STRUCTURE

NCSEA | CASE | SEI MAY 2024

WOOD CONNECTIONS
Reviving a
WWII Airship
Hangar

INSIDE: Mass Timber in Affordable Housing 22

Wood-Framed Type III Construction 14
Investigating a Log Building Collapse 27
Saving a Historic Terra Cotta Arch Floor 37
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Linda M. Kaplan, P.E.

Pennoni, Pittsburgh, PA

Nicholas Lang, P.E.

Vice President Engineering & Advocacy, Masonry

May
Concrete Masonry and Hardscapes Association (CMHA)

Jessica Mandrick, P.E., S.E., LEED AP

2024
Gilsanz Murray Steficek, LLP, New York, NY

Jason McCool, P.E.

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International Code Council, Washington, DC

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Silman, New York, NY

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JVA, Inc., Boulder, CO

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M AY 2024 3
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 Contents M AY 2024

30 REVIVING A SAN FRANCISCO

BAY AREA HISTORIC LANDMARK
Cover Feature

By Kenneth Ogorzalek, PE, SE; Blake Dilsworth, PE, SE; and Shakhzod Takhirov, Ph.D, PE

The seismic ductility and health monitoring of historic wood connections in a WWII airship
hangar were enhanced using fully threaded screws.

F E A T U R E S

MASS TIMBER IN AFFORDABLE

MULTI-FAMILY HOUSING 22 27
By Michael Scancarello, PE, and Andrew Ruff
INVESTIGATING
A COLLAPSE
By Peter Marxhausen, PE

Used efficiently, mass timber can be a cost-effective structural material to Despite adequate structural design and a less-than-design snow event,
create sustainable, affordable housing. a scribed log- and sawn-lumber-framed commercial lodge structure
experienced a catastrophic collapse less than two years after it was built.

MODERN MEETS
HISTORIC 37 40
By Michael D. Zajac, PE, LEED AP
WOOD FLOOR TRUSS
COLLAPSE: A CASE STUDY
By Brian Petruzzi, PE; Emily Guglielmo, SE, PE; and Christopher Cerino, PE

Innovative strengthening techniques saved the historic terra cotta flat-tile-arch The real reason for the failure of a clubhouse floor was not the dancing.
floor structure of an iconic landmark.

M AY 2 024 5
See how high-strength steel is
enabling sustainable design.
nucor.com/madeforgood
 C O L U M N S a n d D E PA RT M E N TS
9 Editorial The Challenge Ahead
By A. Christopher Cerino, PE

10 Structural Design
By Seth Duncan
Deferred Design

14 Structural Design A Practicing Engineer’s Approach to

Wood-Framed Type III Construction By Jared S. Hudson, PE, and Shaun M. Kreidel, SE
10

18 Structural Analysis Community Tornado Shelter Utilizing

Reinforced Hollow Clay Masonry
By Steven G. Judd, CE, SE, CBS

43 Codes Updates 2024 IBC

Significant Structural Changes
By John “Buddy” Showalter, PE, and Sandra Hyde, PE

47 Structural Resilience
New Solution Needed Following
Flooding in Historic Office Complex
Buildings By Russ Miller-Johnson, PE, SE

57 Structural Forum
It Is OK to Struggle
By Chad S. Mitchell, PE, SE

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In Every Issue
3 Advertiser Index
49 Wood Guide
50 NCSEA News
52 SEI Update
54 CASE in Point

Publication of any article, image, or advertisement in STRUCTURE®

magazine does not constitute endorsement by NCSEA, CASE,
SEI, the Publisher, or the Editorial Board. Authors, contributors,
and advertisers retain sole responsibility for the content of their
submissions. STRUCTURE magazine is not a peer-reviewed
publication. Readers are encouraged to do their due diligence
through personal research on topics.

M AY 2 024 7
 EDITORIAL
The Challenge Ahead
By A. Christopher Cerino, PE

T he structural engineering profession con-

tinues to face many challenges. What is
fueling the pipeline of the future workforce?
and the back-end platform and database, is
a critical baseline for NCSEA to be able to
provide next generational support for our
from the profession by classes, class sizes,
instructors, and subjects that are not really
needed for success?
How do structural engineers navigate evolv- initiatives, staff, committees, linked groups, In the area of evolving hazards: Can engi-
ing environmental hazards and even more and Member Organizations. neers actively develop, adopt, and advocate
tangible physical hazards like Panamax ship- A possibly lesser-known initiative is the for the use of the Future Conditions chap-
ping vessels near busy ports? How will the media spokesperson program. In the after- ter of ASCE/SEI 7 that is being developed?
structural engineering profession remain math of the Surfside collapse, many of our Can we continue to inform our members
relevant as AI continues to rapidly advance? Member Organizations were contacted by about the evolving standard of care with
How will structural engineers continue to media outlets hunting for structural engi- respect to climate and provide interim
push for heightened licensure laws while some neering sound bites. NCSEA helped to design recommendations while standards
jurisdictions are attempting to weaken cur- serve as a central point of connection for are being developed? Can we continue to
rent ones? the requests, but it was obvious that we refine hazard performance expectations and
NCSEA’s mission centers around support of needed to be more coordinated and pre- promote concepts of functional recovery
and for the practicing structural engineer, and pared for future events. NCSEA contracted and community resilience over just basic
our greatest strength is the ability to pivot as a media specialist firm and at the Summit life safety? Can we work with regulators to
needed to address the most pressing issues. last November, 10 individuals from Member draft a uniform vessel impact, pier protec-
NCSEA turns 30 this year, and the challenges Organizations across the country graduated tion, and operating procedure guidance
to the profession are not the same as in 1994. in the first class of media spokesperson train- for our critical ports that support mega-
Part of the reason that NCSEA has such an ing. Early in the morning of March 26, our shipping fleets?
amazing and active history is because we have new system was tested with the tragic events With respect to AI: Can we provide clear
continued to evolve with the needs of a chang- in Baltimore. NCSEA and our media special- and truthful guidance to our members on
ing profession. ist mobilized the appropriate spokespeople, the risks and opportunities to the profes-
While there can be great comfort in riding coordinated a set of unified talking points, sion? Can we provide education that explains
the wave of good times, this year, like every and successfully delivered almost a dozen the over-saturated buzzwords that appear
year, NCSEA will continue to listen to our interviews across television, radio, stream- throughout the media? Can we provide tar-
Member Organizations (state structural ing, and written platforms. While we all are geted education for individuals and firms
engineers’ associations, or SEAs) and look to deeply saddened by the events that transpire of all sizes on how to effectively navigate
advance initiatives that support our mission to bring forth media interview requests, we entering or advancing your use of AI?
and vision through today’s lens. Change can are proud to deliver a strong and cohesive In terms of licensure: Can structural
be hard and some of the challenges facing the message from the structural engineer- engineering media attention surrounding
profession come with difficult realizations ing profession that advocates for use and events fuel positive legislative change? Can
and conversations. But true growth requires enforcement of appropriate codes, standards, the joint leadership of CASE, NCSEA,
us to step outside of our comfort zone to and regulations, and that brings attention to and SEI provide a strong, unified voice in
stretch as individuals and together as a the unique knowledge and expertise of struc- state and national arenas advocating for the
profession. Complacency and the phrase tural engineers, our critical role throughout advancement of public safety that comes
“this is how we always do it” are complete all phases of the design and construction through adequate licensing and continuing
demotivators to me and the amazing NCSEA process, and our opportunity to contribute education requirements?
staff and Board of Directors that will be to the safety, sustainability, and resilience of Structural engineers are uniquely suited
serving you in the upcoming year. our communities. to be expert leaders for owners, agencies,
In our 30th year, many longer-term ini- So how will NCSEA address the current and developers on multi-disciplinary teams
tiatives are starting to bear fruit. The We challenges in the profession? throughout the entire design, construction,
See Above and Beyond advocacy campaign For the question of pipeline: Can we and project lifecycle. We must continue to
has gone through a full cycle of its initial continue to exponentially grow diversity challenge our current daily practice to secure
push and we are taking the learning from and other scholarships for college students this role and to inspire and elevate the future
this effort and finalizing the next phase. The in need and host them at the Summit? of the profession. ■
NCSEA Foundation, which started almost a Can we support a national “Pathways”
decade ago as a small Member Organization to the SE profession program or partner
grant program, now has a separate Board of with Member Organization to grow theirs? A. Christopher Cerino, PE, F.SEI, DBIA, is Vice President and
Directors that is steering their vision around Can we challenge universities and the Technical Director of structural engineering, urbanism and
the pillars of Innovation and Research, antiquated ABET structural engineering planning for STV. He is also President of the NCSEA Board
Awareness and Advocacy, and People. And… education model where many potential of Directors.
we launched our new website! The website, engineers are “weeded out” and driven

STRUCTURE magazine M AY 2024 9

 structural DESIGN
Deferred Design
Employing effective, early communication ensures you get accurate,
on-time truss designs. By Seth Duncan

D esignating “Trusses by Others” on your building plans may sound

trivial, but, all too often, the process for obtaining them is not.
Those "others" who design and manufacture trusses from construction
out that new gird-
ers will be needed in
order to accommo-
documents were asked what advice they would give to the building date other parts of
designers that create them. Everyone involved wants trusses with suf- your structure. This is
ficient performance that are cost-effective, and they want a painless especially important
process for defining their requirements. Answering as many of their for HVAC running
questions up-front as possible, along with ones they may not think to through a floor, as
ask, is the best way to ensure you get truss designs that work without floor girders can be
endangering your project’s timeline. hard to design with
large openings due to Figure 2. Example of LVL beam specified without a clear
their restricted depth height dimension on the structural drawings.
Dimensions and webbing options
(Figure 4). These are
Most engineers will refer you to the architect’s drawings for the build- all good examples of where it can pay off to include the truss designer
ing’s dimensions, but some of them are so critical to truss performance early in the planning stages.
that they are worth verifying before truss design begins: heel heights,
overhangs, and bearing locations. The first two have to do with defin-
ing the roof envelope. Truss heel heights are generally determined by Loading and Analysis
where the roof plane meets the bearing component (e.g. a wall or beam).
These need to be clearly marked (Figure 1), and they also have to be tall An overwhelming number of parameters affect the loading and analysis
enough to allow the chords of a truss to fit. Roomier heels often allow of trusses. Unless they receive explicit instructions, the truss designer
for more efficient truss designs too, which means savings on material is unlikely to deviate from the default settings in their software except
costs. Overhangs, or any protrusion of the truss from the exterior of the when it helps them design the truss with cheaper materials. The defaults
structure, can experience significant uplift forces when they’re exposed in their truss software may be overly-conservative, leading to costly
to wind. These lengths, most commonly top chord overhangs, are easy overdesigning, while changing settings for which no parameters were
for truss designers to miss, particularly when they vary within a project. provided to them could lead to trusses that meet all the specifications
Truss bearings are typically going to be a wall or beam, and these need while underperforming on-site. Supplying all of the relevant constraints
to have their locations and heights clearly conveyed (Figure 2)—again, is the best way to avoid these problems.
especially when they vary within a project. Misplaced bearings have all Clear communication is essential when it comes to the project’s loading
sorts of ramifications for truss design, as a lot of factors go into developing
from causing unnecessary chord steps the loads for a structure besides the
to heavy reinforcement in the wrong basic live and dead loading for the
parts of the truss, and they are sure chords. First, those dead loads may
to confound the framers in the field. or may not account for the weight of
the lumber itself, so a careful designer
will assume that weight needs to be
Clash Prevention added in unless they are told that it has
already been accounted for. Another
Truss repairs can be costly both in common source of suboptimal loading
terms of time and money, and one of is storage loads in residential attics.
the most preventable causes for truss Most trusses need to be checked for
repair is clashes in the field. This can whether a 42 inches high by 24 inches
come from HVAC requirements for wide box can fit anywhere along its
openings for ductwork and ventila- bottom chord, but IRC 2009 and
tion (Figure 3) or plumbers needing newer editions allow storage loading
space for supply pipes and drains. You to be omitted when the bottom chord
don’t want to wait until the trusses is going to be covered by insulation
are in place to find out they need to and the application of the project is
be shifted over or cut into, or to find residential. There are also exceptions
Figure 1. An example of truss overhang and heel height details is shown.

