigerated and only small quantities
used in desserts or can be used as an be whipped, when required for
accompaniment, and is incorporated in immediate use.
mousses to lighten them.
 CHEESE ● Rennet also helps break down the curd
Cheese into a smooth, even consistency,
● Cheese is the curd of or the fresh or matured contributing to the texture and flavor.
product obtained by enzyme activity and
subsequent separation of whey by drainage, TYPES OF CHEESE
after coagulation of milk, cream, partly The type of cheese produced by the cheese
skimmed milk, buttermilk or a combination of maker depends on the amount of moisture he
these bases. wishes to eliminate and the size of the cheese.
● The present word cheese is derived from the The amount of moisture in the cheese will also
old English word "Cese" and "Chiese" from determine what kind of rind or mold will grow on
the Latin "Caseus". The equivalent words in the cheese.
German" Kase", and French "Fromage", in
Spain it is called "Queso", and in Italy 1. Fresh Cheeses
"Fromaggio" ● Fresh cheeses are usually made by
● The ingredients used for the manufacture of setting the curd with starter and rennet
cheese making are Milk, starter, color, added and are high in moisture.
chemicals, coagulates, salt. ● The young curd is placed in sacks or
perforated containers and drained slowly
COMPONENTS OF CHEESE MAKING without pressure for a few hours so that
1. Milk the curd retains much of the whey. Once
● The various cheeses of the world first owe sufficient whey has been drained off, the
their character and taste to the type of milk curds are either mixed or sprinkled with
used - double cream, toned, or skimmed milk. salt. They are now ready to be eaten.
● The character also greatly depends on the ● For some cheese, like from age fares,
animal the milk came from - cow, goat, ewe, the rennet is not added. Such cheese is
or water buffalo. called ‘lactic cheese’.
● Some fresh
2. Starter ● cheeses are allowed to mature and grow
● If left in a warm place, milk will sour by itself. either a white or bluish gray mold.
This souring is due to the action of bacteria ● Fresh cheeses are always mild and high
on the milk sugar, lactose, and its conversion in moisture and therefore low in fat.
to lactic acid or sour milk. ● They have a slightly acidic or lactic taste.
● To speed up the process of souring and to Most are used for cooking but some may
prevent the milk from becoming bitter and be wrapped in leaves or dusted with
unpleasantly sour, a little warm sour milk from paprika or fresh herbs for serving as a
the previous day’s milk is added to this batch. table cheese.
This speeds up or starts the process of
coagulation, and is known as the starter or 2 .Soft Cheeses
starter culture. In the case of pasteurized ● The curd is ladled gently into perforated
milk, all bacteria is killed, and hence the molds and left to drain in an atmosphere
starter consists of a combination of cultures of high humidity so that the curd does not
grown in the lab. lose too much whey. After a few hours,
the cheeses are turned out of their molds
3. Rennet and left to mature for a few weeks.
● Although the starter culture speeds up the ● Their high moisture content, coupled with
process of souring milk, and would eventually high humidity, attracts and encourages
cause it to curdle, it produces quite a sharp, the growth of classic white penicillium
acidic taste. mold, which helps to break down the
● The use of rennet, which is an enzyme from curd and contribute to the flavor and
the inner lining of young hoofed animals like texture of the cheese.
lambs and calves, significantly improves the ● The result is a creamy, smooth, interior
product. that looks as though it is almost ready to
run
 ● Once the cheeses can stand up on their
3. Semi-hard Cheeses own, they are removed from the molds,
● To obtain a firmer cheese, the curd is cut up rubbed with salt, and returned to the
to release some of the whey before the curd cellars.
is placed in the molds. It is then often lightly ● The blue mold is a strain of pencillium
pressed to speed up the draining. that is added to the milk before the
● After a day or so, the cheese is turned out of rennet is added.
its mold and washed in brine. ● For the blue mold to grow however, it
● This seals the rind before the cheese is needs to breathe, and this is aided by
placed in cellars or ripening rooms where piercing the cheese with rods. The blue
molds are encouraged to grow. then grows along the tunnels and into the
● The lower moisture content means the nooks and crannies between the loose
fermentation process is slower, producing curd producing shattered porcelain look
cheeses with a round, full bodied, rather than that typifies blue cheese.
strong flavor. ● Most blue cheeses are normally wrapped
● Their taste often seems to be embodied with in foil to prevent them from drying up.
the oils and esters of the wild mountain
flowers of Europe. When young, semi- soft MATCHING WINE AND CHEESE
cheeses have a firm yet springy, school
CHEESE WINE
eraser texture, becoming elastic and supple.
Fresh Cheese Fresh light, crisp white
4. Hard Cheeses wines like Sauvignon or
● To make a hard cheese, the curd must be cut Chenin Blanc
more finely - from small cubes to rice-sized
Frascati, Soave or Loire
pieces. - The smaller the pieces the more
whites
whey will be lost from the curd.
● The curds are then gently heated in a vat to Soft cheese Slightly sweet wine with
force out more moisture before the whey is the mild, slightly sharp or
drained out. Salt is then added to the curd, salty cheeses
which now resembles rubbery, lumpy cottage
Fruity wines with rich,
cheese. sweet and creamy
● They may be cut again before being placed in
large, perforated molds that are frequently Semi-hard Full bodied gusty whites or
engraved with the unique symbol, logo, Cheese light, fruity reds
pattern or name to identify the finished
Chianti Rioja Merlot
cheese or its maker. This is then sealed and
left to mature for weeks or even years. Hard Cheese Mild - fruity reds like Merlot
● Hard block cheeses are pressed into shape Medium - Cotes du Rhone,
and then matured in special plastic wrap that Cabernet Sauvignon
allows the cheese to age without the Strong - Shiraz, Cabernet
development of either mold or rind. The Sauvignon
Extra strong - Port or
moisture that would normally be lost during
Madeira
maturation is also retained.
Blue Cheese Mild - fruity whites or Rose
5. Blue Cheeses wines like Vouvray, Chenin
● Blue cheeses are neither pressed nor Blanc
cooked. Most frequently the curd is crumbled, Piquant - Cotes du Rhone,
Shiraz
eliminating much of the whey, then scooped
Roquefort - Sauternes
into stainless steel cylindrical molds, each Stilton - Port
with a wooden disc on top. The curd remains
in the molds for one to two weeks and is
churned frequently to let the weight of the
curds press out more of the whey.
 content ,which is primarily a function of the
methods used in concentrating the curds.

Preparation of milk
● Milk is one of the prime ingredients for
making cheese, it is a high protein dairy
product made from the milk of animals
like cows, sheep, goat, buffalo, yak etc.
● Prior to the manufacturing process, milk
needs to be prepared; this is done by
pasteurizing the milk, homogenizing it
and then clarifying it.

Addition of starter
This is done by two methods:
● In sour milk cheese lactic acid bacteria
thickens the milk
● In sweet milk cheeses (most cheeses are
of this kind), which are also called rennet
cheeses, the cheese maker adds rennet-
an enzyme taken from the stomach of
suckling calves to separate solids in the
milk from the fluid.
The process of making cheese can be divided into ○ The rennet causes the milk
three fundamental steps. protein to build up and the milk to
1. The first is the precipitation of casein into curdle without the milk turning
curd. Bacteria that produce lactic acid are sour. In this method all other solid
infused in to the warm milk to obtain an particles like fat, protein and
adequate acidity for the action of rennet and vitamins get encompassed. Most
to crowd out less desirable organisms.Then , of the rennet used today in
rennet is added , which causes the caseins to cheese making comes from the
aggregate ,trapping fat globules and whey in lining of a calf’s stomach.
the protein network. Formation of Coagulum
2. The second stage is the concentration of ● Addition of starter leads to coagulation of
curds .Any free whey is drained off. The curds milk into a thick mass called ‘young curd’
are cut,pressed, cooked and salted to and separation of whey.
remove much of the rest. ● When the process is complete the liquid
3. The final stage is the ripening or aging of the whey is drained off and the solid mass of
green curd. It transforms the initially curd or coagulated milk protein is used to
produced bland and either crumbly or rubbery make cheese. At this stage this is called
curds into a smooth substance with a as ‘firm curd’
pronounced and complex flavour.Ripening is
mostly a matter of molecular breakdown Cutting
caused by the enzymes of microbes , both the ● Firm curd is cut into smaller pieces by
original starter bacteria and special ripening use of knives or chains. The size of the
organisms. cut will be dictated by the type and recipe
of cheese.
NOTE: One way of classifying the kinds of cheeses ● In most countries this process is carried
that are still made today is by the characteristic out manually. This process is carried out
ripening organisms and their location. Blue for hard cheeses.
cheese,for example, are ripened from within by veins
of mold. Brie and Camembert from without surface
molds. Another useful consideration is the water
Stirring/ Scalding ● Hard and firm cheeses if wrapped can
● This process is also carried out for hard keep from a week to several months if
cheeses. It expels more whey and shrinks the refrigerated. Even with the best of care,
curd. once a whole cheese has been cut it
● This process also speeds up the bacterial tends to dry out, get a sharper flavor, and
metabolism. develop inedible molds around the
edges.
Salting ● Semi soft and soft cheeses keep for
● Salt is added into the cheese by wet or dry about 1 to 2 weeks, the fresh cheese
method as per the recipe. Brining in some should not be kept for more than 1 week.
cheeses also leads to longevity in shelf life
Cooking with cheese
Molding or Vatting and Pressing ● Cheese cookery poses no problems so
● After salting cheese is put in molds for it to long as you keep the temperature low or
acquire a particular shape. the cooking time short or both.
● This can be done in plastic or wooden molds ● The high protein content of cheese
● The cheese is pressed which gives it a means that it becomes tough and stringy
definite shape. In the case of blue cheese, with high temperatures and prolonged
pressing is not done. cooking. Its fat content may also
separate out.
Finishing ● Cheese used in starch infused sauces
● Cheese is de-moulded and a rind or coating must not be added until the thickening
is given to the cheese. process is completed.
● This process includes coating, wrapping or ● Cheese for gratinating should be added
bandaging the cheese. near the end of the cooking process. A
● The softer cheeses acquire a natural rind glaze administered in the salamander is
while it matures. always a quick trip, whatever the product
● In some cases rind is dried by rubber ash, use
of grape must and wrapping it in leaves. Such Famous Cheeses of the world
as Gorgonzola which is coated with plaster of
Paris English
● 1. Cheddar
Ripening/ Maturing ● Often called American cheese, but it is
● Mostly the harder cheeses are matured. They English and made in the Cheddar Gorge
are matured in caves. region in Somerset.
● A hard cheese can take anything from 8 ● It is a best seller among the cheeses and
weeks to a year to ripen and mature. is a firm ripened type; it comes in many
varieties ranging in flavor from very mild
Holding and storage to very sharp “rat cheese”.
● In Europe people normally place the cheese ● It is used in sandwiches and appetizers
on a stone, cover it with a cover made of clay and as a dessert cheese.
and store it in the coolest part of the house. ● It is also the
● All first class hotels normally have a separate ● most used cooking cheese, the one the
refrigerator to store cheese, as the cook uses when the recipe says
temperatures normally maintained in the “cheese”.
refrigerators are too high. 2.Stilton
● Cheeses are both held and stored under ● Considered the “King of Cheeses” and is
refrigeration. Their most significant limitation the best of all English blue cheeses and
is that they tend to dry and harden when can take its place confidently alongside
exposed to air. This means that as soon as the world famous Roquefort in France
you cut into a block of cheese you must either and Gorgonzola from Italy.
use it or you must wrap it up tightly in a plastic
wrap.
 ● Stilton is a white cheese with a light yellow French
hue and a strong blue-green mold culture. 1. Brie and Camembert
● The taste is spicy and is mostly drunk with a ● Most French cheeses are soft and the
glass of Port. luxury end of the scale is two dessert
cheeses Brie and Camembert-both
Italian almost sauce soft.
1. Parmesan ● They taste much better than their aroma
● Another well-known flavor of salad dressings and rather unattractive appearance,
and sauces. which would lead you to believe.
● It is a hard ripe cheese with a piquant and ● But an odor of ammonia will tell you
sharp flavor. when they are past their prime.
● This is the cheese you shake onto spaghetti, 2. Roquefort
and it tastes delicious when you grate it fresh ● Comes from the region of Rouergue.
from a hard block. ● It looks like marble, for its noble paleness
2. Gorgonzola is patterned with blue veins and patches.
● Originally produced near Milan in a town ● It is made from sheep’s milk that is full
called Gorgonzola, from full cream cream and unpasteurised.
pasteurized cow milk. ● Is used for blue cheese dressing for
● It is very creamy, soft and marbled with blue salads.
veins. ● It originates from a classic sheep area in
● To allow the blue veining to spread through it the south of France called Roquefort sur
the cheese is punctured with long high grade Soulzon.
needles from one side and then a week later 3. Reblochon
from the other side. ● It has a creamy and supple texture. It has
● It has a sharp and spicy taste which is an a yellow orange rind with a white mold.
excellent contrast to the creamy texture of the ● The elastic smooth creamy dough has a
cheese. pleasantly mild taste somewhat
3. Mascarpone reminiscent of hazelnut.
● It is described as curd cheese. 4. Boursin
● Serves as a very good alternative to double ● Boursin is a soft fresh cheese that comes
cream cheese in tiramisu. from the Normandy region in France.
4. Bel Paese ● This is a moist and creamy cheese, it
● Another delicious cheese from Italy, which is melts in the mouth.
soft and yellow, sweetish and very mild. ● Boursin is in two famous flavors i.e.
● Made from pasteurized milk. cracked peppercorns and garlic.
5. Dolcelatte 5. Neufchatel
● It is a famous sweet cheese from Italy ● Comes from the Normandy region in
6. Mozzarella France.
● Mozzarella is one of the most famous Italian ● It is a soft white cheese with a grainy
cheeses, it is used more to give finish to a texture.
dish rather than taste. ● It has a slight taste of mushroom and is
● It is a creamy cheese made from Buffalo milk. salty and sharp.
7. Parmigiano - Reggiano
● It is a hard cheese with orange rind. Greece
● It has a strong and fruity aroma, but not 1. Feta
overpowering. ● This is a goat cheese from Greece made
● Used in sauces, salads and over pasta and from goats or sheep’s milk and is an
risotto. integral part of Greek cuisine.
8. Ricotta
● Is a soft, moist yet firm cheese.
● Used as a dessert cheese with sugar and
fruits and also in pastry fillings.
● It is also used for filling savories like ravioli
Swiss ● Gauda is a firm, smooth and supple
1. Emmenthal cheese; it has a sweet and fruity flavor.
● Emmenthal cheese is equated with Swiss ● Also had as a breakfast cheese.
cheese all over the world. 3. Danablu/ Danish Blue Danablu
● It is made of raw cow milk and with the ● is one of the most famous blue cheeses.
addition of rennet. ● It is sharp, metallic and salty taste Indian
● It is easily recognized by the large holes. cheeses used in Hotels
● The gas produced is partially entrapped in the 4. Amul
cheese and this causes the formation of the ● Britannia
holes. ● Flanders – Mozzarella, Gouda, Quark (
● The smoother the productions the more even Cream Cheese)
and attractive are the holes.
● It is a mild cheese with a nutty aroma. Cheese fondue
2. Gruyere ● Switzerland attributes its standard of
● Another delicious cheese from Switzerland, living to cheese and has a great many
which also has holes though, they are much cheese recipes of which the cheese
smaller. fondue is the most famous.
● It’s mild when young and sharper when older.
● It's a sharp cheese with a nutty aroma. Facts worth knowing about fondue
3. Raclette ● A fondue pot with a handle is a must
● Based on a variety of regional cheeses it was whether it is made of glazed ceramic,
a meal for alpine herdsmen and farmers. clay or enameled cast iron.
● At some point of time, we don’t know when ● The basic recipe contains white wine and
the cheese got too close to the fire. Melted two kinds of cheese grated or shredded,
cheese was found to be delectable and thus all combined and stirred while heating.
the Raclette was born. ● Usually Emmenthal and Gruyere are
● Originally Raclette was limited to just jacket used in combination as one alone would
potatoes and pickles. These days we have a be too mild and the other alone would be
whole new range with chicken, meat, fish, too sharp.
game and vegetables counting among the ● A little lemon juice should be added to
ingredients. the wine to provide greater acidity to
● A Raclette grill has a heating element under break up the cheese.
which you place your cheese and then serve ● The thickened and sharp cheese dish is
it. taken and served to the guest over a
● Authentically the cut surface of half the lamp at the table.
cheese is pushed towards the fire, and the ● Guests help themselves to bite sized
melting cheese is scraped onto the plate. The pieces of bread, spear a piece of bread
cheese is scraped with a knife. and dunk it into the cheese cream.
● It was the knife, which gave its name. Derived
from French Raclette means spatula or
scraper.