10 STRUCTURE magazine
in some codes for structures without an connections are significantly more expen-
attic access of 20 inches x 30 inches. sive than perpendicular ones, so use the
For wind loading, you may want to latter as much as possible. Another is to
specify whether to use the Envelope or minimize the hip girder’s setback distance
Directional procedure. The envelope pro- from the wall, ideally about 6 feet or less
cedure is a newer method that can be used in residential construction. Again, the
for “low-rise” buildings with a mean roof reason is to minimize the cost of the truss-
height less than or equal to 60 feet and to-truss connections, and, in many cases
is typically the more accurate of the two allowing for nailed connections in place
methods for those structures. of an expensive hanger.
Snow loading can be significantly On commercial projects, seeing if a
affected by the conditions in which the girder is a viable option ahead of time
structure exists. The terrain and exposure may save money and frustration down the
categories describe to what extent wind road. When loads are high, sometimes it
will help prevent snow buildup on the is more cost effective to use a LVL or steel
roof, the thermal factor takes into account beam to support an area of the roof or
whether or not the structure experiences floor as opposed to a massive girder. The
sustained freezing temperatures below Figure 3. Trusses would have been more cost-effective for supporting this last thing you want is to specify “Truss
its roof in winter, and estimates of snow platform for HVAC equipment, but not enough was known about where to Girder by Others” only to find out when
accumulation can be dramatically affected locate the openings in the roof at the time of truss design. the trusses are being designed that a girder
by the “slipperiness” of the roof as well as fails in that area. Having to change the
how well-ventilated it is. architectural design of a building to accommodate an unexpected beam
Commercial structures in particular are more likely to have things like or column is something that can severely slow a project down.
towers or other structures that require bracing to be attached to the roof Another way to reduce material costs is to keep the building as sym-
(Figure 5). Experienced truss designers will notice items like this and metrical and consistent as possible. The more times you can reuse a truss
either request clarification or make some assumptions. design, the less time designers have to spend creating truss designs and
Perhaps the most important inputs the building designer can provide the more efficiently the trusses can be manufactured. The more you can
into the truss analysis are the deflection limits. The building code has avoid variations in wall height, roof pitches, etc., the more economical
standards for this, of course, but you may find there are cases where the trusses are going to be. It’s also helpful to consider allowing for
the code allows for long-span trusses to deflect up to 2 inches, which trusses to have a consistent, even spacing. This convention comes from
can lead to problems like ceiling cracks. ANSI/TPI 1-2022 Table 7.6-1 trussed roofs with plywood sheathing since plywood is sold in 8-foot
has deflection limits that account for long-term deflection. Using more sheets. Committing to a multiple of two for your truss spacing can
stringent deflection criteria and/or compensating for bottom chord significantly reduce framing time and material costs.
deflection by specifying sufficient camber, or upward curvature, of For any project, looking at the “worst case” truss design from the
the bottom chords may be necessary, especially for long, unsupported whole layout to find out if a design will work ahead of time is a good
spans. The stakes are even higher for floor trusses, where certain flooring way to avoid costly redesigns down the road. The sooner you find what
materials like stone, concrete, and tile are especially prone to cracking. it takes to get that truss to work, the sooner you can update your cost
estimates accordingly or begin the redesign process before too much
work must be redone. Making the entire floor deeper or raising the heel
Material Cost and Design Time height to improve truss performance is much easier at the beginning of
the design process than at the end.
There are many ways that insufficient planning up-front can lead to
unnecessarily expensive trusses. One of the most common is the case of
locating girders, or the trusses, that will support sets of trusses. Here are Connections and Bracing
some rules of thumb: first, place a girder at a right angle to whatever it
will be carrying whenever possible. That means to avoid placing girders Once truss design has been completed, there are still some truss-
on valley lines and at an angle relative to the wall. Angled truss-truss related items for which the structural engineer is responsible. The first

Figure 4. This example shows a heavily-reinforced floor girder with an opening for HVAC.

M AY 2024 11
 Figure 5. The towers in this restaurant roof have unique challenges for bracing, wind resistance, and
snow drifting.

is the plan for attaching trusses to their bearings. The finalized truss designs
will include the reactions at each bearing, but a plan for attaching them to
the building does not come with the trusses. In some cases, the earlier you
consider this the better—you don’t want to wait until the trusses have been
fully designed to realize there isn’t enough heel height to tie the trusses to
the walls in a high-wind area.
The other remaining work is coming up with a bracing plan. Continuous
lateral bracing is needed to prevent truss buckling under construction loads.
Also, some individual truss designs are going to require permanent bracing,
and it is the building designer’s responsibility
to determine how to attach that bracing to
the trusses as well as how to tie that bracing
into the rest of the building.

Conclusion
The more complex the project, the more
critical effective communication becomes,
and the earlier that communication begins,
the better. As Kirk Grundahl put it in a
STRUCTURE magazine article in March
2020:
“One solution that works well is Building
Designers and General Contractors (GCs)
who commit to work with a specific CM
[component manufacturer] early in the
project life cycle. Communication and col-
laboration at the design development stage of
ADVERTISEMENT–For Advertiser Information, visit STRUCTUREmag.org

any project solve many of the problems that

typically present themselves during a deferred
submission review and revision process.”
The increasing popularity of the Design-
Build model means that building designers
need finished truss designs much earlier in the
submittal process, but since truss designers
work for component manufacturers, getting
truss designs typically means committing to
use that truss manufacturer to produce the
trusses up-front. The market is ripe for inno-
vative solutions to this challenge. Whenever a
truss designer does get involved, their needs
are synonymous with the needs of an effective
structure, and effectively anticipating those
needs will lead to better outcomes for the
quality and costs of all your truss projects. ■

Seth Duncan is the Director of Operations for Truss

Pal, a company that provides access to wood truss
design and analysis information. When he's not
standing in for your buddy at the truss shop who helps
answer your truss questions, Duncan likes spending
time with his family outdoors. Connect with him on
LinkedIn or visit trusspal.com.

12 STRUCTURE magazine
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 structural DESIGN
A Practicing Engineer’s Approach to
Wood-Framed Type III Construction
Design considerations and common detailing strategies for Wood-Framed Type III construction are discussed.
By Jared S. Hudson, PE, and Shaun M. Kreidel, SE

L ight frame wood construction is often a desired construc-

tion method for low-rise multifamily structures due to readily
available labor and materials, speed of construction, sustainability,
needed to maintain the strength, stability, and serviceability of
the wood-framed structure, as well as to address the applicable fire
design requirements. These details are multidisciplinary in nature
and relatively low construction costs. A Type V construction clas- and require a high level of collaboration between the structural
sification as defined by the International Building Code (IBC) is engineer, architect, and builder/developer to ensure that the project
commonplace for these structures; however, this construction type meets the owner’s expectations and the building code requirements
is limited to four stories of stacking wood construction. A Type of the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ).
III construction classification allows conventional wood-framed Depending on the requirements of a given project, practicing
structures to include an additional level, bringing the allowable engineers may need to investigate certain design aspects that become
height to five stories above grade; see Figure 1 for an example of critical when meeting the requirements of Type III construction.
this type of construction. This construction type may be attractive These design considerations include material requirements, fire-
to developers looking to maximize the occupiable square footage resistance rating requirements, the importance of designing for
of a defined footprint while taking advantage of the many benefits wood shrinkage, and structural detailing strategies to accommodate
that come with light-frame wood construction. To facilitate a Type fire-resistance ratings at the intersection of the floor/roof assemblies
III classification, unique structural and architectural detailing is and exterior wall assemblies.

Figure 1: This building in Nashville, Tennessee, is an example of Type III construction. Photo courtesy of Jared S. Hudson.

14 STRUCTURE magazine
 Material Requirements the expansion of the longitudinal steel due to ele-
vated service temperatures for longer-spanning flitch
While construction Types I, II, and III all require beams. Another strategy that the designer can employ
the use of non-combustible materials at exterior walls, is the use of rolled steel framing members within the
the IBC recognizes the use of fire-retardant-treated exterior wall. These members may require additional
(FRT) sawn lumber and FRT wood structural panel fire protection along with meeting the noncombus-
(WSP) sheathing as acceptable materials to satisfy the tible requirements of the code; the project architect
requirement under Type III construction. Practicing should be consulted for additional fire protection
engineers should account for FRT lumber and FRT requirements of these members.
sheathing strength reduction factors due to the treat-
Figure 2: Shown is an Illustration of a hold-
ment process. The strength reduction factors are down take-up device. Detail courtesy of
manufacturer-specific, thus coordination with the Jared S. Hudson. Fire Rating Requirements
architect and builder/developer is recommended if
the intended product is unknown. Type III construction requires that exterior load-
FRT treatment process results in sheathing strength reduction factors bearing walls satisfy a 2-hour fire-resistance rating (FRR). If exterior
which can decrease both the allowable spans and the lateral strength/ walls can be classified as non-load bearing, the FRR can be reduced
stiffness of diaphragms or shear walls. FRT lumber treatment process to 1-hour for certain occupancies. A 2-hour FRR is usually accom-
also affects the structural properties of sawn lumber; the designer may plished by having two interior layers of gypsum board. Over the full
need to augment the wall/header designs to mitigate these effects. perimeter of the structure, the added cost of an additional layer of
Table 1 illustrates the strength reduction factors from two manufac- gypsum board can be substantial. A common industry interpreta-
turers of FRT sawn lumber. Assumed in-service temperature of the tion of a non-load bearing exterior wall is one that does not support
lumber is an important consideration that may cause variation in anything but its self-weight and the self-weight of the walls above.
structural property values between manufacturers. High in-service The structural designer can strategically run the framing parallel or
temperatures of more than 100 degrees Fahrenheit will correspond introduce girder members parallel with the exterior wall to avoid a
to a greater reduction in strength and stiffness when coupled with load bearing situation. In doing so, a FRR of 1 hour can be utilized
fire retardant treatment. The engineer should also account for any and thus an extra layer of interior gypsum board can be avoided. This
wood incising reduction factors that might be needed to treat the approach and interpretation should be discussed with the project
lumber and consider using lumber that does not require incising to architect and the AHJ during design to ensure compliance with the
mitigate the amount of strength reduction. All minimum assumed local building code.
FRT properties should be listed as design assumptions in the contract The vertical continuity requirements of the rated exterior wall assem-
drawings to ensure that suitable lumber and WSP products are utilized. bly have been a hotly debated topic between jurisdictions and design
A designer may encounter situations where spans or loads require professionals, but the requirements have finally been clarified in the
structural properties beyond what FRT lumber alone can provide. 2024 IBC. According to Section 705.6 of the 2024 IBC, the exterior
At this time, there are no fire-treated engineered wood products on wall FRR shall extend continuously from the top of the foundation/
the market (e.g., LVL, PSL, LSL) known to the author. One strategy floor system below to the underside of the roof/floor sheathing above.
available to designers is to utilize a flitch beam; a composite beam However, if the fire separation distance (as defined in the IBC) is
that consists of FRT wood laminations bolted to a continuous steel greater than 10 feet, the exterior wall FRR is permitted to terminate
plate. The FRT laminations of the composite assembly will maintain at the underside of a ceiling (floor or roof ) assembly having an equal
the non-combustibility requirement; however, special attention to or greater FRR than the exterior wall. Detailing at the floor levels and
detailing to adequately conceal the heads of the bolts of the flitch the roof level will need to conform to these requirements. Some com-
beam assembly will be required. The designer should also consider monly used detailing strategies that meet these criteria are presented
later in this article.
Table 1. FRT Strength Reduction Factor Comparison

FRT Strength Reduction Factors Wood Shrinkage

Property Manufacturer A Manufacturer B With taller wood structures, the consideration of expected wood
shrinkage becomes critical. Failure to account for the natural shrink-
Bending Stress 0.800-0.970 0.740-0.972
age of the wood structure may be problematic to the performance
Tension Parallel to 0.800-0.950 0.625-0.874 and serviceability of both in-wall utilities such as rigid pipes, and
Grain brittle veneers such as brick. Lateral ties for brittle veneers shall be
designed to accommodate the vertical movement anticipated for a
Compression Parallel 0.940-1.000 0.935
to Grain given structure. Expansion of veneers such as brick, which absorb
moisture and expand over time, should also be accounted for in the
Horizontal Shear 0.920-0.960 0.838-0.985 vertical allowance of the ties.
Modulus of Elasticity 0.950-0.960 0.977-1.000
Wood shrinkage can also have a large impact on calculated shear wall
deflections. Mechanical hold-down deformation is a component of the
Compression 0.950 Not Reported shear wall deflection equation. At shear walls where hold-downs are
Perpendicular to Grain utilized, the amount of wood shrinkage between levels is additive to
Fasteners 0.900 0.900 the deformation (elongation) of the hold-down device. To eliminate
this effect, the building designer can utilize a take-up device as part

M AY 2024 15
 Figure 3. To achieve the floor system FRR, a solid rim board (glulam/mass timber) occupying Figure 4. In semi-balloon framed construction, fire caulking can be utilized at each of the
the full width of the exterior wall assembly can be utilized as shown in this platform framed individual truss penetrations, which are minimal compared to the penetrations in a platform
construction detail. Detail courtesy of Jared S. Hudson. framed structure, into the exterior wall. Detail courtesy of Jared S. Hudson.

of the hold-down assembly to restore hold-down tautness and thus Platform Framed Construction
eliminate this source of added shear wall deflection.
In multifamily construction, utilizing bottom-bearing floor sys-
tems is commonplace and often preferred as it allows for the use of
Floor Assembly—Exterior Wall Assembly consistent wall stud lengths and allows for the overlapping and inter-
Detailing Strategies connection of wall double top plates. Traditional platform frame
construction with floor trusses relies on a continuous ribbon board,
The following subsections present a few common methods for detail- which distributes the loads above to the truss verticals and supports
ing the floor assembly intersection with the exterior wall assembly for the floor sheathing edge. To meet the Type III FRR requirements,
this type of construction. These methods have respective advantages the individual floor truss end verticals and ribbon board would
and disadvantages which the designer and design team will need to need to carry the same FRR as the wall above, which is impracti-
weigh while considering the topics discussed above. cal/uneconomical in most situations as the gypsum board(s) below
The common thread between all the detailing strategies is maintain- would need to extend to the underside of the floor sheathing and
ing the 2-hour FRR assembly at the wall intersection with the floor fire caulking would need to be applied at each truss penetration. To
system. The chosen details may affect structural member lengths achieve the required FRR, a solid rim board (glulam/mass timber)
(e.g., wall studs and roof/floor members), bearing conditions, occupying the full width of the exterior wall assembly can be uti-
hardware requirements, and blocking/fire caulking requirements. lized per Figure 3. The FRR is achieved through the mass and char
These different detailing approaches will also yield different overall capabilities of the rim board which would need to be calculated per
expected wood shrinkage values. The shrinkage of wood parallel to the provisions in Chapter 16 of the National Design Specification
grain (e.g., vertical wall studs) and pre-manufactured wood floor (NDS) for Wood Construction (or the newly released 2024 Fire
components is negligible when compared to the shrinkage of wood Design Specification [FDS] for Wood Construction published by
perpendicular to grain (e.g., flat plates). Limiting the total number the American Wood Council).
of flat plates in the exterior wall assembly will therefore minimize The advantages of this detailing approach are consistent wall plate
the overall expected shrinkage in these structures. For structures heights across the structure and minimized shrinkage via engineered
particularly sensitive to this shrinkage, it is recommended that the lumber for the full depth of the floor system. Disadvantages are the
designer lists the anticipated shrinkage values in the construction added costs associated with the rim board along the full perimeter
drawings so that the other members of the design team can coor- of the structure and the floor system connection hardware to the rim
dinate their components and assemblies. board, sequencing issues with the placement of the rim board prior to
The FRT requirements of the floor system bearing components has the floor trusses, and added difficulty in placing floor trusses due to
been a topic of debate in previous code cycles. The 2024 edition of lack of exterior bearing.
the IBC, Section 705.7.1, has clarified that the elements of the floor
system bearing on the exterior walls and supporting gravity loads from Semi-Balloon Framed Construction
the exterior wall above shall be in accordance with the requirements
for interior building elements of Type III construction and are not Another method to frame the intersection of the floor with an
required to be constructed of FRT lumber; however, the FRR must exterior wall of a wood structure is using semi-balloon framed wall
be extended through the floor cavity. In areas where the 2024 IBC construction, where the floor system utilizes top chord bearing trusses
has not been fully adopted, a discussion with the AHJ would be to bear on the exterior wall below. Like the platform framing method,
prudent to confirm that this added clarification will be honored by the vertical support of the exterior wall above shall have a 2-hour
the local jurisdiction. FRR; however, for this method, the gypsum board from below can

16 STRUCTURE magazine
more practically be extended the full height of the wall assembly due Roof Assembly—Exterior Wall Assembly
to the minimal size of the required penetrations where fire caulking Detailing Strategies
would need to be utilized (Figure 4).
Advantages of this approach are reduced costs associated with truss Similar to the detailing at the floor levels, the detailing strategy at the
connection hardware to the exterior wall, the ability to utilize typi- roof/exterior wall intersection can vary widely by locale and preference
cal rated assemblies to demonstrate the required FRR, and the use of the design team (Figure 6). As stated for the floor framing options, the
of conventional lumber to provide solid blocking to the underside exterior wall FRR must continue to the underside of the sheathing above.
of the floor sheathing above. Disadvantages are unique exterior wall Due to a lack of practical alternatives at the roof, the author's experience
plate heights relative to the interior ceiling height, limited spans of has been that commonly, the roof detailing for these structures consists of
floor trusses due to the allowable capacity of top chord bearing trusses, direct bearing of the bottom chord of the roof trusses on the exterior wall
and the addition of multiple flat plates into the exterior wall assembly below. The gypsum board below shall extend to the underside of the roof
which will increase overall building shrinkage. sheathing; all penetrations in the gypsum board to allow for truss webs,
chords and verticals shall be fire caulked to maintain the required FRR. In
Balloon Framed Construction cases where the exterior wall FRR is 1 hour, the rated assembly is permit-
ted to be terminated at the underside of the 1-hour rated roof assembly.
The final method presented in this article is balloon-framed wall
construction, where the top plate of the exterior wall below extends
to the underside of the floor sheathing above per Figure 5. For this Conclusion
construction type, the floor trusses are supported by specialty fire
wall hangers that utilize a top flange that bears on the exterior The structural designer must consider many factors when pressing the
wall. Due to the popularity of this approach, these specialty hang- limits of conventional wood framing to new heights to ensure appropri-
ers have evolved to allow for the interior gypsum board sheathing ate fire-resistance ratings, structural performance, and constructability.
to be placed around the installed trusses to achieve the required Despite the added complexity that comes with Type III construction,
exterior wall FRR. it can yield a structure that is cost-competitive with other structural
Advantages of this approach are flexibility in the sequencing of framing materials that have been more traditionally used in midrise
gypsum installation, lack of additional flat plates within the exterior construction. Collaboration between members of the design team is
wall assembly thus limiting overall shrinkage, and a simplified brac- essential on multiple fronts to ensure the delivery of a high-quality, code-
ing load path of the exterior walls via direct attachment to the floor compliant design while minimizing construction issues and delays. ■
sheathing. Disadvantages are the coordination of the exterior wall
plate heights relative to the interior ceiling height, the potential for
additional studs within the exterior wall to facilitate required hanger Jared S. Hudson, PE, is a practicing project engineer based in the Atlanta office of
loads, added costs due to specialty truss connection hardware, and Mulhern & Kulp Structural Engineering. (jhudson@mulhernkulp.com)
added difficulty in the placement of trusses due to the lack of exterior Shaun M. Kreidel, SE, is an Associate Owner and the Atlanta Office Director for
bearing. Mulhern & Kulp Structural Engineering. (skreidel@mulhernkulp.com)

Figure 5. In balloon-framed wall construction, the top plate of the exterior wall below
extends to the underside of the floor sheathing above. Detail courtesy of Jared S. Hudson. Figure 6. An example of Type III roof detailing is shown. Detail courtesy of Jared S. Hudson.

M AY 2024 17
 structural ANALYSIS
Community Tornado Shelter Utilizing
Reinforced Hollow Clay Masonry
Reinforced hollow clay masonry is a viable material for high load demand structures.
By Steven G. Judd, CE, SE, CBS

A lthough reinforced hollow clay masonry (RHCM) represents a

small portion of structural masonry design in the United States
and Canada, RHCM has high strength which makes it very suitable and
are different than the typical wind design pressures and load cases
from previous code editions. These tornado wind load cases, which
must be checked, apply to all facilities east of the Rocky Mountains.
desirable for high demand facilities, such as tornado shelters. There are These tornado wind design requirements in ASCE 7 are considered
over 100 times more structural concrete masonry unit producers as there to be “pass by” or “near miss” scenarios and are not appropriate or
are structural clay masonry producers in the U.S. and Canada, which is even applicable for tornado (or hurricane) shelters. For that special
one reason why most facilities constructed with structural masonry class of facilities, one must use the International Code Council’s
tend to be constructed with concrete masonry units (CMU). The other ICC 500, Standard for the Design and Construction of Storm
drawback to the use of hollow clay masonry (HCM) is an engineer’s lack Shelters.
of knowledge and familiarity with the HCM material. This article helps
bridge that lack of knowledge.
Please note this article references The Masonry Society’s TMS 402/602- Case Study Parameters
16, Building Code Requirements and Specification for Masonry
Structures. Where different, TMS 402/602-22 items will be noted in Wind design pressures used for tornado shelter wall designs may
brackets, thus: [ ]. The American Society of Civil Engineers’ ASCE 7 be 15 to 20 times higher than wind design pressures for typical or
-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and standard single-story buildings. In some cases, tornado wind design
Other Structures, is also the standard used. pressures can exceed 200 pounds for square foot (psf ). For the demand
generated from those extreme wind design pressures, HCM having
roughly double the f ’m, as compared to CMU, will prove to be an
Introduction appropriate choice.
The case study illustrating the capability of RHCM focuses on a
A brief comparison: Concrete block can easily and regularly be pro- community tornado shelter with outside dimensions of 100 feet by
duced with compressive unit strengths of 3,250 pounds per square inch 70 feet and day-to-day use as a gymnasium for a school. The walls
(psi), which equates to a wall assembly compressive design strength are 28-feet-8-inches tall from the interior floor to roof. There is no
(f ’m) of 2,500 psi. Most manufacturers of HCM produce material with parapet. The flat (shallow sloped) roof system is comprised of open
average gross net area compressive strength of 9,000 psi up to, and exceed- web steel joints spanning the 70-foot width, spaced at 4-feet on
ing 18,000 psi, which far exceeds the compressive strength of concrete center supporting a 6-inch thick concrete-on-metal-deck roof. The
masonry units, and generally produce units that can be designed for f ’m joist layout starts two feet from the 70-foot end walls. Total roof
of 3,500 psi or 4,000 psi—without the need for prism testing. Design dead load is 103 psf.
strengths (f ’m) higher than 4,000 psi can be achieved if needed, but prism Ten-inch deep HCM units were chosen for the single-wythe wall.
testing would be required. The unit size used for this case study was 10 inches deep by 4 inches
In general, the higher f ’m provided by RHCM can produce thinner tall by 16 inches long, (nominal dimensions), called a 10416 unit,
walls for a given height and applied loads, or taller walls with a given unit with two large rectangular cells adjacent to the end webs, and a single
depth or wall thickness. RHCM is uniquely suited for tornado shelters narrow cell in the center (Fig. 1) The design assumes (requires) a
made with structural masonry to provide the thinnest—sans pilasters— fully grouted wall. Wall weight was calculated at 103 psf. The terms
walls possible in structural masonry. (Note: the use of strategically placed “fully grouted” or “solid grouted” (currently used interchangeably
pilasters can reduce the wall thickness.) in TMS 402/602) allows for voids in the head joints between the
Wall assembly compressive design strengths (f ’m) based on the average mortared face shells (standard mortar bedding) of square ended units
unit net area compressive strength, combined with (for CMU and HCM) and should allow for the
mortar of different types, can be found in TMS 602 unfilled center cells of HCM and the large head
§ 1.4-B-2-a, Table 1 (for HCM). Type S mortar is joint voids for CMU units made with “ears” due
most often recommended for structural masonry to recessed end webs. These voids are generally
and is one of the variables in the table. assumed to remain unfilled when using standard
Also, as a preamble to an actual design example coarse grout and standard grouting procedures.
provided later in this article, it is worth noting The tornado shelter walls were fully grouted to
that the 2021 International Building Code (IBC) provide the durability needed for tornado shelter
and later codes have specific tornado wind (WT) Figure 1. The 10416 HCM unit is 10 inches projectile impact resistance, per ICC 500, which
design requirements and design load cases that by 4 inches by 16 inches. has been proven via testing by at least one HCM