Holland
1. Edam
● Named after the small port of Edam, north of
Amsterdam, it is a pressed, semi soft cheese.
● Edam is coated in red wax, which makes it so
distinctive and is sold young.
● Edam coated in black wax indicates that it is
aged between 4-10 months.
2. Gouda
● It accounts for more than 60% cheese in
Holland.
 BUTTER Types of butter
Butter 1. Sweet cream butter
● Butter is a fatty substance obtained from ● Butter can be made from any kind of
churned cream, containing 80% fat, 20% milk. In India, butter is made from buffalo
water and whey (milk solids lift from milk.
separating process). ● It is also known as fresh cream butter
● Butter hardens at low temperature and melts and is made from unripened cream.
when heated. ● It can be salted or unsalted. It has a soft,
● The smoking temperature of butter is 127oC. creamy texture and a creamy buttery
● Color varies from creamy white to golden taste
yellow. It is the milk protein in the whey that 2. Lactic butter.
makes butter spoil quickly. ● This type of butter is specially made in
● Most of the butter is made from cow’s milk but Denmark, Holland and france.
some butter made from the milk of buffalo, ● The cream is mostly pasteurized,
yak, goat and sheep is also available. inoculated with a culture that ripens the
butter, then pasteurized once more to
PROCESSING / MANUFACTURING OF BUTTER arrest the ripening process.
1. HOLDING
● Cream is pasteurized for 2-4 seconds at 95o Uses of Butter
C and then the temperature is lowered to 4- ● As a spread for bread, toast and scones
5o C and that is kept for several hours to ● As a basic ingredient in pastry-making
ensure uniform hardening of fat particles. and cake-making.
2. RIPENING ● Used as an accompaniment (compound
● When the end product is going to be Lactic butter).
butter, only then this step is carried out, in ● To enhance the taste and flavour of
which bacterial culture is added. In this case, soups and sauces.
the holding temperature will be 15-18o C for ● As a cooking medium (The smoke point
3-4 hours before being cooled to 4-5o C. of butter fat is only 127-130°C; so
● This gives butter a good flavor and the stage vegetable oil should be used when high
is omitted while making sweet cream butter. cooking temperatures are required).
3. CHURNING ● For butter sculptures.
● It is carried out in big stainless steel
containers holding about 100 gallons of Notes :
cream and the internal churners pass through ● Butter is available in 10 Gms, 100 Gms
the cream. and 500 Gms packs in the market.
● This breaks the layer of fat solids which are ● Unsalted butter /sweet butter- it has mild
released and are combined to form a large aroma and slightly sweet flavor, used for
group of butter fat. making sweet pastries and cakes.
● After about 30 minutes of churning the butter
gets separated from butter milk and floats to a. Salted butter
the surface. ● butter was originally salted to preserve it
4. WASHING AND SALTING for the winter months when fresh butter
● The butter grains are now washed with ice was not made.
cold water to remove any butter milk left on ● Today salt is added to butter as an
the surface of each grain, in order to ingredient.
maximize the keeping quality. Salting is ● It is not ideally used in preparation of
carried in two ways: pastries.
○ By adding fine grains of dairy salt. b. Compound butter
○ By dipping butter grains into brine ● These are made by adding a particular
solution (salt + vinegar) for 10-15 natural flavor or color to butter,
minutes and allowing the butter grains depending on the type of food with which
to absorb it. it is served.
 ● It is generally used as an accompaniment
e.g. Lobster butter, parsley butter etc.
c. Ghee
● It is obtained by clarifying butter
● Butter is heated to evaporate water.
● Pure ghee has a higher keeping quality and
is a good cooking medium and shortening
agent used in Indian cuisine.
 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES According to Nutritive Value:
• Vegetables may either be sources of
Fruits protein, vitamins and minerals. They are
• usually eaten as appetizer, as dessert or out most commonly sought for because of
of hand. Fleshy, juicy products of plants that their Vitamin A, B and C content.
are seed containing.
Vegetables Classification of Fruits
• served with meals as viands or salads. Plants
or parts of plants such as roots, tubers, bulbs, 1. Aggregate Fruit
stems, shoots, leaves, fruits and flowers used • consists of many seed –bearing fruits
as raw or cooked, served generally with combined in a single mass which
entrée or in salads, but not as desserts. develops from the many ovaries of a
single flower.
Classification of Fruits and Vegetables • Ex: strawberry
2. Berry
According to Parts of Plant Used: • each of these fruits is derived from a
• Roots single ovary and may contain one or
o underground parts of plants. ex: water more seeds.
chestnut, sweet potato, carrot etc. • Ex: banana
• Tubers 3. Drupe
o short, thickened, fleshy parts of an • single-seeded stone develops entirely
underground stem such as Jerusalem from a single ovary.
artichokes and potatoes. • Ex: cherry, peach, apricot
• Bulbs 4. False berry
o underground buds that send down • many seeded fruits resulting from the
roots and are made up of a very short fusion of an ovary and a receptacle.
stem covered with layers. ex: garlic, • Ex: guava
onions, shallots 5. Hesperidium
• Seeds • fruits that developed from a compound
o parts from which a new plant will ovary into many seeded, multi-sectioned
grow. They are referred to as pulses fruit enclosed in a tough, oily skin.
or legumes like monggo, garbanzos, • Ex: citrus fruits
paayap etc. 6. Multiple fruit
• Stems and shoots • ovaries and receptacles from multiple
o stalks supporting leaves, flowers or flowers of a common based develop into
fruits. Ex:kinchay, labong, ubod etc. these fruits.
• Leaves • Ex: atis
• Fruits
• Flower Composition and Nutritive Value of Fruits
and Vegetables
According to Chemical Composition:
• Carbohydrate rich Nutritive Values
o such as seeds, roots, and tubers. • Fruits
• Protein rich o 1 exchange contains 10 grams
o such as legumes and pulses. carbohydrates and 40 calories of
• Fat rich energy
o such as nuts, olives and avocadoes. • Vegetables
• High moisture content o 2 exchanges of leafy vegetables
o such as mushroom, tomatoes, celery, (2 cups raw or 1 cup cooked) or 1
cauliflower, radish etc. exchange of fleshy vegetables
(1/2 cup raw or 1⁄2 cup cooked)
contains 3 grams carbohydrate, 1
 gram protein and 16 calories of Plant Constituents of Significance in
energy Cookery:
• Fruits and vegetables are also high in water
content, fiber, vitamins, minerals and 1. Fiber-structural components
phytochemicals. • give form, shape and rigidity to plant
parts; indigestible; generally classified
Texture Components of Fruits and Vegetables: into:
• Texture is associated with the structural o Water-insoluble fibers
make up of fruits and vegetables. ▪ mainly native cellulose,
• It includes qualities as some hemicelluloses and
o Toughness lignin.
o Stringiness o Water-soluble fibers
o slicing quality ▪ composed of pectic
o crispness. substances, gums,
• Fruits and vegetables are living cells mucilages, some
undergoing metabolic reactions, their texture o Hemicelluloses, modified
is affected by primary factors such as celluloses. Of significance in fruit
o types of cells cookery are pectic substances:
o the structural make up of the fruit
o the secondary factors which will affect a) Protopectin
metabolic reactions. • precursor of pectin, found in immature
fruits, water-insoluble.
Types of Plant cells: parenchyma, conducting, b) Pectinic acid or pectin-dispersible in
supporting and protective cells water
• can form gels
1. Parenchyma cells c) Pectic acid
• thin-walled, iso-diametric and made of • formed by ripening enzymes in fruit thus
cellulose. Intercellular spaces are common. found in over-ripe fruits;
This explains the release of air when boiling • present as calcium or magnesium
fruits and vegetables. pectate; does not form gels.
2. Conducting cells
• composed of long tubes through which water 2. Pigments-include:
and salts or nutrients are distributed Chlorophyll
throughout the plant. There are two types: • blue green (chlorophyll a
o xylem • green (chlorophyll b)
▪ composed primarily of • pigments in leaves,
cellulose thickened at • stems etc.
intervals in different patterns Carotenoids
with lignin and • range from yellow to orange-red; they
o phloem include:
▪ contain little lignin, Such fibers a. lycopene-in tomatoes
are largely unchanged on b. beta carotene-in carrots
cooking and when they are c. cryptoxanthin and xanthin-in corn
numerous or large produce d. xantophyll-in oranges
stringiness and toughness. e. capsanthin-in red peppers
3. Supporting cells f. lutein-in leaves and grasses
• long pointed cells whose cellulose walls g. bixin- in annato
thicken as the plant ages and become Anthocyanins
encrusted with lignin. • responsible for red, blue, violet colors.
4. Protective cells ex.: duhat, strawberry, eggplant, red
• specialized parenchyma cells. When pressed cabbage
together, these cells are quite tough.
Flavonoids or Anthoxanthins 2. Water is lost or absorbed, depending on type
• colorless to white to yellowish white pigments of vegetable.
found in cereal grains, radish, turnips, • Leafy and succulent vegetables
cauliflower etc. generally lose water thus, they become
Betalains limp.
• purplish red and yellow pigment • Vegetables with significant amounts of
Tannins starch (dried beans, roots and tubers)
• colorless to yellow to brown. absorb water because of the hygroscopic
property of starch resulting to
Effect of Various Factors in Plant Pigments: gelatinization and making the product
translucent and less opaque.