18 STRUCTURE magazine
manufacturer. Reinforcing also requires fully
grouted walls.
This case study was based on Strength Design
(SD) concepts (TMS 402 chapter 9) with f ’m
= 4,000 psi. The minimum grout strength (f ’g)
was chosen to equal f ’m, so, f ’g = 4000 psi, in
accordance with TMS 602.
Per ICC 500, the tornado design wind speed
(VT) from Figure 304.2(1) was 250 mph; roof
live load was 100 psf, to account for wind borne
debris landing on the roof; Exposure Category
C is prescriptive; Topographic effects Kzt = Figure 2. Reinforcing of 10416 walls satisfied various load combinations.
1.0; wind directionality factor, Kd = 1.0; gust-
effect and internal pressure coefficient, GCpi = the two noted appeared to be the most critical.
+/-0.55 (partially enclosed). This assumed GCpi coefficient may be Some consideration should be given to the assumed fixity at the base
conservative if the openings are properly designed and constructed of the wall based on the detailing and construction at the base of the
for tornado wind and impact resistance, wherein +/- 0.18 is allowed. wall. A pinned base would have Mu-p-base = 0.0, and Vu-p-base =
The assumed ground elevation for this example is 750 feet above wLb/2; a fixed base would have Mu-f-base = wL2b/8, and Vu-f-base
sea level (Ke = 0.97). = 5wLb/8, where ‘b’ is the effective unit width, or length along the
For monolithic structural masonry walls, there is some debate as to wall being considered, and ‘L’ is the span length. For this case study, a
the most appropriate derivation of the “Effective Wind Area” (EWA) pinned base was assumed. Also, keeping the maximum moment away
used for Components and Cladding (C&C) design. EWA is part of from the base simplifies the foundation design and will prove to be
several nomographs in ASCE 7 used to determine various pressure important when checking dowels.
coefficients. With the amount of reinforcing anticipated in these walls EleMasonry software was used to facilitate the actual design and
the EWA was chosen to be 2L2/3, or double the minimum suggested code checks. The main wall reinforcing that satisfies the various load
(but not required) by the code. [An EWA of 2L2/3 was chosen because combinations is shown in Figure 2.
a monolithic wall most likely performs more like a plate or membrane This is a lot of reinforcing, but the walls are nearly 30-feet tall with
for out of plane load distribution than discrete framing members like extreme winds. Horizontal steel selected was (1) #4 @ 48” o.c. verti-
stud wall framing or roof joist/purlin framing]. For the roof C&C cally to meet code minimum bar size. The maximum vertical spacing
wind pressures EWA of L2/3 was used relative to the discrete roof allowed by code is 120 inches. Interestingly, deflection control is a
framing members. EWA for monolith planar masonry walls is not main consideration and impacted the reinforcing selection.
universally interpreted as L2/3, with such variations as L x 6t; L x The roof joists attached to the wall and the top courses of masonry
joint spacing; and/or L2 used by various engineering practitioners. must have sufficient tension capacity to resist the extremely large net
Main wind force resisting system (MWFRS) wind pressures were used uplift loads. Special detailing may be necessary to develop the reinforc-
for walls acting as shear walls for wind blowing parallel to the wall, ing in tension at the very top of the wall to resist the roof joist uplift
and C&C design wind pressures were used for wind perpendicular loads at their supports. (This could be steel bearing plates with fusion
to the walls (which were not acting as shear walls for that load case). welded deformed bar anchors extending a sufficient length downward
Maximum negative (suction) out-of-plane (OOP) design wind pres- into the wall to lap with the vertical wall reinforcing. Another special
sure for C&C design was -219.0 psf; maximum negative OOP design detail could include also creating a 24-inch deep “beam-in-the-wall”
wind pressures for MWFRS design was -174.1 psf. Maximum C&C at the top of the wall to facilitate developing hold-down reinforcing
wind uplift pressure for the roof was -297.0 psf while the maximum and spreading the joist reactions laterally would be a wise choice).
wind uplift roof pressure for MWFRS was -160.0 psf. Using #3 180-degree hairpin dowels at the top of the wall to match
The 100-foot-long walls were divided into thirds, horizontally, with the vertical reinforcing, placed to engage the top horizontal steel, is
movement joints; the 70-foot walls were divided in half with move- a good design choice.
ment joints. The maximum design in-plane (IP) shear in the short
70-foot-long end walls derived from MWFRS wind pressures on the
100-foot-long walls was 57.45 kips per wall segment. For the 100-foot- Out-of-Plane Base Shear in Walls
long wall, the IP design wall shear was 24.9 kips per wall segment.
For most design cases, the OOP wind design pressures creating
OOP shear at the base of the wall is generally not much of a design
Controlling Design Cases consideration, but it is something that requires some specific attention
for tornado shelters—especially for tall walls due to the high OOP
Two particularly critical load cases for the tornado shelter emerge: 1) C&C wind design pressure. Procedures developed for “headed and
the 100-foot-long wall oriented perpendicular to the wind generating bent-bar anchor bolt” design were used to check the wall base con-
the highest C&C OOP suction (leeward side) and roof up-lift with nection for OOP shear, substituting the foundation rebar dowels for
no IP shear, and, 2) the 100-foot-long wall oriented parallel to the anchor bolts. This is made somewhat more complicated because the
wind direction with MWFRS IP shear, while resisting the MWFRS center cell of the HCM units will likely be, and should be assumed
OOP suction pressures and uplift forces on the tributary roof area. In to be, unfilled, as previously noted. This center cell void and head
this case, uplift exceeded the gravity loads on the wall, putting the wall joint void can create a truncated shear cone, depending on dowel
into net tension throughout its height. Of course, all code prescribed placement, for masonry breakout design checks, which is one of the
load cases and load combinations must be checked and satisfied, but two primary masonry strength items to check at the base of the wall

M AY 2024 19
 for OOP forces. This truncated cone “deval-
ues” the masonry shear breakout strength at
the base connection of the wall. The other
critical masonry strength design check is
crushing of the masonry material (crushing
the grout, actually) as the foundation dowels
bear against the grout in the filled cells. For
these checks, one generally assumes that the
foundation dowels will match the vertical
reinforcing and will be well developed into
the foundation, most likely via hooks into
the footings or pile caps, and well developed
by sufficient development or lap lengths into
Figure 3. For the rebar dowel centered in the cell at the base of Figure 4. For dowels placed at the maximum distance from
the wall above the foundation. For this case the wall, the ruptured cone is a full 45-degree half cone. the rupture face of the unit, the rupture cone is truncated
study, prying failure and pull-out failure were
not an issue. Lastly the rebar shear strength
must be checked. provided an opportunity to clarify the terms “fully grouted” and “solid
If all the vertical reinforcing is doweled into the foundation, it would grouted,” which may not be what most designers assume. Further,
be difficult to consider the base of the wall as a pinned connection. the question of determining the EWA for monolithic walls and wall
Consequently, a single #7 dowel was assumed, centered in the cell, elements is worth an additional discussion since there seems to be
at 16” o.c. as the sole reinforcing connection between the wall and varying interpretations and little consensus of what is the “correct”
foundation to represent a pinned base most closely. EWA formula for monolithic walls.
For the rebar dowel centered in the cell at the base of the wall shown By way of comparison, if this particular facility was to be constructed
in Figure 3, the rupture cone for the 10-inch deep units would be a with CMU, using units with a net area compressive strength of 3,250
full 45-degree half cone with a surface area of 44.08 in2. (For dowels psi, the wall thickness would need to be a minimum of 12-inches deep;
placed at the maximum distance from the rupture face of the unit plus, for the finished brick appearance, which is one of the design
shown in Figure 4, the rupture cone would be truncated (devalued) imperatives, brick veneer or thin brick would need to be added to
as it passes through the plane of the head joint void and the plane of the CMU. A single wythe RHCM wall will always be less expensive
the center cell void – but still greater than the 44.08 in2.) The capacity than brick over CMU due to the reduction of materials and, most
reduction factor (Φ) for shear is 0.50 for masonry modes of anchor importantly, the reduction of labor to install one wythe versus two.
failure (breakout and crushing), and 0.9 [0.65] for steel modes of Secondary benefits are more interior space and thinner/smaller founda-
failure (9.1.4.1). Using the single #7 rebar dowel centered in the cell tions. [In general, walls designed for CMU can be swapped to HCM
(left image above) the masonry breakout capacity (Eqn. 9-6 [9-4]) was without any redesign, but the full efficiencies of the higher strength
ΦVnbOOP = 5.6 kips. The masonry crushing capacity (Eqn. 9-7 [9-5]) HCM material will be somewhat limited.]
was ΦVncOOP = 6.1 kips and the rebar shear capacity (Eqn 9-9 [9-7]) HCM is a material that has the three building qualities espoused by
was ΦVnsOOP = 19.4 [14.0] kips, assuming full capacity of the steel. Vitruvius - Firmitas, Utilitas, and Venustas, which means strength,
The C&C Zone 5 wind pressure at the pinned base of the wall gener- utility/usefulness, and beauty. Consequently, RHCM can be used
ated an OOP shear force of Vu = 4.2 kips at 16” o.c. The OOP shear effectively to construct buildings with those same three qualities,
capacities previously noted for the #7 dowels at 16” o.c. indicated that especially for buildings with extremely high wind design pres-
there was sufficient capacity at the base of the wall to resist the C&C sures—like tornado shelters. Where tornado safety is a concern,
OOP shear demand for the “non-MWFRS” walls – walls perpendicular building with RHCM is a viable solution. For the safety conscious,
to the wind direction. Utilization ratio = 0.22. RHCM also has proven performance via testing for tornado driven
Checking combined wind effects: Some masonry design programs projectiles, ballistic impact, and fire-resistive ratings up to four
will only check IP and OOP loadings as separate load conditions, indi- hours—for 8-inch deep units in a filled assembly. RHCM is an
vidually. For the MWFRS walls, IP and OOP forces act simultaneously excellent choice where safety or protection of valuable assets is a
so the design must account for those superimposed effects—basi- design imperative. ■
cally a biaxial bending issue, plus shear, both IP and OOP shear.
Combinations and utilization ratios vary with height, so several checks
should be made to confirm that adequate strength is provided at vari-
ous wall heights. So, after said checks were performed, the design was
deemed adequate. Steven G. Judd, CE, SE, CBS is the Technical Director of Interstate Brick, a
Also, consider checking shear friction at critical heights of the wall Western U.S. brick manufacturer. He is current Chair of several committees
to ensure that uplift is not impacting the shear strength detrimentally. and task groups in Western States Clay Products Association, The Masonry
The default coefficient of friction, μ, value is 0.7. Society, and Brick Industries Association, and is active in various other
committees in those organizations as well as in ASTM committees and task
groups related to masonry.
Conclusion
The author would like to recognize and give special thanks to John Hochwalt of
The intent of this case study was to show that RHCM can be designed KPFF Engineering, Seattle, Washington, for insight and assistance regarding shear in
for tall walls under extreme wind loadings from tornados due to the masonry walls under net tension.
inherent strength advantage of RHCM. Additionally, this case study

20 STRUCTURE magazine
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 Mass Timber Solutions
for Affordable
Multi-Family Housing

22 STRUCTURE magazine
Used efficiently, mass timber can be a cost-effective structural material to create sustainable,
affordable housing.
By Michael Scancarello, PE, and Andrew Ruff

M ass timber structures are becoming

more frequently studied as a lead-
ing choice for high-end residential
and commercial structures for
their sustainability and aesthetic benefits. Perhaps
often overlooked, mass timber also belongs in
the conversation when it comes to multi-family
residential projects, including those classified as
“affordable housing.” Providing 69 units of afford-
able housing along with ground floor retail while
funded through typical methods for affordable
housing projects, the 340+ Dixwell project is one
project that demonstrates this possibility. While
this article does not spend time addressing the
funding or specifics of affordable housing, it will
present challenges and solutions to successfully
delivering a cost-effective mass timber structure
in this typology. Figure 1. The buildings at 340 and 316 Dixwell are comprised primarily of 5-ply cross-laminated timber (CLT) floor
The 340 and 316 Dixwell buildings are each panels and 3-ply CLT roof panels supported on CLT bearing walls.
four-story structures comprised primarily of 5-ply
cross-laminated timber (CLT) floor panels and
3-ply CLT roof panels that are supported on CLT each of the new construction types—including Type IV-C, which gen-
bearing walls at unit demising and partition walls in addition to cold- erally allows for exposed timber surfaces—require a minimum 2-hour
formed metal framed (CFMF) bearing walls at most corridor walls. The rating for the primary structural systems. When fire rating is provided
exterior walls, while typically non-load bearing, are also CLT. At the by the code prescribed methods that account for charring of the timber
ground floor retail spaces, glulam timber columns and beams support frame, it is the author’s experience that 3-ply panels will typically be
the bearing walls above while steel framing and a composite slab on deck insufficient for meeting a 1-hour rating for most span conditions.
are used above exterior covered parking areas to minimize structural However, at shorter spans, thin 5-ply panels will often be sufficient
depth. On this project, the following key design considerations helped and even at more moderate spans this 1-hour fire rating will only
achieve the project’s ambitious goal of demonstrating the feasibility of moderately decrease the maximum permissible spans of 5-ply panels.
mass timber affordable housing. When the fire rating requirement increases to 2 hours for exposed
panels, the result is frequently a significant amount of wood fiber
increase or a requirement for panel specific test data acceptable to the
Know Your Construction Type Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ). Reliance on fire testing at early
stages of design and permitting often requires early selection of suppli-
Typically, the building’s construction type classification as defined by ers, which can be a challenge for projects that rely on public funding
the building code is not something that structural engineers will be sources. Much like floor panels, when using CLT bearing walls exposed
particularly familiar with, and it is usually selected without substantial on one or both sides, the difference between a 1-hour and 2-hour rated
input from the structural engineer. However, when the architectural structure can result in significant wood fiber increases.
goals include exposing the structure without the use of applied fire- With glulam framing members, it has been shown that a 1-hour fire
resistant materials, knowing the options and limitations with mass rating can be achieved for glulam beams exposed on three sides that
timber systems is important. One of the first conversations between the meet the traditional “heavy-timber” minimum sizing without significant
structural engineer and architect (and likely code consultant) should impact on member sizing. However, like CLT, when a 2-hour fire rating
be centered around selecting a construction type that can meet the is required, it is likely to control the design for most efficient beam sizes.
project’s goals as efficiently as possible. In many cases, the construction (Glulam members with a non-uniform layup have additional require-
type will drive the decision-making for structural layouts. ments that may increase cost over an unrated structure even when timber
This project was designed and permitted before the 2021 IBC provi- volumes do not change.) Finally, while a structural system with any rating
sions for mass timber in construction types went into effect, and was requirement also requires rated connections, 1-hour fire ratings are more
permitted as Type VA, with a 1-hour fire rating. However, it is likely easily achieved without significant impact on member sizing or aesthetics.
that even had the new construction types within Type IV been available, The footnotes of IBC Table 601 are important to understand. Footnote
the same code path would have been followed. The excerpt from the c, which has been clarified in the 2021 IBC, allows for the use of heavy
International Building Code (IBC) Table 601 summarizes some of the timber for roof construction in many situations. Heavy timber require-
key structural considerations based on construction type. ments are generally less restrictive than those of a prescribed one-hour
As can be seen in this table, both Type IIIA and Type VA require a rating and were used at this project to reduce the panel thickness—and
1-hour fire rating for most components of the structural system while cost—of the roof structure.

M AY 2024 23
 Design for Flexibility
A key factor in successful mass timber projects
is the early selection of a mass timber supplier.
However, waiting as long as possible to commit
to a particular manufacturer also has advantages.
In some cases, like affordable housing, the timing Figure 2. Different panelized mass timber products are presented.
of bidding and selection may also be dictated by
funding streams. In the case of this project, a sub-
stantially complete design was needed prior to onboarding a Leverage Material Strengths
supplier. This requirement allowed for a competitive bid process
which, while a requirement here, is an approach more familiar As a simple spanning element, CLT is often not as efficient as other
and comfortable for many owners and developers accustomed to panelized timber elements like Nail-Laminated Timber (NLT) or
utilizing conventional structural systems. Glued-Laminated Timber (GLT) decking which orient dimensional
This process can provide competitive pricing, but in the U.S., CLT is lumber stacked on edge, placing all fibers in the primary strength direc-
not sold as a commodity product in the same way as steel or concrete. tion of the panels. However, by placing the panel fibers in alternating
Most manufacturers produce a variety of panels as slightly different directions, CLT provides several distinct advantages that can make it
products with different constraints tied to materials, manufacturing an efficient choice (Figure 2).
processes, and transportation limitations. This presents a different In addition to providing dimensional stability in both axes perpendicu-
challenge for the design team than many may be used to. lar to the face of the panel, CLT panels also have significant in-plane
When a supplier is onboarded early, the design team’s goal is shear strength, making them suitable to be used as diaphragm elements
to optimize their solution for the selected supplier. Conversely, when properly joined together. The ability to use the CLT as a dia-
in a competitive bid, the design team must ensure the design is phragm and eliminating the need for the topping slab to be structural
compatible with as many suppliers as possible. In this scenario allowed the design team to study non-cementitious topping systems.
there is more responsibility on the design team to be familiar with Although ultimately not selected for this project due to budgetary
the capabilities and strengths of multiple suppliers. In the case constraints, a dry lay assembly could reduce the embodied carbon and
of 340+ Dixwell, the design team was able to rely on previous reduce the number of “wet” products applied over the timber, potentially
experience working with several of these suppliers as Architect providing a schedule savings. With new products and data continuing
and/or Engineer of Record (EoR), Delegated Design Engineer, to become available, this could become a beneficial alternative in the
or both. However, when that experience is not available, it is future for projects where a cementitious topping is not required by code.
recommended to communicate with as many suppliers as pos- CLT panels also provide flexural capacity in two directions. While
sible at multiple steps of the design process. Even with ample creating true fixity across panel joints is very difficult, if supported
experience, frequent feedback from suppliers can help the team frequently enough, it is possible to achieve two-way spans with indi-
ensure that their design does not preclude suppliers from bidding vidual panels. Some notable mass timber projects have leveraged this
or put unnecessary constraints on them that would limit their and utilize fully point-supported panels with closely spaced columns.
ability to provide competitive pricing. At 340+ Dixwell, this attribute of CLT was used to provide beam-free

IBC Table 601. Fire-Resistance Rating Requirements for Building Elements (Hours)

Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V

Building Element A B A B A B HT A B

Primary structural framef (see Section 202) 3a 2a 1 0 1 0 HT 1 0

Bearing Walls
Exteriore, f 3 2 1 0 2 2 2 1 0

Interior 3a 2a 1 0 1 0 1/HT 1 0

Nonbearing walls and partitions Exterior See Table 602

Nonbearing walls and partitions Interiord 0 0 0 0 0 0 See Section 0 0

602.4.6

Floor construction and associated secondary 2 2 1 0 1 0 HT 1 0

members

Roof construction and associated secondary 1 1/2b 1b,c 1b,c 0c 1b,c 0 HT 1b,c 0
members
c. In all occupancies, heavy timber shall be allowed where a 1-hour or less fire-resistance rating is required.

24 STRUCTURE magazine
corridors as well as beam-free zones within primary bearing lines,
allowing MEPFP distribution to be kept tight to the ceiling. Early
coordination between the structural and building systems were critical
to ensure that a 10 foot-6 inch floor to floor height could be achieved
while maintaining an 8-foot ceiling height within the portions of units
with dropped ceilings. As part of the early design process, multiple
framing options were presented for review and coordination, and the
choosing by advantages method (a decision-making process, often used
by the authors, taken from lean construction practices) was used to
select the preferred choice. While the authors have frequently found
that spanning CLT panels across the width of double loaded corridor
residential buildings results in efficient layouts for non-bearing wall
structures, because of the architectural desire for exposed CLT parti-
tion and demising walls it was determined that eliminating additional
framing members and spanning the CLT panels directly between these
walls provided the most advantages to the project. This decision then
drove revisions to architectural layouts to improve the efficiency in
panel selection.
The two-way spanning capability of CLT was leveraged at two primary
conditions that repeated throughout the building. First, corridors were
designed to be beam-free by utilizing corridor walls as bearing walls,
a strategy commonly used in traditional light-frame construction. To
accommodate the different capabilities of potential suppliers, these
spans were confirmed to work in two different ways. For manufactur-
ers who could provide the exterior laminations (and therefore primary
strength direction of the panel) in the short direction of the panel, panels
would be able to span directly across the corridor and either 3-ply or
5-ply panels would be sufficient. However, for suppliers who primarily
supply panels with the outer laminations parallel to the length of the
Figure 3. The MEPFP routing zones maximize repetition and reduce restrictions on the
panel, spans were confirmed to be acceptable for the panel to span in
panel layout.
the weak direction of the panel, including the impacts of fire rating.
This flexibility prevented the need to have multiple short span corridor
panels that would increase the number of pieces to erect. the mass timber systems by providing:
Near the corridor, door openings between bearing walls were sized to • A range of expected wall thicknesses for each supplier so that
allow for panels to span these openings while being supported on wall appropriate tolerances could be built into the floor plan, allow-
panels only, without any headers above the door. This arrangement ing for slight changes in dimensions without impacting code
was stacked on each floor to ensure no concentrated loads would occur required dimensions. The architect then set all unit dimensions
above unsupported sections of the CLT. Additionally, these openings based upon centerlines of the mass timber and ensured there
were aligned from unit to unit so that consistent panel layouts could was room for these walls to grow or shrink as dictated by the
be used throughout the building, maximizing repetition and reducing supplier’s available products while maintaining critical required
restrictions on panel layout (Figure 3). interior dimensions and clearances.
The requirement to provide beam-free corridors and door openings • A range of expected floor thicknesses to ensure adequate clear-
without using headers placed two constraints on the decisions driving ance for required MEP routing while working with the exterior
the layout of floor panels, slightly minimizing opportunities for effi- wall detailing. The thickness of the floor assembly was used to
ciency. However, by grouping these constraints together in the center set floor to floor heights. This project also aimed to aid the speed
of the building, the area of impacted panels was reduced. Additionally, of erection by minimizing piece counts by using single panels
choosing corridor and door widths and locations that didn’t push the where the width of the panel was the floor-to-ceiling height in
limits of individual panel widths, multiple solutions were available to the platform type construction, allowing for an entire wall seg-
allow suppliers flexibility in the final approach. ment to be comprised of one piece of CLT. Therefore, heights
were also limited by the maximum panel widths a manufacturer
could produce (Figure 4).
The Role of the Engineer of Record • Guidance on the limitations of suppliers, particularly as it per-
tained to maximum panel dimensions that would impact the
In part due to the uniqueness of each supplier, it was determined ability to use single panels as bearing walls and where the location
that a delegated design would make the most sense for the final mass of openings might dictate panel layouts. Corridor layouts were
timber package. This would allow the selected supplier as much flex- confirmed and door locations within units were set to provide
ibility as possible to reduce costs by tailoring their solution within maximum flexibility to systems distribution and panel layouts
the constraints outlined by the design team. However, to sufficiently as described in detail previously.
finalize the design without running the risk of changes that could not • Anticipated timber connection details at any locations where
be mitigated during construction administration, it was important for they would impact the architecture and at the interface between
the engineer of record to be very involved in developing the design of different trades, including connections to supporting concrete

M AY 2024 25
 Figure 4. This aerial photograph taken during construction shows the full-width walls.

and steel elements. The authors attempted to allow the greatest

flexibility to each supplier’s preferences, however the design team Inexpensive Buildings Don’t
also had to be proactive to provide details that helped to dictate Need to Feel Cheap
conditions that may increase the scope of one trade to simplify
constructability and coordination between trades and/or improve By leveraging the strengths of each unique material and following
the product that is ultimately delivered. through on good design decision making, the new affordable housing
• Providing guidance on floor plan inefficiencies that will impact units on Dixwell Avenue are proving it is possible to build high-quality
costs. Early unit layouts typically had a framed drywall surface affordable housing on a tight budget. It is possible to use mass timber
applied to one side of all CLT walls to provide acoustic separa- as a cost-effective and biophilic element in a sustainable fashion on a
tion and vertical routing of building systems. However, after project that will be certified to PHIUS passive house energy efficiency
selection of a code path and structural system, this drywall was standards. It is also possible to introduce new materials to the market
standardized to be continuous on the same side of each wall for and build up a skilled local workforce to construct these buildings.
the full length of the wall and height of the building instead of Every project presents opportunities to learn from as we continue to
alternating where architecturally preferred so that it could also improve what we build, how we build, and who we build it for. This
be used to provide the fire resistance rating for exposure on one project was informed by many before it and the authors hope its dem-
side of the wall. By using materials that would already be present, onstrated successes, as well as its recognized challenges, will contribute
the total wood fiber requirements for the walls were substantially to continued improvement in our industry. ■
reduced. Typical bearing wall to bearing wall dimensions varied
throughout the building in initial unit layouts. After the selection Michael Scancarello, PE, is a Project Director at Odeh Engineers, a member of
of the framing approach, unique layouts were moved to areas of WSP. He is passionate about sustainable structures and is an Embodied Carbon
the building where site constraints would require unique solu- Champion in the firms commitment to SE2050.
tions, maximizing repetition in the primary structural layout
Andrew Ruff is the Research Director at Gray Organschi Architecture in New Haven,
and allowing for uniformity in most governing spans, therefore
Connecticut, and a Visiting Critic at the Yale School of Architecture.
allowing for more panel thickness reductions.

26 STRUCTURE magazine
 Investigating a
Coll apse

The case study of a lodge collapse provides considerations for structures under
construction. By Peter Marxhausen, PE

D
Figure 1. The commercial lodge structure collapsed catastrophically less than two years after it was built.

espite adequate structural design and a less-than-design snow and rough framing of some of the interior walls took place in early
event, a scribed log- and sawn-lumber-framed commercial summer. The interior finishes, including interior drywall, insulation,
lodge structure experienced a catastrophic collapse less than floor coverings, electrical wiring, plumbing, and HVAC equipment,
two years after it was built. The subsequent investigation were not installed before the onset of the first winter. Due to project
involved a piece-by-piece selective dismantling of the debris pile to financing issues, all construction progress stopped, and the project
determine the cause of the devastating failure. remained incomplete for the first winter, the following spring, summer,
The recreational ranch facility where the subject building was located and fall. The status of the project remained nearly unchanged for the
is a vacation-type resort situated on leased federal land in a high alpine second winter season.
environment of the Rocky Mountains. The summer activities of the On May 1, the building collapsed catastrophically (Figure 1). The
ranch cater to horseback riding, hiking, bike riding, and exploring the damage was significant and global. It was believed that only the con-
nearby national park. During the months of October to April, the area crete foundation could be reused if the structure was to be rebuilt.
where the ranch is located can receive upwards of 20 feet or more of Information provided by witnesses who discovered the collapse indi-
snow, making wintertime access by tourists impractical for some and cated that 10 or more feet of snow and a thick layer of solid ice had
infeasible for others. accumulated on the roof at the time of the collapse.
Under the terms of the ranch owner’s long-term land lease with the Unified Building Sciences and Engineering, Inc. (UBSE) was hired by
United States National Forest Service, the ranch was permitted to an insurance company to determine the cause of the building collapse.
construct permanent structures on the property. As part of a broader As part of the investigation, USBE conducted a site visit once the roads
facility expansion, the ranch owner began procuring plans for an became navigable, approximately one month after the collapse. Based
approximate 3,100-square-foot, one-story fourplex log building that on a detailed review of the weather records, the maximum roof load
included a wrap-around exterior wooden deck. The plans for the log during the first winter after the initial construction was determined to
building were developed by a professional engineer who was licensed in be 20 to 30 pounds per square foot. The maximum roof snow load on
the state where the structure was to be built. The snow loads specified May 1st at the end of the second winter was determined to be 60 to
in the construction plans were appropriate for the proposed location 70 pounds per square foot.
of the log building. USBE visually and tactiley inspected the logs, framing, connectors,
The ranch owners/managers were acting as the general contractors for and foundation as part of the investigation. The structural members
the project. The onsite log erection/assembly, roof covering installation, were still in a near-new state. No corrosion, decay, rot, or deterioration

M AY 2024 27
 Top left: Figure 2. The loss of integrity of the roof framing placed outward forces on the exterior walls, which caused the perimeter log walls to lean outward. Top right: Figure 3. This view
shows the interior of the collapsed structure with finishes and furnishings in place.