3. Changes in Flavor Compounds

• Cooking in large amount of water will
result to extraction of flavor constituents
and loss of natural flavor.
• Decomposition of Acids-loss of flavor
• Volatilization of sulfur compounds-less
strong flavor, however, if cooking vessel
3. Flavor constituents is covered, the strong flavor of sulfur-
A. Sugars containing vegetables like garlic, onions,
• contribute to sweetness radish and cabbage is intensified.
B. Organic acids • Prolonged cooking normally produces
• give tartness or sourness off-flavors.
C. Salts
• all fruits contain little amounts of salt. 4. Effects on Nutrients
D. Polyphenolic compounds • Carbohydrates
• like tannin-give astringent (pakla) quality or o partial or complete gelatinization
puckeriness. of starch, partial breakdown of
F. Volatile sulfur compounds starch, caramelization of sugar.
• responsible for the characteristic strong flavor • Proteins
and aroma of garlic, onions, cabbage that o denaturation of proteins making it
intensify during cooking. more soluble and digestible.
• Vitamins
Effects of Heat on Plant Constituents: o destruction of water or heat-
soluble vitamins
1. Fibers become either soft or tough depending on • Minerals
the presence of other substances, e.g. o varying degrees of leaching into
• Acid toughens cellulose, thus increased the cooking liquid can occur due
firmness to the breakdown of the cell walls
• Acid dissolves pectic substances resulting to of fruits and vegetables.
soft fruits and vegetables.
• Alkali such as baking soda, softens Factors to Consider in Using and Cooking
hemicellulose resulting to soft product, but if Fruits
there is too much alkali, the product will be 1. Many fruits tend to turn dark when peeled or
mushy pared due to oxidation of tannins and other
• Lime-addition of lime results to formation of compounds. It may be prevented by:
insoluble calcium salts resulting to firm • Coating peeled/pared fruit with lemon,
product. calamansi or pineapple juice.
• Blanching
• Dipping cut fruits in water with or without
acid.
2. Discoloration may also be due to the reaction 7. Vegetables should be served as soon as they
between the acid in the fruit and the iron in utensils. are cooked. Long Standing of cooked
It may be prevented by: vegetables reduces its appeal and its nutrient.
• using stainless steel knife for cutting and
paring. Ways of Cooking Vegetables
1. Boil
Selection of Fruits and Vegetables: • preferably simmer vegetables in
1. Buy fruits and vegetables which are in season. minimum amount of water.
2. Choose vegetables which are crisp and bright in • As much as possible, vegetables should
color with no signs of decay or rotting. be boiled in their skins and in a shorter
3. Fresh fruits vegetables cannot be stored for a very period of time.
long time-buy only that which can be properly stored. • Larger pieces of vegetables retain the
4. Blanching before storage is often a good way of nutrients more than smaller pieces
extending the usable life of vegetables. because of the amount of surfaced
5. When buying fresh fruits and vegetables, take into exposed to water.
consideration the variety, size and maturity. 2. Fry in either shallow fat or in deep fat.
6. Choose fruits and vegetables that are blemish and • Uses a small amount of fat and the
bruise-free specially if it is to be stored. vegetables are cooked mainly by steam
held in with a cover.
Preparation of Vegetables • Studies have proven little loss of
1. All vegetables should be thoroughly inspected for minerals and vitamins of fried
blemishes, decayed parts and worms. These should vegetables.
be removed. 3. French-fry
2. To ensure food safety, vegetables that will not • hot fat deep enough to cover or float the
require cooking should be prepared using a separate vegetables.
board chopping board from those used for uncooked • Allow 132 °C- 190 °C- raw vegetables,
foods 199 °C for cooked vegetables.
3. Vegetables should be cut according to the dish • Examples: potato, sweet potato, carrots
requirement. chips
Deep- fat fried 4. Broil
• cut into portions of 0.62 cm (1/4 inch) • Tender raw vegetables, such as
thickness. eggplant or tomato which can be sliced
• Examples: sweet potatoes and eggplant used thinly so the heat can penetrate
for tempura completely before the exterior gets dark.
Panning or stir • Cooked vegetables may be brushed
• frying- cut into thin pieces slightly with butter or oil and reheated
• Examples: onions, leeks green, red pepper, this way.
celery, cabbage 5. Braise
• Covered pan or skillet with about two
4. When paring, pare as thinly as possibly to tablespoons of butter or meat drippings
minimize wastage. A vegetable peeler is and one to two tablespoons water.
recommended since they only cut skin deep. • The water naturally present in most
5. Vegetables should be prepared just before vegetables being braised in sufficient to
cooking. Essential vitamins and minerals will be lost avoid scorching if the heat is properly
if vegetables are allowed to soak in water long before controlled.
they are cooled. 6. Steam
• Use only a small amount of water and the • Preserves the color and nutritional value
cooking pan must be covered to shortened of vegetables to a very high degree.
cooking time and to prevent the unnecessary
• The vegetables are placed in a
loss of volatile flavors
perforated compartment of a steamer
6. Vegetables taste best when they are cooked
and covered.
tender crisp. Short cooking time is a must.
7. Oven-steam or bake Preparation of Fruits
• covered casserole with a small amount of • Fruits are usually eaten fresh or raw. So,
water. In this case, the only preparation
• In moderate oven temperature (176o C or necessary is washing them under cold,
350 o F), allow about three times more running water.
cooking time than for boiled vegetables. • Some fruits are boiled or fried. Certain
• Vegetables can also be wrapped in aluminum fruits may be baked or grilled . Others are
foil prior to heating in the oven. candied or made into juices, jams, or
8. Bake directly on rack or baking sheet or in covered jellies.
casseroles • Fruits like citrus family are usually made
• When vegetables are placed in a covered into juices. Example: kalamansi juice
casserole, the casserole serves as the skin of • Fresh fruit can be juiced and pureed and
the vegetable holding in the steam that cooks used as is or made into sauces, sorbets
the vegetables. or ices. Still other fruits are candied.
• Au gratin are vegetables prepared with a (Ex.kamias, sampaloc, santol, langka,
browned or crusted top. Common practice is mango and durian).
putting stewed vegetables in a shallow dish • Candying of these fruits involves the
and topping with breadcrumbs or grated plumbing of the blanched fruits in
cheese and then passing under a broiler increasing concentrations of syrup and
9. Stir fry or saute in hot oil. finally drying them under the sun or in a
• The vegetables should be cut into small dryer.
pieces to facilitate cooking. It is preferable to • Common way of utilizing fruits is to make
cut on a slant so that the maximum surface is them into a jelly or jam. The keeping
exposed to allow the flavor of vegetables to quality is made possible by the high
be distributed. sugar content which impede
microbiological growth.
Selection of Fruits
• Fresh fruits can easily be detected by visual Jelly
inspection. It should be free from bruises and • gelled fruit juice product that contains no
blemishes especially it is to be stored. solid material
Bruised areas are the most prone to spoilage. • Clear color and a flavor characteristic of
• A few pointers on fruit- buying: the fruit and is transparent and sparkling
o Different varieties of fruits are usually • To produce a successful jelly, proper
sold in th market. One buys them for proportions of pectin, sugar and acid
the purpose for which they are required.
intended. For example, saba is • Ideally, jelly contains 60-65% sugar, 0.5
usually fried or boiled but lacatan and to 1.0% pectin and has a pH of 3.1- 3.4
latundan are usually eaten fresh. • During boiling,the sugar in the liquid may
o It would be very nice if the fruits were undergo two changes: (1) inversion of
uniform in size and shape. sucrose because of the presence of acid,
o Some fruits are usually consumed at (2) caramelization of sugar
different stages of maturity and • Inversion is desired since the invert
degrees of ripeness. Thus, one buys sugar formed will prevent crystallization
an unripe papaya to use in tinolang in the jelly storage.
manok but would buy a table ripe one • Caramelization should be avoided
to eat raw. because it gives a dark color to the jelly
o Select fruits high in vitamin C. and it often
Processed fruits • masks the natural flavor of the jelly.
• are acceptable alternatives to fresh fruits. Hence, shorter boiling period is
They come in many forms, including: pre- recommended.
prepared fresh , canned, candied, dried and • Not all fruits have enough pectin to
juiced. produce a good jelly.
Pectin
• is a natural gum- like substance found in the
cells of the fruit
• Pectin is extracted from fruit by acid (also
present in the fruit) during cooking and, when
cooked with sugar, it produces a set.
Citric or tartaric acids
• may be added to lower the pH level to
optimum for easy precipitation of pectin
Sugar
• Adequate amount of sugar is added to aid
precipitation of the pectin and to minimize
hydrolysis of pectin.

Some useful hints for jelly- making:

1. Overripe fruits have poor jelly- making properties.
2. Rubbery jellies result when too much pectin is
used, or when jelly is boiled too long.
3. Syneresis or weeping of a jelly is caused by very
acidic jellies or prolonged heating.