was observed that could have caused or contributed to the building and collapsed under heavy snow loads in early May. The compression
collapse. Aside from the stresses imparted by the collapse, the logs were buckling of the load-bearing walls caused the log roof frames to fail
in good condition and well-suited for their intended function. Similarly, and the roof structure to come crashing down through the first-floor
conditions were not observed that would suggest the logs or dimensional framing into the crawl space.
framing were improperly fabricated, shipped, or assembled onsite.
The configuration of the building debris after the structural collapse
indicated that the failure originated near the center of the building. Discussion
USBE analyzed the design that was set forth in the construction docu-
ments and determined, before the inspection, that the beams, headers, The conventional 2x4 and 2x6 sawn lumber wall framing was
and roof trusses were appropriately designed for the anticipated loads sufficiently tall that Euler buckling action controlled the allowable
and would have been expected to endure the snow loads that were design load. Had the 2x6 stud framing been sheathed/covered with
presented in the weather records. gypsum wallboard, the calculated allowable axial load for Douglas-Fir
The approved construction plans specified that the roof structure No. 2 wooden studs would have been approximately 5,000 pounds
was to be vertically supported by two triangular-shaped log frames per stud with the expected mode of failure being in the direction of the
that would be vertically supported along the bottom chord by two 12 strong axis. The ultimate (failure load) would have been approximately
foot tall first-floor 2x6 stud-framed interior load-bearing walls. The 14,000 pounds per stud in the direction of the strong axis. Without the
roof ridge was also to be supported in the transverse direction with gypsum wallboard sheathing, the allowable axial load of a Douglas-Fir
two back-to-back 2x4 continuous walls that were to serve as the fire No. 2 wood stud would have been approximately 400 pounds per stud
assembly party walls. due to weak axis buckling, and the ultimate (failure load) would have
The examination of the physical evidence located within the building been approximately 1,120 pounds per stud.
collapse revealed the following: The NDS limits the slenderness ratio of axially loaded members to
• The two 2x6 first-floor interior load-bearing walls were installed; 50 or less for in-service loads and 75 or less for construction loads. A
however, they were not sheathed with a gypsum wallboard panel product 12-foot tall 2x6 stud without blocking has a calculated slenderness ratio
as specified in the approved construction plans. of 96, which means the stud wall framing, as it existed at the time of
• The lack of wall sheathing violated the National Design Specification the collapse, was not suitable to receive service or construction loads.
for Wood Construction (NDS) slenderness ratio for solid columns and
rendered the studs vulnerable to weak axis buckling.
• Without sheathing, the code-permissible (allowable) load-bearing Conclusion
capacity of the 2x6 wall was effectively 0 (zero) pounds per square foot;
however, the calculations indicate the ultimate (failure load) capacity Based upon the forensic structural engineering evaluation of the
would have been reached with approximately 55 to 65 pounds per building collapse, the following conclusions were reached:
square foot of snow on the roof. • The structure was appropriately designed for the local design ground
• Blocking had not been installed between the studs that comprised snow load of 175 pounds per square foot.
the central 2x6 load-bearing wall. • The fourplex log building collapsed due to the general contractor’s
• The two back-to-back 2x4 continuous first-floor party walls failure to install the interior load-bearing walls in conformance with
specified on the plans were not installed. The failure to install the the plans.
specified walls resulted in the roof ridge being vertically unsupported; • The interior load-bearing stud walls were not covered with gypsum
however, at a laterally unsupported height of 18 feet, these 2x4 walls wallboard sheathing at the time of the collapse. Without the gypsum
would have had an ultimate capacity (failure load) of less than 5 percent wallboard sheathing attached to the narrow face of the studs, the wood
of the applied load. studs were vulnerable to buckling along the narrow/weak axis.
• The 2x6 studs that comprised the center load-bearing walls buckled • Had the gypsum wallboard been installed, the axial capacity of the

28 STRUCTURE magazine
wood wall studs would have been approximately 12 times greater.
• The general contractor did not realize that the interior finishes,
specifically the gypsum wallboard, were necessary for the load-bearing
wall to support the anticipated loads.
• The structural engineer did not anticipate that the construction
might stop for two winters, leaving the load-bearing wall without the
sheathing that was needed to prevent weak axis compression buckling
of the wall studs.
• When the load-bearing interior stud walls were subjected to
moderate loads due to an accumulation of ice and snow on the roof,
the individual 2x6 studs within the two primary interior support walls
buckled. The buckling of the load-bearing walls caused the supported
roof structure to collapse downward. The loss of integrity of the roof
framing placed outward forces on the exterior walls, which caused the
perimeter log walls to lean outward, leading to a large-scale catastrophic
collapse (Figure 2).
• The collapse could have been avoided had the structural engineer
of record been notified of the work stoppage and the incomplete
status of the load-bearing wall construction. Similarly, had the plans
and notes indicated that some finishes, such as the drywall, were
needed to support the loads that were likely to occur, the general
contractor may have been alerted to the need to sheath the walls
before stopping work.
The structural members in this building were appropriately sized for
final finished conditions. However, proper considerations were not in
place to account for loads encountered during the construction period.
Although the construction documents communicated that the interior
load-bearing walls were to receive sheathing, it was not understood by the
builder or the property owner that the specified sheathing needed to be
in place before stopping the work for the duration of the winter. Had the
structural engineer of record been informed of the state of construction
and the desire to stop work, the collapse could have likely been avoided. ■

Peter Marxhausen, PE, is a full-time forensic structural engineer with Unified Building
Sciences and Engineering, Inc. (UBSE) and a part-time non-tenure professor of civil
engineering at the University of Colorado Denver. (pmarxhausen@ubse.com)
Figure 4. The investigation initiated at the center load-bearing wall and used two tracked
excavators to remove components.

Figure 6: The evidence revealed that the load-bearing wall studs were not sheathed to
prevent weak axis buckling. The floor sheathing and the double top plate are shown, which,
with the studs, should have been 10 feet apart. The wall studs had all buckled and become
Figure 5. The center load-bearing stud wall was the critical structural element that failed. widely displaced.

M AY 2024 29
 Reviving
a San
Francisco
Bay Area
Historic
Landmark
The seismic ductility and health monitoring of historic wood
connections in a WWII airship hangar were enhanced using
fully threaded screws.
By Kenneth Ogorzalek, PE, SE; Blake Dilsworth, PE, SE; and Shakhzod Takhirov, Ph.D, PE

H
Figure 1. Moffett Federal Airfield LTA Hangars: (below) Hangar 2 during
construction in 1943 (photo from the U.S. Navy); (opposite page left) an
ave you ever walked into a garage or a shed and discovered timber aerial image of Hangar 2 on the left and Hangar 3 on the right in 1968
defects in structural elements that made you think twice about needing (photo from the U.S. Navy); (opposite page right) a map of LTA Hangar
locations and their current-day status.
to fix them? Often, we ignore these early warning signs simply because
it is easier to turn a blind eye and close that garage door with the hope
of standing on conservative designs and inherently redundant structures. Now,
imagine that garage was 173 feet tall, 300 feet wide, and 1,000 feet long with over
4 million board feet (FBM) of lumber; and it was designated as a historic structure
in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) while maintained by the
U.S. Navy and subsequently, NASA. Observations of timber checks, splits, warps,
and any other defect that crosses your mind have a whole different meaning when
staring into an abyss of wood. This was exactly the case when KPFF stepped into
the Moffett Federal Airfield (MFA) Hangars 2 and 3 in 2013.

30 STRUCTURE magazine
M AY 2024 31
 Figure 2. (Above) 3D laser scanning of full hangars; (center) Revit model
[partial] for renovation coordination; (right) wind tunnel testing [H3 on left,
H2 on right] (photo from RWDI).

Project History
Hangar 2 (H2) and Hangar 3 (H3) were built in 1943 in Mountain
View, California, by the U.S. Navy to aid WWII efforts and the
Lighter-Than-Air (LTA) program. Constructed in 12 and 7 months,
respectively, H2 and H3 are 2 of 17 similar hangars constructed
along the west and east coast of the U.S. (Figure 1). The hangars
primarily housed the U.S. Navy blimp fleet for submarine patrol,
as well as dirigibles (rigid airships) when needed. A single hangar
consists of 51 parabolic timber arched trusses spaced at 20 feet
on-center and on top of two-story portal frame concrete bents
supported by concrete pile caps and timber piles. Each truss was
constructed from erection units containing timber chords and web
members ranging from 3x8 to 6x14 in size, and were connected to
one another by split rings, shear plates, and/or bolts. Independent
door structures consisting of concrete towers connected by a
spanning box beam are at each end of the hangars. A seismic joint
separates the main hangar from the door structures.
All 17 LTA hangars were built from the same structural drawings
and specifications, with some minor optional variations. LTA was
part of the Accelerated Public Works Program of the Navy in aid of
the war efforts, so the hangars were designed in a way to maximize
efficiency and speed. At the time in 1942, this meant that the Figure 3. (Top) An example of the KPFF condition
project structural engineer was able to use slightly higher member assessment visual database for H2 connection
and connection capacities while simultaneously using slightly lower damage and historic repairs (image from Sam
force demands when compared to code requirements. In addition, Delwiche); (left and right) anti-check bolt and
it was acceptable to use improperly seasoned timber to expedite robust sistered member/steel gusset plate
strengthening were observed in the hangars.
construction. The hangars were created strictly to support WWII
efforts, so these notions were approved since their life necessity
was only 5 years. Remarkably after 82 years of service, six of these 2). One upgrade item that was installed in the hangars included the
hangars still stand (Figure 1). In November 2023, one of the Tustin, strengthening of various arch truss wood connections, which is the
California, hangars tragically burned down. This hangar put up a focus of this article.
good fight and in certain on-site photos it was observed that the
west side of all 51 wood arches still stood after the fire. This speaks
to the level of redundancy within the original structural system Wood Connection Strengthening
relative to a 5-year design life, which is exactly what we have also
observed in the MFA hangars. A single hangar contains 3,774 primary truss panel points, so
H2 and H3 are not new to being studied. More recently, Rutherford strengthening of existing timber arch connections was a top concern.
& Chekene (1992), Neal Engineering Associates (1993), and During the condition assessment phase of the project (Figure 4),
Degenkolb (2006) have all provided their expertise. Starting in 2013, numerous timber connection defects such as longitudinal splits, shear
KPFF designed a voluntary upgrade to the portion of hangar H2 plugs, net section rupture, and bearing failures were identified. These
to ASCE 41-13 seismic demands per Life Safety (S-3) performance connections are traditionally strengthened by anti-check bolts, clamps,
objective under the BSE-1N hazard level, as well as to ASCE 7-10 or robust sistered members with bolted steel gusset plates, all of which
wind demands for a 700-yr event (95 mph). Given the complexity of can be time consuming and costly to install within the hangars because
the hangar, extensive condition assessment by visual inspection and of difficult access constraints (Figure 3). Some of these strengthening
3D laser scanning was conducted on H2 to accurately document all techniques can even harm a structure by restraining the connection
in-field conditions. This allowed for better representation in our site- and the in-framing elements from translating or rotating during a
specific seismic time history analyses, site-specific wind tunnel testing, wind or seismic event.
and progressive collapse emergency repairs for hangar H3 (Figure KPFF developed a simple, elegant, and highly strategic

32 STRUCTURE magazine
 Figure 5. (Top) During experimental testing, different specimen
configurations were considered. (Above left) A rendering of a compression-
only specimen with 45° screw strengthening and (above right) a rendering
of a cyclic specimen are shown.

Figure 4. Hangar 2, which is 173 feet tall, 300 feet wide, and 1,000 feet long with over 4 million board feet Figure 6. Experimental testing is performed on full-scale unstrengthened
(FBM) of lumber, is given a condition assessment. wood connections under cyclic loading.

concept to repair the defects as well as enhance the strength and plate connections. A typical hangar arch truss connection was used to
ductility of undamaged split ring and shear plate connections develop the testing specimen, and five different strengthening concepts
while accommodating inherent limitations. The concept is an were investigated: the historic anti-check bolt versus an equivalent
extension from research by Mohammad and Quenneville (1999, single fully threaded screw, as well as a variety of different fully threaded
2000) and Bejtka and Blaß (2005). The solution uses modern- screw orientations (Figure 5 presents four out of the five strengthening
day mass timber self-tapping SWG ASSY VG Plus fully threaded concepts for brevity). A total of 73 specimens were tested, handled,
screws manufactured by MTC Solutions (formerly MyTiCon) and fabricated according to ASTM D1761/D4442/E2126 and ASCE
and is designed to be installed within seconds rather than hours. 41-13. The testing included monotonic (ASTM protocol) and cyclic
These specific fully threaded screws are lightweight, have a high (CUREE protocol) loading, thereby representing wind and seismic
withdrawal capacity, do not require pre-drilling (confirmed by effects, respectively. A majority of the specimens were fabricated with
KPFF in-field drilling tests) nor prep work, and do not require new Select Structural Douglas-Fir wood (typically two 3x8s connected
complete spatial access around a connection for installation. The to a central dapped 4x8), 4” Ø SAE 1010 hot rolled carbon steel split
historic aesthetic impact of screw installation is also minimal since rings that were galvanized per ASTM A123, 4” Ø malleable iron shear
the screw head and washer, if used, are the only exposed surfaces. plates per ASTM A47/D5933, and A307 steel bolts. However, a por-
Although the SWG ASSY fully threaded screws currently have an tion of the testing program investigated and used extracted wood and
ICC-ES evaluation approval, KPFF conducted full-scale experimental connectors from Hangar 3.
testing at the University of California at Berkeley, Structures Lab, to The experimental testing results were precisely what KPFF had
more accurately quantify the increased strength and ductility of dif- envisioned. It was evident after the first few tests that the fully threaded
ferent screw strengthening configurations for both split ring and shear screws provided strength where wood is weak in cross-grain tension,

M AY 2024 33
 Figure 7. Shown are monotonic
compressive and tensile force-
deformation comparisons of example
split ring connections: unstrengthened
[highly brittle response] vs. anti-check
bolt and single screw strengthening.

similar to the way steel rebar functions in reinforced concrete. All • Fully threaded screw head pull-through failures were observed.
split ring and shear plate connections enhanced with fully threaded However, the pull-through occurred at deformations well beyond
screws, as well as the anti-check bolt, exhibited increased strength code requirements. KPFF recommended installation of washers
and ductility when compared to an “unstrengthened” connection, under the screw head (for cylinder heads) in order to increase bear-
while also simultaneously resisting perpendicular-to-grain splitting ing resistance against member side grain and ultimately to achieve
and minor secondary stresses of prying. Key takeaways and KPFF a higher connection capacity.
recommendations from the experimental testing program include: • Internal and external hydrogen embrittlement of the fully threaded
• “Existing” unstrengthened connections exhibited ASCE 41-13, Fig. screws was not directly studied during the experimental program.
7-4, Type 3 brittle failure force-deformation curves for both mono- However, KPFF considered these factors during the hangar upgrades
tonic and cyclic tests (Figure 6). Unstrengthened connection tests and provided a slightly more conservative design threshold for
turned out to be an expensive way to split wood for a bonfire, but strengthening in-field hangar connections, even though the in-field
all screw and anti-check bolt strengthened connections exhibited screws are in a constant state of relatively dry conditions since installed
ASCE 41 Type 1 ductile behavior. on the inside of the hangars. KPFF recommends contacting your
• The single screw strengthening proved to have similar response to structural fastening hardware supplier for more information about
the historic anti-check bolt strengthening (Figure 7). However, individual internal hydrogen embrittlement management policy.
the single screw option is more efficient with installation time and
therefore is recommended to use.
• The 45° screw strengthening proved to have the largest strength and Simple-to-Use Wood Connection Health
ductility increase for both split ring and shear plate connections Monitoring System
under monotonic and cyclic loading, as this was the intent of this
strengthening option. The 45° screw orientation was implemented Prior to testing various specimens, the wood connections were littered
to take advantage of the screw’s high withdrawal capacity, which is with random black dots drawn by hand with a permanent marker (any
about three times larger than the screw lateral shear capacity. Even size and any shape was acceptable). Photographic still images were
under cyclic loading, the 45° screw connection strength increased continuously taken throughout the duration of testing by a Cannon 6D
by up to 34% and with a ductility factor of 9 (Figure 8). camera that had been calibrated for lens distortion by a checkerboard

Figure 8. Shown are cyclic force-deformation comparisons of example split ring connections: unstrengthened (left) vs. 45° screw strengthening (right).

34 STRUCTURE magazine
concept. Each digital image consisted of 20.2 mega-pixels, and by
using Matlab (MathWorks) each pixel was then evaluated per its RGB
color distribution. This allowed the centroid of each black dot to be
determined and tracked throughout testing. The vector representing
a distance between any of the dots in a 2D plane was then calculated,
thereby providing a relative displacement or strain field across the
specimen that was correlated to the measured axial load. This method
allowed the team to discover and track wood cracks as small as 0.007
inches (0.18 mm) and larger simply through a series of photographic
images (Figure 9). Since the process turned out to be simple and precise,
KPFF installed numerous tracking dots (colored thumb tacks to pre-
serve the historic nature of the hangar wood) within the MFA hangars
that function as a passive health monitoring system. Readily available
commercial products and software use similar techniques presented
here. However, KPFF recommends exploring crack detection first
through day-to-day software used in practicing firms, such as Matlab
or Microsoft Office VBA, and a camera.

Conclusion
Only a portion of the experimental results and health monitoring
system are presented here. The proposed screw repair and strengthening
concept has been approved by NASA through the Alternate Means or
Methods of Construction (AMMC) process. To date, thousands of
fully threaded screws have been installed in both hangars H2 and H3 to
repair or strengthen existing wood connections that well exceed ASCE
41-13 S-3 performance objective, along with ASCE 7-10 site-specific
wind demands (Figure 10). The experimental testing program and
developed screw strengthening concepts proved to be quite beneficial
for project budget and to enhance the strength and ductility of the
hangars when subject to wind and seismic hazards. We look forward
to these strengthening measures and the health monitoring system to
be applied to the renovation or new design of other timber structures. ■

Full references are included in the online version of the article

at STRUCTUREmag.org.

Kenneth Ogorzalek, PE, SE, is an Associate at KPFF in San Francisco, CA, and
specializes in Performance Based Design and Resiliency of new and existing
buildings in high-seismic regions. (kenneth.ogorzalek@kpff.com)
Figure 9. In the health monitoring system, a typical photographic image (top) shows tracking
Blake Dilsworth, PE, SE, is the Managing Principal for KPFF’s San Francisco office dots. The tracking dots are identified in Matlab (middle) and a corresponding plot (above)
shows crack detection and movement between the example tracking dots.
and leads the structural design and management of many of their highest profile
projects, including dozens of Design/Build and Integrated Project Delivery (IPD)
projects. (blake.dilsworth@kpff.com)

Shakhzod Takhirov, Ph.D, PE, is Director of Operations (Structures Lab and Center
for Smart Infrastructure) at the University of California at Berkeley and has extensive
expertise in structural testing and structural health monitoring.
(takhirov@berkeley.edu)

KPFF is the SEOR for the renovation of all three hangars at MFA and hasve been work-
ing on them for more than a decade. The team would like to thank CBRE Director of
Project Management, Alex Saleh P.E., for his project oversight, Dr. Ben Brungraber and
Dr. Richard Schmidt from Fire Tower Engineered Timber (FTET) for their continuous peer
review during the experimental testing program, Power Engineering Construction for
fabricating all wood connection specimens, the personnel at the Structures Laboratory,
University of California at Berkeley for conducting the experimental testing, and all
other members of the design team.
Figure 10. Fully threaded screws and washers are installed in the MFA hangars at arch truss
panel points.

M AY 2024 35
 Photo by Marvin Bowser, iStock
Modern
Meets Historic
How innovative strengthening techniques saved the historic terra cotta flat-tile-arch floor
structure of an iconic landmark. By Michael D. Zajac, PE, LEED AP

Project Team

Structural Engineer of Record: Simpson Gumpertz & Heger, Washington, D.C.

Project Architect: Bowie Gridley Architects (now part of DLR Group), Washington, D.C.
Owner: DC Department of General Services, Washington, D.C.
General Contractor: STRUC’TUR’AL, Elkridge, Maryland
D esigned by the firm of Cope and
Stewardson in the American
Beaux Arts style and dedicated as
the District Building in 1908, the
John A. Wilson Building currently serves as
the city hall of Washington, D.C. The build-
ing is prominently situated along the south
side of D.C.’s Pennsylvania Avenue corridor
between the U.S. Capitol Building and the
White House.

36 STRUCTURE magazine
 The structure of the Wilson Building is among early examples of
so-called “fireproof ” construction in Washington, which became
standard practice for large commercial and important buildings
following several disastrous fires in other cities around the turn
of the 20th century. The structural floor systems were designed
and constructed utilizing structural flat-tile-arch construction,
which consisted of open-cell clay tile masonry unit blocks placed
on temporary formwork and mortared into place. A lightweight
cinder concrete topping slab was then placed, followed by sand-set
terrazzo flooring, and a plaster ceiling finish along the underside.
Although considered archaic compared to today’s construction
materials and practices, such construction was common during the
late 19th and early 20th century for commercial structures due to
its fire resistance, lightweight, and shallow depth. At the Wilson
Building, wrought iron beams were specified to support the clay
tile structure of the office suites at each floor; the flat tile arches of
the east and west corridors of the building bears upon the brick
masonry corridor walls.

Figure 2. Typical structural clay tile flat arch floor construction is depicted. Source: “Structural
Problem Discovered Analysis of Historic Buildings” Rabun, 2000.

While visiting the building to investigate an unrelated structural

scope item, engineers from Simpson Gumpertz & Heger (SGH)
noted an uncharacteristic sag of several corridor floors, most nota-
bly on the 5th floor of the building. SGH noted subtle hairline
cracking patterns in the plaster ceiling finish at the underside of
the sagging slabs running parallel with and located approximately
at the centerline of the corridor. At the south ends of each corridor,
above an acoustic dropped ceiling, investigators found a prominent
crack approximately 1-inch wide extending nearly the full length
of the suspended ceiling area.
Figure 3. Typical sagging of the building’s corridor floor slab, shown here with the red line,
measured approximately 1-1/2 inches. Photo copyright SGH.
Cause of Damage
In order to determine the cause of the noted damage, SGH began Conventional Repair Solutions Considered
researching various structural clay tile reference sources. Discoveries
indicated that structural clay tile floor systems were specified by first To address the structural damage to the clay tile floor structure, the
taking into consideration the overall span of the floor system fol- following conventional structural repair options were considered.
lowed by determining the required load capacity, then a minimum Option 1: Removal and Replacement. This option included full
clay tile depth was selected to satisfy the load and span requirement. demolition of structural clay tile floor slabs followed by replacement
Although significant redundancy and safety factors (sometimes as with either new cast-in-place reinforced concrete floor slab con-
high as 7) are associated with structural clay tile floor assemblies, the struction, or new composite slab on metal deck construction. This
team discovered that structural clay tile design guides and specifica- solution would have required vacating large areas of the building for
tions at the time generally did not recommend 12-inch deep clay tile an extended period. In addition, the historic plaster crown molding
for spans exceeding 8 feet regardless of required load capacity. The would have been lost.
corridor widths at the Wilson Building are on the order of 10 feet. Option 2: Reinforcement. This option was characterized by install-
Another factor which likely contributed to the damage relates to the ing a new supplementary structure beneath the existing structural clay
August 23, 2011, earthquake experienced in the region. Although tile floor system. Such a structural system could have consisted of a
the characteristic corridor floor damages were observed at five of steel beam framework supported on the masonry bearing walls of the
the six corridor floors framed with structural clay tiles, the most corridor and shimmed tight to the underside of the existing clay tile
pronounced floor sag was observed at the top (5th) floor corridor floor assembly above, or installation of a new concrete slab directly
slabs, where 1-1/2 inches of slab deflection was measured. Similar beneath the clay tile floor system. The new concrete construction
to other heavy stone masonry structures in the region, including could have been engineered to carry the dead loads of the original
the Washington Monument and Washington National Cathedral, floor slab, as well as the code-prescribed superimposed live loads.
the Wilson Building may have experienced significant movement Similar to Option 1, this repair had the convenience of straightfor-
and racking during the earthquake, disrupting the compressive force ward and conventional engineering, detailing and construction, but
load path of the structural flat-tile-arch corridor floor systems. No would not necessarily have required vacating various floors of the
information was available regarding the condition of the corridor building during construction. However, the historic plaster crown
floors prior to the August 2011 earthquake event. molding would be lost.

M AY 2024 37
 The Modern-Day Solution
Given the cost, disruption, and loss of his-
toric fabric associated with the conventional
repair options, the design team elected to
consider a carbon fiber reinforced polymer
(CFRP) reinforcement solution. CFRP has
been commonly associated with successful
repair and strengthening of concrete struc-
tures for many years, but little information
exists with respect to reinforcing structural
Figure 4a. This illustration depicts moment capacity comparison and strain diagram of reinforced condition. clay tile flat arch floor systems. Whereas
the original structural clay tile relied upon
compressive forces offered by flat tile arch
construction to carry dead and live loads, a
CFRP system would change existing floor
structure into a one-way reinforced clay
tile and concrete slab, with tension forces
carried by the CFRP bonded along the
underside of the structural clay tile, and the
concrete topping serving as the compres-
sion block. Since there was no indication of
shear distress or shear failure of the slab-to-
wall bearing, the CFRP could stop short of
the bearing points, preserving the historic
plaster crown molding.
The existing structural clay tile flat arch floors
consisted of multiple parallel rows of 12-inch
square by 12-inch deep clay tile units. The
repair specified a continuous strip of 6-inch-
wide CFRP bonded along the centerline of
Figure 4b. A floor section with CFRP repair detail is shown. each 12-inch-wide row of clay tiles.
The CFRP system offered the following
benefits:
1. Occupancy: Vacating the spaces of the
building served by the corridors would not
be required.
2. Cost savings: Compared to the conven-
tional demolish-and-replace repair options,
CFRP would offer significant savings.
3. Retention of historic fabric: The exist-
ing structural clay tile floor system, original
terrazzo floor finish, and historic plaster
crown molding could all remain.
Although the CFRP-reinforced terra cotta
floor slab construction is not part of any
fire-rated UL assembly, the design assumed
that the existing condition of the damaged
floor assembly was suitable to support the
self-weight of the existing floor system in
addition to nominal live loads.

Execution
The repair work began with installation of
temporary wood planking work platforms

Figure 5. Temporary shoring frames are wrapped with

temporary finish on the work platform above a corridor.
Photo copyright SGH.