Jams
• Jams differ from jellies in that the former
contains fruit pulps while the latter does not.
Basically, the principle of jam- making is the same
as for jellies.
 MEAT AND POULTRY Meat from cattle

Meat Classified according to age of animal

• Refers to the flesh/muscles of animals used 1. Veal – meat from very young cattle, 3
as food weeks to 3 months of age
• Internal organs are considered also as meat 2. Calf – 3 months to 8 months
• Common animals: cattle, sheep, pig, poultry 3. Beef – from steers and heifers
• Philippines: carabao, goat 4. Steers – young male cattle up to 4 years
• East Africa: gazelle (African dear), zebra old and may oftentimes be castrated
meat 5. Heifers – cows that have not produced
• North America: Buffalo calves and are less than 3 years old
• Arctic: polar bears, seals, whales 6. Meat from older cows – sold as beef

*red meats Pork

*white meat – fish and poultry • Meat derived from pigs
• Suckling pigs – less than a month old;
Poultry used for lechon de leche
• Refers to several kinds of domesticated fowl • Pigs up to 6 months – used for lechon
used as food • Meats from sows (castrated meals) –
• Wild fowls (game), chicken, duck, goose, used for processed meats
turkey, pigeons, quail, ratite family
• Ratite: ostrich, emu (Australian bird), rhea Carabeef, Chevon, Lamb
• Meat from carabao (carabeef) and goat
Classification of Poultry (chevon)
• Lamb – meat from sheep less than 6
1. Types of Chicken months
a. Broiler- 7-12 weeks, very tender with 5% fat • Mutton – meat from older sheep
b. Fryer- 14-20 weeks
c. Roaster- 3-5 months Consumption of meats
d. Stewers- 10 mos-1 year; mature females, • Meat – a high value food; high grade
high fat protein
e. Capon- castrated, 4 mos; very tender, • Filipinos – more on pork and chicken
f. Rooster- mature male, less tender, more • Overconsumption of meat – major culprit
flavor, 10 mos of lifestyle disease

2. Types of Ducks Meat importation

a. Duckling- less than 8 weeks; very tender, • Local production – not sufficient for local
high fat consumption
b. Duck- mature, 6 mos, lacks fat • NMIS – National Meat Inspection Service
c. Peking duck- a special breed; meat has a
distinct flavor Meat Structure
• Consists of 3 kinds of tissues: Muscular
3. Types of turkey (lean), fatty connective tissues, bones
a. Young tom- roasting type, 16-30 weeks 1. Lean tissue – consists of one or more
b. Tom turkey- mature muscles, each of which is made up of
many bundles of muscle fibers, contain
4. Squabs less amounts of connective tissue and
• young immature pigeons, 4 weeks old fat, about 18% protein.
2. Connective Tissue
3. Fats
• Meat - ordered arrangement of groups of fibers Connective Tissues
in descending order, each component enclosed • Surround the fibers and unite them in
in a network of connective tissue sheaths bundles
• Sheaths – not really strict enclosures since these • Four categories of protein and
structures penetrate the muscle bundles and conjugated proteins in connective
fibers and converge eventually to attach the tisuues: collagen, elastin, reticulin,
muscles to skeletal system ground substance
• Merge into a large mass, the tendon at
a. Muscle Fibers the termini of each muscle which is
• Sarcolemma – membranous sheathe anchored to the skeleton
enclosing each individual muscle fiber • Veins/arteries/larger veins – inside
• Sarcoplasm – contains vitamins, enzymes, perimysium
myoglobin and part of protein • Capillaries/smaller nerves – inside
• Endomysium – very delicate tissue found endomysium
between muscle fibers • Collagen- thin, white, transparent
• Perimysium – connective tissue enveloping o When meat or poultry is cooked
each individual muscle bundle (fasciculi) using moist heat methods,
• Epimysium – connective tissue surrounding collagen softens and turns to
an entire muscle gelatin
• Elastin
b. Myofibril (fibrilae) o very tough, yellowish
• Made up of alternating rows of myofilaments o Cannot be softened by heat
running parallel to the axis of the muscle fiber o Tenderizing methods such as
• Myofilament – composed of sarcomere pounding, cutting, or grinding
• Sarcomere – composed of two filaments must be used to break down
(contractile proteins) elastin
• Thick actin • Fat content affects tenderness:
• Thin myosin o More marbling=more tender
• *when muscle contracts, the actin forms a o Fat=flavor, keeps juicy as it
complex with myosin forming actomyosin (a cooks
myofibrilar protein formed by the union of
actin and myosin during muscle contraction); 1. Collagen
formation of actomyosin and degradation to • Are elongated proteins that form
actin and myosin (during muscle relaxation) extremely strong but small fibrils which
are catalyzed by ATP, Ca and Mg associate together to form collagen
fibers which in turn form sheets or cables
Muscle Fiber that can be easily distinguished in meat
• Myofilaments Actin and Myosin cuts
o for muscle contraction; roles in post- • Most abundant protein in animal body
mortem changes and water-holding • Important in determining toughness in
capacity of meat meat
• Sarcolemma • Collagen changes as animal ages
o a delicate transparent membrane that • Arranged in parallel fasion; is flexible;
encloses the muscle fibers does no stretch; found in tendons; which
o Contains a jelly-like protein sol, the attach muscles to the bones; color is
sarcoplasm white; disintegrates in hot water thus is
o Myofibrils are embedded in this softened in cooking; changes to gelatin
sarcoplasmic protein matrix during cooking
• 65°C: the helical structure of collagen is
disrupted, forming gelatin
• Tenderization of meat cuts with high
connective tissue content
2. Reticulin Marbling
• A type of collagen • The distribution of fat in connective
• Associated with myristic acid tissues and within muscles
3. Elastin • Wavy lines in the meat
• Has true elastic properties compared to • Marbling in meat- determines juiciness
collagen which derives its elasticity only when and tenderness; fat prevents moisture
it forms into cable-like tendons loss during cooking
• Elastic properties in tissues of neck, • Flavor of meat – associated w/ carbonyl
abdominal/intestinal wall, arterial system compounds in adipose tissues
• Rubbery structure due to desmocine and
isodesmosine Meat Composition
• Resistant to heat, acid, alkali • Pork – has higher fat content than all
• Locomotion muscles are tough cuts in meat other meat sources
• More digestible in human gut (elastase from • Lower fat content of veal compared to
pancreas) beef
4. Ground Substance
• A gel of proteins and glycoproteins in which Pre-rigor Stage
collagen and/or elastin are bound • Changes in cell metabolism and protein
structure
Fats • ATP and creatinine phosphate – stored
• Found around or between muscles, or in for muscle contraction of a living animal
connective tissues • Upon death, ATP stores depleted,
• As insulation from cold, as energy stores oxygen supply stopped, leading to
• Composed of fatty acids (oleic, palmitic, anaerobic glycolysis & formation of lactic
stearic) and lipids (cholesterol, glycolipids, acid: fall of pH
phospholipids, sphingomyelin); more on • Lack of oxygen: decrease in temperature
saturated fatty acids and concentration of calcium ions
• Stress-free and relaxed slaughter; do not
Amount of fat depends: feed animal before slaughter to avoid a
• Age of animal: fatter w/ older animals full gut that can be a source of
• Feed of animal: more fat from well fed contamination
animals
• Amount of exercise: more fat of exercise is Post-Mortem Changes in Meat
limited • “After Slaughter”
• Specie: pigs accumulate fat more readily than • initial stage of bleeding: cardiac activity
most other animals continues so that all blood is pumped out
• It is important of first stunning the animal
Location of fats to unconsciousness before killing
• Anatomical location – refers to the part of • If impartial bleeding: leaves a lot of blood
anatomy where fat is located (Shoulders, in vessels, may result to early spoilage
belly, neck)
• Systemic location – refers to whether Post-Mortem Changes in Meat
subcutaneous or under the skin, 1. Immediately after death – muscle is
intermuscular or between muscles, pliant, soft, gel-like, extensive and sticky;
intramuscular or within muscles, visceral or best to cook at this stage
around guts 2. Decrease in pH from 7-7.2 to pH 5.5 due
• Too thick subcutaneous fat- undesirable to formation of lactic acid anaerobically
• Marbles fats – adds value to meat from glycogen
3. A few minutes to 1 hour post-mortem,
rigor mortis may occur; muscles shorten,
become rigid, inflexible/tough meat;
 chilling retards rigor mortis & promotes • pH drops low enough while carcass
tenderness temperature is still high, denaturation of
• temporary rigidity of the muscles after contractile and sarcoplasmic
slaughter • proteins may occur – loss in protein’s
• Formation of actomyosin water holding capacity
• loss of ATP • Low WHC – low yield and quality
• Loss of extensibility with the formation of • Leads to high drip loss and poor eating
actomyosin proceeds slowly at first (slow quality (dryer and tougher in cooked
period), then rapidly (fast period) state)
4. After a few days, if held at temperatures • Meat w/ low WHC cannot be cured
above freezing (called aging), there is because it does not hold the cure as well
gradual tenderization; rigidity of actin &
myosin weakens; coagulation of muscle Meat Cuts
proteins occurs due to accumulation of acid • Japanese cut – complete removal of all
and subsequent syneresis, meat softens; bones and everything else, leaving only
best time also to cook at this stage fat and muscle
5. Dark-cutting of beef (very dark, sticky beef) • Offal – include edible internal parts of
develops if final pH 6.6 is reached during animal
aging period as the carcass passes through • *Sweetbreads – thymus and pancreatic
the rigor mortis glands of young calves and lamb; heart
6. An abnormally low pH 5.1 or 5.4 during rigor and throat sweetbreads; glands
mortis is reached resulting in pale, soft and disappear when animal matures
exudative pork (PSE) where pork becomes • Meat – reduced into manageable sizes
light-colored, mushy w/ considerable drip loss • Poultry – sold whole dressed; 6-7 cuts;
during cooking offal

Post-Rigor Stage Which cuts are lean?

• Resolution of Rigor – loss of biological • Beef roasts and steaks
regulation of proteinases o Round, loin, sirloin, chuck arm
• Proteinases from muscles – hydrolyze • Pork roasts and chops
muscle proteins, weakening the structure and o Tenderloin, center loin, ham
promoting tenderness • Lamb roasts and chops
o Chilling – desirable flavor o Leg, loin, foreshank
development
• Fat around the edge should be trimmed
o Cold Shortening – subjected to rapid
to less than 1⁄4 in
temperature change from 37°C to 6-
o Paying for excess fat
8°C; Avoid cold shortening by storing
meat in no lower than 10°C for at least
Ground Meat
10 hours after slaughter, then after
• Ground beef is made from beef
resolution of mortis, meat may be
trimmings
transferred to a safe chilling storage
• By law, cannot have more than 30% fat
at 4°C or lower
by weight
• The leaner the ground beef, the more
Meat pH
expensive it tends to be
• Low meat pH = low WHC and pale meat color
• Can also find ground lamb, pork, and
= PSE (pale, soft and exudative); metallic and
veal
off-flavor taste
• High meat pH = causes dark meat color =
Organ Meats
DFD (dark, firm and dry); shorter shelf life
• Edible animal organs are called “variety
• Reduction of pH – brought by ATP hydrolysis
meats”
• Liver- nutritious and tender, pronounced
flavor
• Lamb and veal kidneys- tender, mild flavor Wholesale and retail cuts of beef and their
• Chitterlings- intestines of pigs or calves local names
• Thoroughly cleaned and sold whole in
containers 1. Hind quarter (most desirable meat; higher
• Brain, heart, tongue, tripe (stomach lining of in price)
cattle), • round | pierna corta
• sweetbreads (thymus gland) • rump | tapadera
• whole loin | kadera
• flank | kampto/kanto
• hind shank | kenchi

2. Forequarter are meat cuts between 12th

and 13th ribs; 12 on forequarter, one on hind)
• rib | kostillas
• chuck | batok, paypay, kasim
• brisket | punta y pecho
• short plate | kabilugan
• foreshank | kenchi

Retail cuts (beef)

1. From loin end
• Sirloin steak | tagilirang hulihan
2. From shortloin
• Club steak | tagilirang unahan
• Porter house , T- bone steak | tagilirang
gitna
• Tenderloin steak | solomillo

Tender cuts- Beef ( from least exercised

muscles)
• Whole loin
• Loin end or sirloin | kadera
• Short loin | tagilirang hulihan
o Club steak | tagilirang unahan
o Porterhouse, T- bone | tagilirang
gitna
o Tenderloin | solomillo
• Ribs
o Short ribs | kostillas
o Rib roast

Less tender cuts- Beef

• Round, round steak | pierna corta
• Rump, rump roast | tapadera
• Chuck, chuck rib roast | paypay
Tough cuts- Beef Processed Meats
• Shank (fore and hind) | kenchi • 35% of meat produced in US is
• Flank | kanto processed
• Plate, short ribs | tadyang • Processed for flavors
• Brisket | punta y pecho • Ham, sausage, bacon, sausage, cold
• Neck | butu- buto cuts
• Oxtail | buntot • Most common processing method is
curing
Pork cut according to tenderness • Placing meat in mixture of salt, sugar,
1. Tender cuts sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate,
• Loin (pork chop when sliced; Canadian bacon ascorbic acid, water
when cured) (lomo) • Nitrates- preservatives, prevent growth
• Ham (pigue or hita) of botulin bacteria (foodborne illness)
• Bacon or belly (liempo) • Meat is soaked in solution or solution
2. Less tender cuts pumped into meat
• Shoulder/ boston butt (paypay)
• Picnic ham (kasim) Meat Quality
• Neck (butu-buto) 1. Color = freshness
• Spareribs (buto sa tadyang) o beef = bright cherry red color
• Pig-feet or knuckles (pata) o Carabeef = slightly darker than
beef, also bright red
• Tail (buntot)
o Pork = pink
• Jowl (kalamnan)
o Poultry = creamy yellowishnskin
• Head (ulo)
and pinkish meat
• Myoglobin and hemoglobin –
Inspection and Grading
responsible for meat color
• USDA inspects for wholesomeness
• Myoglobin - the oxygen-carrying pigment
• Grading:
in muscle
• Amount of marbling
• Hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying
• Age of animal
pigment in blood
• Texture and appearance
• Both for oxygen transport
• More of these pigments in parts with high
Grades for Beef
oxygen demands (heart) and with more
• Prime:
workloads (legs)
o Highest and most expensive
o Well marbled with fat, tender, flavorful
Myoglobin
• Choice:
• Oxymyoglobin (bright red) – oxygenated
o Most common in supermarkets
form; favored by low temperature and
o Less marbling, still tender and
decreased enzyme activity
flavorful
• Myoglobin (purplish red) – when loss of
• Select:
oxygen occurs
o Least amount of marbling
• Metmyoglobin (brownish red) – when
o Least expensive
ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron
o Can be sold as store brand
• Sulfmyoglobin (green pigment) – action
of sulfur- producing bacteria
• Lamb and veal are graded, except “good”
• Nitric oxide myoglobin (pink) is converted
replaces “select”
by heat to Nitric oxide hemochrome
• Pork is not graded because it is more uniform
(intense pink)
in quality
2. Meat tenderness 4. Flavor
Involves 3 aspects: • Attributed to the soluble components in
1. Initial penetration of meat by teeth upon water and fat; the diet of the animal
biting/chewing determines the kind of flavoring
2. The ease in which the meat breaks into component in the meat.
fragments • Factors that Affect Flavor:
3. The amount of residue left after chewing • Aging, storage and handling, preparation
techniques, choice of cooking methods
Meat tenderness
• Pre-slaughter factors Warmed-over -flavor
o Species of the animals from where • It describes the flavor of a reheated
the meat is taken precooked food that as been stored in
o Breed of the animal the freezer/chiller for over 48 hours.
o Age and sex • The flavor has been described as
o Specific part from where the meat cardboardy, stale, painty, rancid due to
was derived fat oxidation.
o Stress on the animal before slaughter • Among such possible
• Post-slaughter factors solutions/remedies are use of
o Post mortem glycolysis antioxidants, and use of some
o Aging: Dry-aging and Wet-aging ingredients such as plum juice or puree.
o Hanging method
o Electrical stimulation (30 to 1000 V)- Market Forms of meat and poultry
accelerated passing of rigor mortis • Meat-meat is sold in this form, in all
o In vitro enzyme treatment markets throughout the country, within
12 to 18 hours after slaughter.
Tenderizing treatments • Chilled Meat-meat is chilled just to above
• Pounding freezing (1 to 2 degrees celsius).
• Slicing thinly • Frozen Meat-retail meat cuts are frozen
• Grinding/chopping in slow freezers at -10 degrees celsius,
• Marinating but more and more establishments now
• Use of proteolytic enzymes use quick freezers with temperatures of -
o Bromalin (from pineapple)- acts on 40 degrees celsius before transferring to
collagen only storage and display freezers at -10 to -18
o Papain (from papaya)- acts on muscle degrees celsius.
protein and elastin; activated at high • Cured meat products and marinated
o temperature products, chilled and frozen-tocino,
• Prolonged simmering corned beef, Chinese type ham, bacon,
beef tapa, marinated chicken bbq,
3. Juiciness marinated pork or beef bbq.
• Depends on amount of water retained in • Manufactured products, chilled and
cooked meat; water retention and fat content frozen-various types of sausages,
determine juiciness. various types of hotdogs, luncheon meat,
• Factors that Affect Juiciness: embutido, skinless longganisa, chicken
• Overcooking, improper storage, of the meat longganisa, chicken nuggets, chicken
before and after cooking, over trimming and balls, rellenong manok, crispy pata,
reheating dinuguan, bbq in skewers and others.
• Canned meat products-corned beef,
luncheon meats, vienna sausage,
chicken sausage etc.
• Live Poultry-poultry that are marketed
alive.
Market Forms of Poultry Methods Of Cooking Meat
1. Live 1. Moist heat tougher cuts- use stewing,
2. Dressed- defeathered but head, feet and braising,
viscera are intact etc.
3. Drawn - defeathered and visceral organs 2. Dry heat for more tender cuts- roasting,
removed broiling (meat is placed 3” from flame); frying
4. Ready - to- cook- defeathered, head, feet
and viscera are removed PROBLEMS IN MEAT AND POULTRY
5. Poultry parts - several pieces of poultry parts COOKERY:
packed together
• dark meat- drumsticks, thighs, wings, Meat:
neck, back and ribcage 1. PSE (Pale, soft and exudative)
• white meat- breast • a low meat pH is associated with low
• variety meats- gizzard, heart and liver water holding capacity and pale meat
color or PSE. Has poor cooking quality
and unattractive to consumers and with
metallic and off- flavors.
2. DFD (dark, firm and dry)
• meat with high pH causes a dark meat
color. Has poor cooking quality,
unattractive to consumers and with a
shorter life span.

Poultry:
1. Pink Meat
• when gas fired oven is used for cooking.
The carbon monoxide and nitric acid of
the cooking flame reacts with the Hb of
the chicken blood forming
carboxyhemoglobin and nitric oxide
hemoglobin which are pink even after
heating.
2. Meat and bone darkening in cooked frozen
poultry
• freezing and thawing release Hb from the
red cells in the bone marrow.
Meat and poultry cookery 3. Rancidity
• due to oxidative rancidity as poultry fat is
Objectives of Cooking Meat and Poultry: mainly PUFA.
1. Improve eating quality and digestibility-cooking 4. Off-flavors
enhance and/or develop flavors. Changes in the • due to rancidity or contamination of feed
various meat structures, lean, connective tissues and and odors absorbed during storage.
fat, lead to flavor development. Cooking also brings
about color changes and makes the meat Meat safety
more tender and digestible. • NMIS (National Meat Inspection
2. Tenderization-due to the conversion of collagen to Service)-an agency under the
gelatin. Department of Agriculture tasks to
3. Food safety-cooking destroys parasites and protect human and animal health against
pathogenic microorganisms that may be present thus hazards in meat, from farm produced to
making the meat safer for consumption. processed meats.
Key concerns of fresh meat safety are: Canned meat (up to 2 years After opening
• Presence of parasites products in pantry), 3 2 to 3 months
• Contamination with pathogens to 4 days
after opening
• For cooked meat: undercooked meat esp for
Dried meat 2 to 3 months
lechon products

Safe internal temperature for cooking meats

• Beef, rare-52 C or 125 F
• Beef, medium-57 C or 135 F
• Beef, medium well-68 C or 155 F
• Beef, well done-71 C or 160 F
• Ground beef-74 C or 165 F
• Pork-71 C or 160 F
• Ham, sausages-71 C or 160 F
• Poultry-77 C or 171 F
• Turkey-77 C or 171 F
• Stuffing-74 C or 165 F

Safe storage
Product Chiller (4 Freezer (-18
C/40 F) C/0F)
Fresh beef 3 to 5 days 6 to 12
roast, chops, months
steaks
Fresh beef 1 to 2 days 3 to 4 months
liver or
variety meat
Cooked meat 3 to 4 days 2 to 3 months
dishes
Cooked 1 to 2 days 2 to 3 months
gravy and
broth
Hotdog, 2 weeks 1 to 2 months
luncheon
meat,
vacuum
packed
Hotdog, 7 days 1 to 2 months
opened pack
Fresh pork 3 to 5 days 4 to 6 months
Fresh chilled 1 to 3 days 4 to 6 months
chicken
 FISH AND SHELLFISH

Classification of Fishes
1. Finfish
• those with fins, backbones and gills.
• Groups of Finfishes:
o Fresh water fish
o Salt water fish
o Brackish fish - originate from areas in
which freshwater meets saltwater.
Fish that live in these areas are able
to tolerate a wide range of salinities.
Muscular System
o Flatfish or roundfish
• Myotomes-series of wave-looking
o Lean
muscle blocks.
o Moderate Fat
o High Fat • Myosepta or myocommata-thin layers of
2. Shellfishes connective tissues composed of
collagen which is transformed into
• those with shells of one form or another.
soluble gelatin upon cooking.
• Groups of Shellfishes
o Crustaceans-invertebrates having
Composition and Nutritional Significance
jointed limbs and a segmented body
• Fish and fishery products, like all animal
with exoskeleton. Examples: crabs,
products, contain water, protein and
shrimps, prawn and lobsters
other nitrogenous compounds, lipids,
o Mollusks-either bivalves or univalves
carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins.
o Cephalopods-those with tentacles
• The level of lipid in fish varies widely, not
Anatomical Structure and Physiology only between different species, but also
within the same species depending on
• The skeleton of fish is made up of bones and
season, feeding grounds, water salinity
cartilage.
and other factors.
• Its main functions are the same for all
vertebrates; to give structure, provide
Changes After the Catch
protection, assist in leverage and produced
• Fresh fish is considered to be one of the
rbc.
most perishable foods, more perishable
• Shellfish on the other hand have a much
than meat.
more variable structure.
• Perishability of fish is affected by the
• Crustaceans are characterized by having
following factors: tissue composition of
three distinct body parts, a hard carapace
the species, source, method of catching,
made up mostly of chitin, the main body and
post harvest practices of handling and
the antennae.
storage.
• Fish Rigor-the most noticeable post-
mortem change is the stiffening of the
body of the fish immediately after harvest
or catch.
• As rigor pass, the skin and flesh lose
elasticity and firmness, the eyes become
cloudy and sunken, and the gills turn a
• Mollusks on the other hand have hard dull brown.
calcium shells. • As spoilage progresses, the fats also
• Cephalopods have an internal skeleton and undergo breakdown which results in
is distinguished by the presence of ink which “oxidized” and “rancid” odors and flavors.
is its defensive mechanism in the sea.
 • These in turn give rise to strong, offensive Characteristics of Fresh and Spoiled Fish
smells and tastes variously termed “off”,
“stale”, “putrid” and “decomposed”.
• The breakdown of ATP is as follows: ATP to
ADP to AMP to IMP (inosine
monophosphate) to inosine to hypoxanthine
and uric acid.
• Uric acid is the one responsible for the
characteristic fishy odor.
• After rigor, deterioration starts which is due to
the combined effect of fishy enzymes and
bacteria that were present with the fish all
along.
• While the fish was alive, these bacteria are
kept at bay by the fish immune systems, but
when the fish dies, these immune systems
are destroyed and there is nothing more to
stop the bacteria from invading inner tissues. Phase of Fish Spoilage
• One series of reactions involve the • Phase 1-very fresh and has a sweet,
trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) being seaweedy and delicate taste.
converted into TMA and formaldehyde. The • Phase 2-there is loss of the typical odor
latter is associated with toughening of the and taste; taste becomes neutral but has
flesh during chilled and frozen storage. no off flavors.
• Temperature-cold temperature slows down • Phase 3-no sign of spoilage and range
rigor and causes it to last longer; for the best of unpleasant odors are produced
control of quality, fish should be chilled to 0 C depending on the fish species. At the
to 1 C as quickly as possible after catching. beginning of the phase, the off- flavor
• Gaping-the condition that results when the may be slightly sour, fruity and slightly
myotomes of the fish muscles separate. The bitter esp in fatty fish. During the latter
gaping occurs because the connective tissue, stages, sickly sweet, cabbage-like,
the myosepta that joins the muscles ammonia, rotten egg and rancid smells
deteriorates so that myotomes weaken. This develop. The texture becomes soft and
breaking is brought about by low pH and/or watery or tough and dry.
rigor occurs at relatively high temperatures. • Phase 4-the fish is spoiled and putrid.
Both enzyme action and bacterial action
Fish Spoilage contribute to spoilage. Further
Quality Defects of Fish: breakdown of decomposition products.
1. Physical deterioration due to loss of moisture,
bruising or other physical damage. Market Form of Fish
2. Changes in physical appearance of skin, eyes and 1. Whole or round-this type is marketed just as it
gills. came from catch.
3. Changes in texture from firm to soft. 2. Drawn or dressed-the viscera and gills are
4. Development of off flavors commonly, described removed.
as fishy, ammoniacal or rancid. 3. Fillets:
5. Discoloration usually blackening due to melanin • Sides of fish cut lengthwise away from
formation, very evident in
bones and backbone
crustaceans. 4. Steaks:
6. Presence of histamine, indole and other by-
• Cross sections cut from large dressed
products of microbial growth.
fish
• May contain bones from ribs and
backbone
5. Fish heads
For Shellfish: • Maine lobster is most popular
1. Live-sold alive 3. Shrimp
2. Shucked-when purchasing, be sure there is little • Vary in size and color
or no liquid and the odor must be fresh mild. Excess • Sold frozen or previously frozen and
liquid indicates poor quality. Clam meat should be thawed
pale to deep orange, scallops should be creamy • Can buy with or without the shell
white, oysters also creamy not grey. • How shrimp is labeled and sold:
3. Head-on shrimps and prawns-head should be o 16/20 = 16-20 shrimp per pound
intact and firmly set. o Jumbo
4. Headless shrimps/prawns o Large
o Colossal
Processed Fish and Shellfish o Salad
1. Minimally processed including marinated products
2. Cooked
3. Smoked
4. Frozen
5. Fermented
6. Dried
7. Canned/bottle

Mollusks
• Clams
• Mussels
• Oysters
• Scallops
• Squid
Shellfish
• Mild, sweet flavor
• Mostly come from oceans and seas, some
from freshwater
• Two types of shellfish:
o Crustaceans- long bodies with jointed
limbs covered with a shell
o Mollusks- soft bodies that are covered
by at least one shell

Crustaceans
1. Crabs Fish and Shellfish Cookery
• Oval shell Indications of Cooked Fish and Shellfish:
• 4 pairs of walking legs • Raw fish has a translucent flesh.
• Two claws • When cooked, this turns opaque and the
• Whole crabs are sold live, cooked, or frozen muscle bundles are easily flaked.
• Crab legs and claws sold cooked and frozen • Crustaceans exhibit a dramatic color
• Crabmeat is available refrigerated, frozen, or change from dull greenish gray, blue or
canned almost black bright red orange due to
2. Lobsters release of the orange pigment
• Long jointed body, 4 pairs walking legs, 2 astaxanthin, a carotenoid.
large claws, covered with hard shell • For clams and mussels, the
• Avg wt is 1 1⁄4 lbs to 2 1⁄4 lbs manifestation of being cooked is the
opening of the shells.
• Fresh lobster is sold live
 • Crab cookery - when cooking crabs, it is Recommended Safe Storage of Fish
critical to attain an internal temperature of 70 Products
C or 158 F for at least one minute to ensure
the destruction of the harmful bacteria. For
safety, steam the crabs for 25-30 minutes or
boil them for approximately 15 minutes.
• Cooking Mussels- molluskan shellfish
should be depurated (pinapasuka or
pinapalaway) before cooking.
• Scallops - they easily toughen when Phycotoxin
overcooked. As soon as they turn opaque, • Toxic components produced by
they are done. unicellular micro- algae.
• Squid -2 techniques are: short time at high • Enter fishery products through the
temperature and long time at low temperature aquatic environment.
• Food safety authorities suggest that fish • Paralytic, diarrheic, amnesic or
should be cooked until it reaches an internal neurotoxic effect.
temperature of 63 C or 145 F.
• One helpful guideline is the 10-minute rule of Types of Phycotoxins
cooking fish. 1. Paralytic shellfish poisons (PSP)
• due to the toxin Saxitoxins.
Here’s how to use the 10-minute rule: • Symptoms are: tingling sensation or
1. If the fish is stuffed or rolled, measure it after numbness in lips, neck and extremities,
stuffing or rolling. Measure the thickest portion. headaches, dizziness, diarrhea, nausea
2. Using a baking temperature of 232 C or 450 F. and vomiting. In extreme cases,
Bake for 10 minutes per inch thickness of the fish, muscular paralysis, respiratory difficulty,
turning the fish halfway through the computed choking sensation, death through
cooking time. respiratory paralysis may occur within 2
3. Pieces of fish less than an inch thick need not be – 24 hrs.
turned. • Common foods affected are clams,
4. When using aluminum foil, banana leaves, or if the mussels, scallops.
fish is cooking in a sauce, add 5 minutes to the total • Red tide
cooking time. 2. Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisons (DSP)
5. Double the cooking time to 20 minutes per inch for • due to the following toxins:
frozen fish that has not been defrosted. o Okadaic Acid
o Dinophysistoxins 1,2,3
Fish and Shellfish Safety o Pectenotoxins
• Thoroughly heat the food before serving. o Yessotoxins
• When storing food in the refrigerator and • Symptoms: Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting,
freezer, make sure that the cooked and raw abdominal pain. In extreme cases,
food do not touch or cross each other, or chronic exposure may promote tumor
worse, the raw fish drips into the cooked fish. formation in the digestive system.
• Always keep food in covered containers. 3. Amnesic Shellfish Poisons (ASP)
• Do not crowd food in the chiller section. • due to the toxin Domoic Acid
• Frozen food that has been thawed should be • Symptoms: diarrhea, nausea, vomiting
cooked immediately and not refrozen. and abdominal pain. In extreme cases
short term memory loss, dizziness,
confusions, hallucinations, seizures,
death.
Other Toxic Marine Substances
• Ciguatoxin poisoning
• Scrombroid poisoning
• Azaspiracid Poisoning

Azaspiracid Poisoning
• Due to Azaspiracid 1,2,3.
• Symptoms include chills, headaches,
diarrhea, stomach cramps, nausea and
vomiting.
 BEVERAGES Coffee
• Prepared from beans of Coffea species
Beverages • Main objective in preparation is the same
• Refers to any drink, water being the main as tea
natural form • Main stimulants - caffeine & caffeic acids
• Any liquid that is swallowed to quench thirst • Caramelized carbohydrate is
for nourishment or enjoyment responsible for color
• Caffeel – mainly responsible for aroma
Types of Beverages • Contains essentials or aromatic oils
• Non- alcoholic • Contains carbon dioxide that gives the
o “non-stimulating” zip in taste of coffee
o Milk, coffee, tea, chocolate, synthetic
drinks To obtain best results in coffee
• Alcoholic • Use freshly roasted coffee
o “stimulating” • Use porcelain, stoneware, glass – metals
o Beer, malt liquors, wine form a compound with caffeine to give a
metallic flavor to coffee
Tea • Brew coffee at an optimum temperature
• Objective in preparing tea is to extract the of 85-95C
maximum amount of flavoring substances but • Use 2 tsp. ground per cup of water
the minimum amount of disagreeably
flavored tannin the same as in coffee Market Forms of Coffee
• Prepared from the leaves of Camelia sinensis • Roasted Whole Coffee
• Contain natural oils, caffeine & theine as • Ground Coffee
stimulants & tannin for color & pungency • Soluble or Instant Coffee
• 3-in-1 Coffee
Kinds of Tea
• Decaffeinated Coffee
1. Black – leaves are fermented
• Canned Coffee
2. Green – leaves are steamed before drying to
destroy enzymes; from fermented leaves
Specialty Coffee
3. Oolong – semi-fermented leaves
• Espresso
4. Instant – vaccum-dried
• Caffe Latte
5. Scented or spiced tea/Tisanes – made from
dried herbs & flower blossoms • Cappuccino
6. White • Iced Coffee
7. Pu-erh • Flavored Coffee
8. Flavored
9. Blends Methods of preparing coffee
1. Steeping method
Methods of preparing tea • Ground coffee is in constant contact with
• Soft water is preferred water
• Glassware, earthenware, enamel ware are • Water is allowed to boil in a coffee pot &
used in cooking measured coffee is put either directly into
• Pot is scalded before brewing (not boiled) boiling water or tied loosely in thin cloth
• Commonly used methods: bag
• Teaball or teabag method – boiling water is • Heat is reduced (185-230F) & coffee is
poured over tea bag & soaked until desired allowed to steep for 6-8 minutes
strength is reached
• Steep method – usual proportion is 1⁄2 to 1
tsp of tea/cup of hot water & steeped for 2-4
minutes; leaves are removed immediately
2. Drip method Cocoa & Chocolate
• “filtered coffee” • Main stimulant is threobromine
• Hot water is poured over coffee grounds in a • Flavor component: caffeine, tannins
perforated basket lined with filter paper or • Fat Content:
cheese cloth o Cocoa – 18% fat
• Finely ground or pulverized coffee is used for o Chocolate – 50% fat
maximum yield • Starch content:
o Cocoa – 11% starch
o Chocolate – 8% starch

Kinds:
• Cocoa – powdered chocolate- with 50%
cocoa butter removed
• Bitter chocolate – solid mass with 50%
3. Percolator cocoa butter; comes in squares or bars
• Jet of water is delivered by pressure over • Breakfast cocoa - contains not less than
coffee grounds in a perforated container 22% cocoa fat
• Coffee grounds are placed in a perforated • Sweet milk cocoa - breakfast cocoa
upper part of pot ground with sugar in the proportion of
about 40% cocoa and 60% sugar.
• Lower part is filled with measured amount of
fresh water
Cacao tree and fruit
• Upon boiling, water is forced upward through
the tube to the top of the pot where it is
sprayed over the coffee
• As it drips down, flavor materials are
extracted
• Coffee is percolated gently for 7-10 minutes

Kinds:
• Sweet milk cocoa - breakfast cocoa
ground with sugar to which 12% whole
milk solids is added.
• Instant cocoa - a combination of cocoa,
4. Vacuum chocolate, powdered skim milk, and
• Water & coffee are placed in 2 separate sugar.
compartments of the coffee maker
• Hot water is sent to the upper compartment Methods of preparation
(where coffee is) by water vapor pressure The proportion used is 1 T cocoa or 1 oz.
(from boiling water in the lower compartment) chocolate, 1 T sugar, few grains of salt & 2 T
& is flowed down by the resulting vacuum water
1. Syrup method - Mix sugar, chocolate or
cocoa, cook until volume is reduced, add milk
2. Paste Method - Boil mixture slowly in a small
saucepan; when thick paste is formed; add hot
milk, stir, and blend well; complete cooking
3. Dry Method - Powdered milk, sugar & cocoa
powder are mixed before adding water
Synthetic drinks 3. Compounded spirits
• Carbonated – with carbon dioxide added a. Gin
• Non-carbonated – without CO2 b. Liqueur/ Cordial
• Fruit-flavored drinks 4. Other Alcoholic Beverages
Aquavit, Bitters, Cachaca, and local
Energy, Sports and Health Drinks wines/spirits such as tuba, basi,
• Contain electrolytes-the substances that lambanog, and tapuy
control osmosis in the body and help maintain
the acid-base balance required for normal Wine and Fruit Wine
cellular activities
Wine
3 Popular Types of Sports Drinks • Produced only from grapes but today the
1. Isotonic - quickly replaces fluids lost by sweating term wine is extended to alcoholic drinks
and supplies a boost of carbohydrates; made for the from any fruit, which contains sufficient
average athlete fermentable carbohydrate.
2 Hypotonic - quickly replaces fluid lost, and is best • Made on a limited commercial scale from
for low-respiration athletes such as jockey and fruits such as strawberry , gooseberry,
gymnasts and peach.
3. Hypertonic - supplements daily carbohydrate • Can also be produced from mango,
intake normally after exercise to top glycogen stores. santol, tamarind, bignay, and others
Used primarily for athletes such as long-distance • Alcoholic content of 10-18 percent
runners
Can be classified according to their chemical
Fruit Juice, Nectar and Fruit Drinks composition as follows:
• Fruit juice is legally defined as the juicy 1. Dry wine - containing a very small amount of
extract from fruits, when water is added the sugar, usually served during a meal because it
product becomes a fruit drink. is neither sweet nor heavy
• Nectar may be used when sugar is added. 2. Sweet wine - wine with discernible amount of
• A concentrate is a product made when water unfermented sugar.
is removed from a fruit juice, thus when water 3. Sparkling wine - wine that effervesces when
from pineapple is removed the resulting bottle is opened, releasing bubbles of carbon
product is a pineapple concentrate. dioxide
Standards of Quality for Fruit Juices 4. Fortified wine - additional alcohol derived
• Appearance from distillation of wine is added to increase
• Flavor alcohol content to 15 to 18%. (Ex. Sherry,
• Aroma Madeira, Marsala, and Port)
• Nutrition
• Temperature

Alcoholic Drinks
1. Fermented beverages
a. Brews - Beer, Cider and Perry
b. Wines - Natural/Still (Red, Rose/Blush,
White), Sparkling (Champagne and Others),
Fortified (Sherry, Port, Madeira, Marsala,
Malaga), Aromatized (Vermouth and others)
2. Distilled beverages
a. Brandy
b. Rum
c. Tequila and Mezcal
d. Vodka
e. Whisky/Whiskey
Malt Liquor brewing process for nutritional variances include
• produced by fermentation of cereal like barley the following:
malt or from a mixture of malt and rye. • the more malt in the brew, the more B-
• Malt beverage can be classified as the vitamins added
following: • the more sugar used, the more alcohol
o Beer • the more hops, the more phytochemicals
o Ale • the darker the beer, the more fiber
o Porter or stout • the less sugar, the less carbohydrates
o Distilled Liquors or spirits
Ale
Beer, ale, and porter • made with top yeast instead of bottom
yeast employed for beer, usually
contains more alcohol and hops than
lager
Porter or stout
• very full- bodied, dark sweet rich brew
made from fermenting partially charred
malt
Distilled liquors or spirits
• distillates from fruits or wines, or from
grains or starch solutions, or from a
Distilled liquors/spirits mixture of fruits and grains or from other
aromatic substances

Among the distilled liquors are:

1. Brandy
• spirit distilled from the fermented juice of
grapes or sometimes of apples,
Beer peaches, or plums. Contains 30-50 %
light colored brew that is fermented from cereals and alcohol.
malt and flavored with hops. 2. Cognac
Some common types of beer are: • a brandy distilled from wine. It derived its
1. Pale/Pilsen/Pilsner name from Cognac, a district in France
• pale gold colored beer which has a slightly where it is made.
bitter taste 3. Armagnac
2. Lager • a brandy is produced from continuous
• made by bottom yeast fermentation of the operations of the original and
above strain of Saccharomyces redistillation systems in contrast with the
carlsbergensis, lower alcoholic content than separate batch operations of Cognac.
ale 4. Gin
3. Cervesa negra • colorless beverage containing 40-50 %
• dark colored beer alcohol which derives its flavors from
4. Draft added essential oils rather than from
• contained in sterilized stainless-steel barrel product of fermentation.
after undergoing flash pasteurization and 5. Rum
carbonation • distillate from fermented sugarcane
juice, syrup or molasses
Non- alcoholic beers, low carb beers and light beers 6. Vodka
are recent alterations of regular beer for health • a Russian liquor distilled from fermented
reasons. In a 2011article published by the ADA wheat rye or potatoes
Times (Winter issue), alterations of ingredients in the
7. Whiskey 2. Lambanog
• distilled product from grain mash saccharified • Obtained from distillation of tuba
and fermented by special distiller’s yeast. fermented in an earthen jar or plastic
• Three kinds of whiskey are: container.
a. Bourbon- made basically from corn, • Only an average 91 L of 80 proof
sometimes with rye and malt lambanog is extracted from a 570 L
b. Rye- made from a mixture of rye or barley fermented toddy
malt • Alcohol content is higher than that of
c. Scotch- made primarily from barley tuba
3. Champagne
Philippine Alcoholic beverages • Prepared by transferring the
• Basi – fermented sugarcane wine, formed by fermenting
• Tuba – fresh palm extract coconut water, to a clean
• Lambanog – distilled fermented tuba container, inoculated with
• Tapuy – fermented rice champagne yeast and stand for
at least 6 months
4. Wine (Bahalina)
• Wine made from continuous
transfer of freshly collected tuba
until it becomes clear.
• The wine is buried in the ground
for 7 weeks to a year. This aged
beverage is known locally as
bahalina.

Coconut as Beverage
Non-alcoholic:
1. Coconut water
• Formed during the 3rd month of the
coconut to its maximum at the 8th month
2. Buko juice
• Drinks made from 7 month old coconuts
(buko) value for its therapeutic properties
especially for those with kidney trouble
and high blood pressure
Alcoholic:
1. Toddy (Tuba)
• Sweet fermented coconut sap which is
milky in appearance obtained by tapping
the young, flowering spathe of the
coconut palm
• Has a short shelf life unless added with
bark to increase its alcohol content
 FOOS DEASONINGS • Salt
o fine, rock, or iodized salt;
Food Seasonings o may be combined with other
• Defined as an item added to enhance the seasoning.
natural flavor of a food without changing its o Example: celery-salt, garlic-salt
flavor dramatically o iodization done by incorporating
• Salt is the most common seasoning, although potassium iodide to salt due to
all herbs and spices are often referred to as provision of RA 8172 mandating all
seasonings salt to be fortified with iodine.
• Add zest to our food • Condiments
o combinations of different spices and
Types of Food Seasonings herbs
o blends that provide interesting
1. Those that have flavor of their own: variation,
• Spices o e.g., sauces like banana catsup,
o pungent or aromatic natural products tomato sauce lechon sauce,
of vegetable origin. Worceshire sauce, Tabasco
o Different parts of the plant are used. • Dips
o Examples: peppercorn, cinnamon, o bagoong, patis, toyo, vinegar, tomato
nutmeg, thyme, cloves, etc puree/paste
• Herbs • Flavoring extracts
o plants whose stem above the ground o aromatic oils.
does not become woody. o Examples: vanilla, almond extract,
o The dried leaves are used as lemon extract,etc.
flavorings; e.g., bay leaf.
o Others are used fresh; e.g., tanglad or 2. Those that enhance flavor (thus called
lemon grass, pandan, mint, oregano flavor enhancers)
• Monosodium glutamate
o popularly called vetsin, used for
meats, seafood and vegetables
• Nucleotides
o used of soups, sauces, gravies used
for soups, sauces, gravies

3. Different Parts of Plant Used as

Seasoning:
• Bark
o cassia and cinnamon
• Buds and flowers
o capers, cloves, and saffron
• Leaves
o basil, bayleaf, lemon grass,
fennel, mint,screwpine (pandan),
parsley, rosemary, tarragon,
thyme
• Seeds
o allspice, anise, caraway,
cardamon, chili pepper,
coriander, mustard, nutmeg and
sesame
 • Roots and tubers How to Add Herbs and Spices
o ginger and turmeric, garlic and onion • Spices and herbs should be used to
• Combinations of these parts enhance the natural flavor of food-not
o spices could of course blend to make disguise or obscure it. Many herbs and
such interesting variations as chili spices can complement a dish and each
seasoning, chili powder and curry other, however, be selective
powder. These are not a single spice combinations. Avoid using to many at
but one predominant spice could one time.
account for the characteristic flavor. • Use a dry spoon to remove the portion
o For example, curry contains turmeric required.
for the yellow color and cumin and • Don not sprinkle seasoning directly from
ginger for flavor. the container into a steaming pot. The
rising moisture may diminish the potency
Nutritive Value and Hints for Using Herbs of the spice or herb remaining in the jar,
• Most dried herbs and spices are low in or may it cause to clump or spoil more
calories, providing no more than 15 calories quickly.
per teaspoon. • Crush leaf herbs, such as oregano,
• Paprika is an excellent source of vitamin A, thyme or basil, in your hand before use
parsley is rich in vitamin C, cumin is an for a more immediate release of flavor.
unexpected source of iron and caraway
seeds even contribute a little calcium in the When to Add Herbs and Spices
diet. • Herbs may be added near the end of
• Dried herbs are stronger in flavor than fresh cooking for more distinct flavor, or at the
leaf herbs. When adding dried leaf herbs to a beginning for more blended flavors.
recipe that calls for fresh ones, substitute 1/3 • Ground spices and herbs release their
the amount called for in the recipe. flavors readily. In long cooking dishes,
• When using dried herbs, crush them in the such as stews, add these near the end of
palm of your hand or between your fingers. the cooking time to minimize the
This will release the flavor quickly. Whole “cooking off” of its flavors.
herbs are better choice than ground or • Whole spices and bay leaves release
powdered herbs because they hold their flavor more slowly than ground or leaf
flavor longer in storage; pulverize just before from and are ideal for using in dishes
using. with longer cooking times.
• When adding whole spices to a recipe that • For uncooked foods, such as salad
calls for ground spices, use 1 1⁄2 times as dressings, fruits or fruit juices, add spices
much as the recipe call for. When doubling a and herbs several hours before serving
recipe, do not double the herbs and spices. to allow flavors to develop and “ mary” or
Increase them by 1 1⁄2 times and then taste, blend. Alternatively, the liquid with the
adding more if necessary. seasonings may be heated briefly to
• Don’t season more than one dish in a meal release the flavor, then allowed to cool.
with the same herb. Also, every dish on the For salad dressings, add the spices to
menu does not need to be herbed- two or the vinegar and allow to stand before
three at the most is enough. adding the oil.
• The aromatic compounds in the herbs are fat
soluble. Adding a little fat to food will increase How much to add herbs and spices
the perception of the aroma in the herb. • There is no general rule for the correct
• Tender herbs like parsley and cilantro can be number of spices and herbs to use the
covered with plastic then refrigerate. Fresh pungency of each spice and herb differs
basil stores best at room temperature since and its effect on different foods varies.
cold temperatures wither its leaves easily. • When no recipe is available, try starting
with 1⁄4 teaspoon for 4 servings, per
 pound of meat, or for each pint (2 cups) of • The quick process involves acid
sauce or soup; adjust as necessary. hydrolysis, but the resulting product does
• Red pepper flavors increase in intensity upon not have the flavor components of the
cooking. Use in small increments to allow the brewed process
flavors to intensify during cooking. • There are several kinds of
fermented/brewed soy sauce,
Condiments differentiated by their color, flavor notes
• Derived from the French words condire, and the raw material.
which means to pickle, and condere, which • For example, tamari soy sauce is made
means to build or store up. without wheat added to the raw material
• Flavorful and savory preparation added to and the final product is darker. Sauces
food to enhance flavor or appetite such as a using soy sauce as base have been
relish, sauce, mixture of spices and so on. formulated, such as teriyaki sauce.

Salty Condiment a. Worcestershire Sauce

• sauce that came about supposedly by
1. Bagoong accident in the chemist shop of Lea and
• Basic kinds of bagong are: fish, small shrimps Perrins located in Worcester, England.
(alamang) and shellfish Its basic ingredients are soy sauce,
• These are all salted and allowed to ferment vinegar and/or tamarind and spices.
until the characteristic texture and flavor are b. Oyster sauce
developed. • another soy sauce-based. Fermented
• Fishes used are dilis, padas, and other small oyster is added as an essential
fishes ingredient
2. Fish paste c. Hoisin sauce
• Made from fermented fish with spices and • sometimes called Chinese barbeque
other ingredients added sauce and is often used as table
• Fish paste preparations are common in condiment and dipping sauce for
Japan Chinese dishes like spring rolls.
3. Heko
• Condiment made by cooking bagoong and Sour Condiments
water for half an hour, then allowing to stand.
The resulting residue is heko. 1. Vinegar
4. Patis • a product of a 2- stage fermentation of a
• Clear amber liquid derived from hydrolysis of sugary substance like fruit juice
heavily salted fish (often dilis, galunggong, • First stage converts sugar to alcohol and
tamban) a second stage converts alcohol to acetic
• Most countries in Southeast Asia have their acid by Acetobacters, acetic acid-
version of patis like nuoc mam of Vietnam or producing bacteria
nam pla of Thailand • The distilled alcohol is run through an
5. Soy sauce and variants acetator seeded with Acetobacter aceti
• Soy sauce originated from China, where which converts the alcohol into 10%
various kind of soy sauce are available. In acetic acid solution is called distilled
Japan soy sauce making developed into a vinegar.
fine art akin to wine making.
• prepared from salted soybeans and wheat Philippine Specialty Vinegars
flour • Sukang Paombong- derived from nipa
• The traditional process is considered a sap
brewing process, where the fermentation is • Sukang Iloko- derived from sugarcane
carried out by enzymes derived from a mold, juice; dark in color due to the addition of
Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus soyae, which tungog a pulp from the bark of mangrove.
is a slow process • SukangTuba- derived from coconut sap
A new product in the market is Arena TM vinegar 4. Chutney
which is made from the kaong palm. • the Indian name for this preparation is
chatni
a. Flavored vinegar • a spicy relish eaten as a side dish
• specialty flavored vinegar can be made with • India chutney can be made up of any
a vinegar base, usually an herb and/or spice combination of fruit, vegetable and
is added. In the Philippines the most popular spices
is sinamak where a mixture of chili pepper/ • has a consistency of a jam, but the flavor
labuyo, ginger and garlic added to the bottled is savory sweetish sour unlike jam which
vinegar. is always sweet
b. Wine vinegar • most popular chutney in the Philippines
• prepared from wine. Red wine vinegar from is mango chutney, prepared from unripe
white wine is dark red in color and has mellow mangoes
acidic flavor; white wine vinegar from white 5. Pickles and Pickle Relish
wine is pale straw in color has a tart, acidic • pickles are fruits or vegetables preserved
flavor. in vinegar with or without spices.
c. Balsamic vinegar • most common pickled vegetable is
• is a proprietary product of Modena, Italy. It is cucumber pickles, but all vegetables can
made from concentrated grape juice, be pickled as well
fermented and aged for 15 to 20 years, in a • achara is the term we use for our own
series of wooden casks. pickled products, the most common
• dark almost black in color and has mellow achara is shredded papaya achara
sweetish sour flavor • Also popular are pickled radish,
• used for salad dressings ampalaya, and sitaw.
• mustard relish is made from the seeds of
Tomato Catsup and other fruit and vegetable the mustard plant mixes with sugar and
sauces spices

1. Catsup/ Ketchup Other Specialty Sauces

• spicy condiment made up of cooked fruit or
vegetable, vinegar, sugar and spices The following is a partial listing of sauces and
• derived from a Chinese word ketsiap marinades for meat, poultry and fish. Sauce
meaning fermented fish sauce but as the cooking is a term used for recipes where a plain
term traveled around the world the original fried or boiled meat, fish or poultry is made into
meaning also changed a meal by just pouring a sauce mix, heating and
• the most common is Tomato Ketchup/Catsup instantly it is ready to serve.
2. Banana Catsup/ Banana sauce
• banana sauce is a Philippine invention and 1. Lechon sauce
can rightfully be called banana catsup. • made with grilled pork liver,
• first developed as a substitute for the then starch/breadcrumbs, vinegar, sugar, and
imported tomato ketchup which explains why spices. It was formulated to go with
it is colored red lechon, but has expanded its use for
• was made from ripe saba banana, vinegar other meat preparations
and spices 2. Barbecue sauce
• most popular catsup in the Philippines • formulated in various meal ways, but it is
3. Squash Catsup/ Sauce always has a sweet – sour flavor
• slowly building acceptance is squash catsup 3. Steak sauce
which is being called Squash Sauce • like barbecue sauce, steak sauces have
• made from squash with added vinegar and as many versions as there are brands.
spices This is formulated to accompany beef
• promoted as a good source of beta carotene, steak.
a precursor of Vit. A
4. Kare- kare sauce mix 5. Food colors
• mixture of various ingredients which includes • classified into natural and artificial food
ground peanuts, toasted rice flour, achuete, colors
spices and others. 6. Miscellaneous additives
5. Marinade mixes • different processing aids like bleaching
• various dry marinade mixes are available agents, sequestrants, and surfactants.
6. Gravy mixes
• mixture of a starchy base with spices and Food Colors
seasonings, by adding water and heating for • classified into natural and artificial food
a few minutes, the gravy is ready to serve colors

Food additives Natural colorants

• subtances added to food for specific • derived from natural food sources
functions such as coloring, flavoring, suchas ube for purple coloring in ube
modification of texture, improving shelf life cake, carrots as coloring material for
and preventing microbial growth. pasta, egg yolk to impart the yellow color
• Not intended to salvage spoiled raw materials in some pancit.
nor is it intended to take the place of • An extract from a natural source is also
sanitation and good kitchen practices classified as a natural color. Example of
this is achuete (annatto).
Approval of Additive Use in Foods • The other group of consist of the certified
• Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has the food colors. It has FD &C or E number
primary legal responsibility for determining appended to their names.
their use safe use. • This means that the color had been
• To market a new food or color additive, a certified under the provisions of the Food
manufacturer or other sponsor must first Drug and Cosmetic Act of the USA, while
petition for its approval E number is the equivalent designation
• A food additive is given a GRAS (generally passed by the European Union
recognized as safe) status when it has a • They must pass rigid tests and must be
history of safe use in foods qualified by certified food to be safe for human
scientific procedures. consumption. When they have been
• Food additive from natural sources are found to be safe, they are referred to as
usually GRAS and are exempted from “certified colors”.
certification from FDA
Color additive
Food additives can be divided into six major • any dye, pigment or substance which
categories namely: preservatives, nutritional when added or applied to a food, drug or
additives, flavoring agents, coloring agents, cosmetic, or to the human body, is
texturizing agents, and miscellaneous additives. capable (alone or through reactions with
other subatances) of imparting color.
1. Preservatives • Color additives are used in foods for
• include the antimicrobials, antioxidants and many reasons:
anti- browning agents. o To offset color loss due to
2. Nutritional additives exposure to light, air,
• include vitamin, minerals, amino and fatty temperature extremes, moisture
acids. and storage conditions
3. Flavoring agents o To correct natural variations in
• subdivided into natural and synthetic flavors, color
flavor enhancers and sweeteners. o To enhance colors that occur
4. Texturing agents naturally
• include stabilizers, emulsifiers, dough o To provide color to colorless and
improvers. fun foods
Certified colors Safety of Food and Seasonings
• are synthetically produced (or human made) To be on the safe side, it is always prudent to
and used widely because they impart an limit the consumption of food with these
intense, uniform color, are less expensive, controversial food additives and to avoid giving
and blend more easily to create a variety food containing these additives to very young
hues. children.
• Food Colors: Red No. 3 and 4, Red No
Natural colors 40, Yellow No 5
Natural colors can be divided into the following • Artificial Sweeteners: saccharin,
groups (Deman, 1990): cyclamate, aspartame, acesulfame K
• Tetrapyrole compounds- are chlorophylls • Flavor enhancer: monosodium
found in green vegetables and leaves and glutamate
hemes present in meat and fish • Preservatives: Nitrates and nitrites
• Isoprenoid derivatives- are carotenoids (used in curing meats), sulfites
which are widely distributed both in animals
and plants The following is a list of food additives that have
• Benzopyran derivatives- are anthocyanins been banned by the USFDA indicating reason
and flavonoids which are responsible for the for the ban. It is best to avoid foods with any of
red, blue and violet colors of many fruits and the following ingredients.
vegetables like root crops, berries, and
grapes. 1. Nitrogen trochloride which was used as a
bleaching agent for flour was banned in 1949
Proper Care and Storage when dogs that ate bread containing the
Storage of Seasonings Condiments bleaching agent suffered epileptic fits. The toxic
1. Spices and herbs will lose their color, taste agent was methionine sulfoxine.
and aroma over time. 2. The following color additives:
2. To preserve peak flavor and color, store • Butter Yellow, found to cause liver
spices and herbs in a cool, dry place, away cancer
from exposure to bright light, heat, moisture • Green 1 and green 2 found to cause
or oxygen. liver cancer
3. Avoid storing spices and herbs too close to • Orange 1 and 2 found to cause organ
the stove, oven, dishwasher or refrigerator. damage
Heat depreciates flavor and cause caking or • Red No. 1 and 2 for causing liver cancer
clumping in the ground products. • Red No. 4 for damage to adrenal cortex
4. Store herbs and spices in airtight containers, of test animal
such as glass jars, plastic containers or tins, • Red 32 banned for use in food but can
to protect against moisture and preserve oils be used on peels of citrus
that give spices rich flavor and aroma. • Sudan I, II, III, and IV, carcinogenic
5. Close containers tightly after each use.
• Violet No. 1, carcinogenic
• Yellow 1 and 2, cause intestinal lesions
According to Type
at high dosage
1. The type of spice or herbs and their storage
• Yellow No. 3 and 4, cause heart
conditions determine their shelf life.
damage
2. Whole herbs and spices last longer than their
3. Flavoring
ground counterparts.
• Cinnamyl anthranilate, cause liver
3. Refrigerate red- colored spices, such as chili
cancer
powder, cayenne pepper and paprika to
• Coumarin, liver poison
prevent loss of color and flavor .
4. Refrigerate or freeze oil-rich seeds, such as • Oil of calamus, cause intestinal cancer
poppy and sesame to prevent them from • Safrole from sassafras used to flavor
getting rancid. root beer, cause liver cancer
4. Foam stabilizer
• Cobalt salt used to stabilize beer foam,
effect on heart
5. Artificial sweetener
• Cyclamate, increase potency of other
carcinogens
• Dulcin, causes liver cancer
6. Diethyl pyrocarbonate
• Preservative in beverages, was found to
form carcinogens
7. Humectant
• Ethylene glycol, cause kidney damage
8. Preservative
• Monochloroacetic acid, which is highly toxic
9. Antioxidant
• NDGA, cause kidney damage
10. Emulsifier
• Polyoxyethylene stearate, cause formation
of bladder stones and tumor