38 STRUCTURE magazine
integrated with conventional metal shoring
frames and supplemental shore posts
extending down multiple floors to the
basement slab on grade. The generous floor-
to-ceiling heights of the building permitted
the shoring frame system to incorporate the
elevated work platforms above each corridor
so the workspace could be fully enclosed
to allow the corridors to remain open for
daily use and egress. In addition, installation
of the shoring system utilized screw jacks
with wood blocking to engage the vertical
shore posts into the underside of each slab
above, installed in “snug tight” manner. This
installation technique was critical to avoid
heaving of the slab and to maintain the
compression load paths of the structural clay
tile arch floor system. Temporary corridor
lighting was installed along the underside
of the work platform, along with protective
barriers to prevent building occupants from
accessing the work areas.
With access to the work area completed,
the repair team began executing plaster Figure 6. CFRP reinforcement strips installed is shown. Photo copyright SGH.
removal by mechanical tools with careful
means and methods to prevent significant
damage and abrasions to the base clay tiles. The substrate was then new plaster finish followed by a finish coat of paint was installed.
cleaned and prepared to receive the initial epoxy resin base coat In order to ensure proper mechanical bond of the plaster coating
followed by continuous CFRP reinforcement strips. The project to the repaired substrate, the CFRP reinforcement was coated
included testing mockups and pull tests to confirm that the bond with a secondary layer of epoxy embedded with sand. Adhesion
between the epoxy resin and clay tile substrate was sufficient to testing of the new plaster coat on the cured epoxy repair material
develop the CFRP. All mockups successfully satisfied the project indicated a bond even better than the original plaster coating
specification. on the underside of the original structural clay tile floor system.
Where existing features such as hanging fixtures and electrical Type 2: At the suspended ceiling areas, much of the origi-
items prevented centering of the CFRP reinforcement along nal plaster ceiling had already been penetrated with various
the centerline of the clay tile row, the CFRP was offset as field mechanical and electrical connections prior to execution of the
conditions permitted. At areas where the clay tile was extensively work. Following the completion of the work, these areas would
damaged, CFRP strips were placed side by side to provide full remain concealed above the suspended ceiling bulkhead below.
coverage of the underside of the clay tile floor slab. No attempts Therefore, the owner elected not to reapply plaster finish at the
were made to lift the slab back into a more level profile as the concealed condition. Instead, a water-based intumescent coating
structural engineering team anticipated difficulty achieving success was applied to provide a layer of fire protection for the CFRP.
and the risk of opening tension cracking in the concrete topping In order to protect the CFRP strips from future damage during
and disrupting the compression block load path, in addition to future mechanical/electrical/plumbing work, “DO NOT CUT”
damaging the original historic terrazzo floor finish, was high. In stenciling was applied.
addition, no leveling compounds were placed on top of the slab.
The original terrazzo floor finish remained present and unaltered
under the existing carpet finish. Closing
As is often common with historic structural clay tile floor systems,
several unforeseen conditions arose during execution of the work, Applying a strengthening technique usually associated with
including discovery of broken tiles and miscellaneous voids along concrete structures ultimately resulted in a clever and successful
the underside of the floor slab. Since the CFRP system required a solution that saved time, money, and historic building fabric while
continuous substrate along the underside of the floor slab, the the allowing the building to remain occupied during construction,
voids of broken clay tiles were infilled with a cementitious overhead with no obvious visible changes to the spaces at the completion
patching mortar prior to application of the epoxy coating and CFRP of the project. ■
reinforcement.

Final Finish Michael D. Zajac, PE, LEED AP, is a Senior Project Manager in the Washington,
D.C., office of Simpson Gumpertz & Heger. (mdzajac@sgh.com)
Two final finishes were specified as part of the work.
Type 1: At areas of exposed plaster ceiling and crown molding, a

M AY 2024 39
 Wood Floor Truss
Collapse:
A Case Study
The real reason for the failure of a clubhouse floor was not the
dancing.
By Scott D. Coffman, PE

T
Figure 1. The truss lumber failure locations were predominately limited to the
truss end that intersected the stair wall.

he Woodlands at Clemson clubhouse floor collapsed in the • Is a 100 psf live load sufficient to support a rhythmic dancing
early Sunday morning hours of October 20, 2018, injuring dynamic load?
several individuals who had gathered for an annual home- • Why did the floor collapse?
coming weekend party. Several engineers and media outlets The Truss Plate Institute’s 1995 Edition of the National Design Standard
concluded that the rhythmic jumping (i.e., dancing) by a significant for Metal Plate Connected Wood Truss Construction (TPI) as referenced
number of individuals was the cause of the floor collapse. However, two in the 2000 IBC was used to collect data and perform an analysis of the
structural engineers who investigated the floor collapse found evidence floor truss component.
that improper metal plate connected wood truss design and fabrication
were more likely the proximate cause. The rhythmic dancing on the floor
exposed a truss deficiency that prevented the truss system from supporting Initial Truss Analysis
code-prescribed loads.
The wood truss design drawings were requested but not available. The
truss midspan bottom chord tension stress was calculated for a 115 psf
Building Code total load and compared to the published allowable tension design value
(Ft) for the noted truss chord's lumber grade. (The 115 psf total load is
The clubhouse was a wood-framed, two-level structure identified as an the sum of a 100 psf live load and the historical truss industry common
A-3 Assembly on the Certificate of Occupancy. The applicable building practice of a total 15 psf top and bottom chord dead load). The wood chord
code for the building was the 2000 International Building Code (IBC). member was found to be structurally sufficient for the calculated tension
The IBC specifically associated dance halls to the A-3 Assembly and force. Additionally, metal connector plates at truss panel points were found
prescribed a 100 pound per square foot (psf) design live load. The “old- to have sufficient coverage for the 115 psf total load. Therefore, it was
time” dance halls probably did not consider rhythmic jumping; however, concluded that the truss was originally designed for the code-prescribed
the prescribed 100 psf static load appeared reasonable for a community 100 psf live load.
building in an apartment building complex.
The local Fire Marshal limited the maximum number of occupants to
135 for the main floor level based on documents made available during Dynamic Truss Analysis
the investigation. The IBC assigned a maximum of 5 square feet per
occupant for standing space in an Assembly space. The collapsed floor area There are no wood truss industry design guidelines available to evaluate
measured approximately 20 feet x 30 feet to imply at least 120 individuals dynamic loads for a group of individuals who perform rhythmic dancing
could congregate in the area. or jumping on a floor. Research revealed studies that reported an amplifi-
cation factor on a person’s body weight as they ascended or descended a
staircase. A 1998 study by Stuart C. Kerr found an enhancement factor
Collapsed Floor Observations of 4 times the body weight for a large group (greater than 25 people)
ascending or descending a flexible staircase. With this research informa-
The collapsed floor framing consisted of 24-inch-deep metal plate con- tion, the wood truss ultimate tension chord capacity was used to evaluate
nected wood trusses spaced 16 inches on center with a measured length the code-prescribed 100 psf design load for dynamic loads.
of approximately 20 feet-9 inches. The chord and web lumber grades were The published Ft was increased by the 2.1 general adjustment factor to
noted, and plate sizes were measured. The truss lumber failure locations approximate the lumber ultimate tension strength value. (The 2.1 factor
were predominately limited to the truss end that intersected the stair wall includes a 1.6 factor for duration of load the author considered acceptable
(Figure 1). On the opposite end, the floor framing rotated and fell against for rhythmic dancing or jumping). It was found the truss could support a
the exterior wall with the broken ends resting on the lower-level floor. The 255 psf maximum uniform static live load before the truss bottom chord
truss bottom chord (tension member) in the center one-third of the span might break. Additionally, the dynamic floor capacity was investigated
did not appear to be damaged and the metal truss plates were fully embed- using the 255 psf live load and 20 feet x 30 feet floor area. It was deter-
ded. The truss evaluation was made to address three specific questions: mined that 170 individuals could be on the 20 feet x 30 feet floor area
• Was the truss designed for the code-prescribed 100 psf live load? using a 225 pound per person weight and enhancement/amplification

40 STRUCTURE magazine
Figure 2. The 10-inch-wide double stud wall consisted of a 2x6 Figure 3. The metal connector plate buckling or tooth “back- Figure 4. The splintered top edge of the truss bottom chord
stud adjacent to the stairs, a 1-inch air space, and 2x4 stud wall out” was a result of high localized forces. at the inside edge of the 2x4 wall identified the de facto
that was positioned within the first bottom chord truss panel. primary truss support locations.

factor of 4. (The 170 occupants exceeds the 120 people determined using wall that became the primary truss support even though the 2x6 wall was
the 5 square feet per person IBC limit.) Based on the analysis, a wood solely intended to serve that purpose.
truss floor system designed to a code prescribed 100 psf static live load is The truss bottom chord capacity at the inside edge of the 2x4 wall was
anticipated to perform without failure/collapse when subjected to dynamic investigated to determine the approximate maximum uniform design load
loads by the occupants. the truss could support. The bending stress was calculated and compared
Subsequent to our initial dynamic floor analysis, M.A. Broers et al. (2021) to the published allowable stress design bending design value (Fb) that
published Residential Floor Failures from Dynamic Occupant Loading that was increased for a ten-minute load duration factor (CD = 1.6), flat use
gives a procedure to evaluate the dynamic impact of jumping on a wood factor (Cfu = 1.1), and repetitive member factor (Cr = 1.15). The tension
floor. The study found amplification factors ranged between 1.55 and 3.2 component that would have reduced the truss design capacity a minimal
and recommended that a 2.5 factor be applied to the static code-prescribed amount was neglected. The truss uniform design live load was calculated
live load. The author’s analysis and conclusions were consistent with the to be 50 psf or half of the original 100 psf live load. Therefore, the wall
Broers study. Therefore, a wood truss floor system designed for a 100 psf positioned below the first bottom chord truss panel where webs were
static live load should not have failed when subjected to dynamic loading. absent was the reason the truss failed. The rhythmic dancing exposed the
truss's weak point from the improper design. At least one web should
have been located over the 2x4 portion of the double stud wall. All webs
Improper Truss Bearing Design Caused were located over the 2x6 portion of the double stud wall which permit-
Floor Truss Failure ted the bottom chord to fail in bending as the truss was loaded to less
than design capacity.
The investigation focused on the truss end bearing condition when it
became evident a floor truss system designed to a 100 psf live load should
be able to support dynamic loads. The source of the truss failure appeared Conclusion
to originate at the interior stair wall. The 10-inch-wide double stud wall
consisted of a 2x6 stud adjacent to the stairs, a 1-inch air space, and 2x4 stud The code prescribed design live load of 100 psf was found to be suffi-
wall that was positioned within the first bottom chord truss panel (Figure cient for static and dynamic live loads when metal plate connected wood
2). As load was applied, the primary truss bearing support became the 2x4 trusses are designed and fabricated properly. The rhythmic jumping (i.e.,
plates/wall instead of the 2x6 wall located below the double vertical and dancing) by a significant number of individuals as cited by engineers and
diagonal web at the truss end. The absence of a truss web element above media outlets was not the primary reason for the Woodlands at Clemson
the 2x4 wall changed the intended load path clubhouse floor collapse. A truss bearing
and caused the bottom chord to bend until design error reduced the floor truss capac-
breaking which precipitated the floor collapse ity by 50% and the dynamic load exposed
when dynamically loaded. The metal connec- the truss design deficiency. The absence of
tor plate buckling or tooth “back-out” was a a truss web above the inner truss bearing
result of high localized forces (Figure 3). The location created by a double wall placed the
splintered top edge of the truss bottom chord bottom chord in bending and tension. This
at the inside edge of the 2x4 wall identified configuration changed the load path which
the de facto primary truss support locations exceeded the lumber capacity and resulted in
(Figure 4). The buckled metal connector failure when subjected to a less-than-code-
plate and wood fracture at the interior face prescribed load. ■
of the wall are signs of improper design of
the truss bearing.
The truss industry publishes typical floor Full references are included in
truss bottom chord bearing details and four the online version of the article at
examples are depicted in Figure 5. In each STRUCTUREmag.org.
condition, a minimum of one vertical web
and a portion of the metal connector plate is Scott D. Coffman, PE is a Senior Engineer with REI
located immediately above the bearing wall. Engineers, Inc. in Westminster, South Carolina, that
For this truss failure, the webs and metal Figure 5. Four examples of typical floor truss bottom chord bearing provides forensic engineering services. He can be
connector plates were absent above the 2x4 deatails are depicted. reached at scoffman@reiengineers.com.

M AY 2024 41
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code UPDATES
2024 IBC Significant Structural Changes
Wood (IBC Chapter 23)—Part 7
By John “Buddy” Showalter, PE, and Sandra Hyde, PE

T his multi-part series discusses significant structural changes to

the 2024 International Building Code (IBC) by the International
Code Council (ICC). This article includes an overview of changes
to IBC Chapter 23 on wood. Only a portion of the chapter’s total
number of code changes is discussed in this article. More information
on the code changes can be found in the 2024 Significant Changes to
the International Building Code available from ICC.

Referenced Standards
Table 1 provides a list of standards that are newly referenced or Figure 1. Wood structural panel wall sheathing (courtesy Norbord [David Lewis])
updated in the 2024 IBC.
speeds to be consistent with ASCE 7-22 Minimum Design Loads and
Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures. This change updates
Wood Structural Panel Wall Sheathing the tabulated values from allowable stress design wind speeds (Vasd) to
basic wind speeds (V) for consistency with ASCE 7-22. When devel-
IBC Table 2304.6.1 provides requirements and limitations for wood oping these modifications, stud and panel capacities, nail withdrawal
structural panels (WSP) used as exterior wall sheathing when resisting resistance, and nail-head pull-through capacities were evaluated in the
wind pressure (Figure 1). For a given wind speed and exposure category, same manner as the previous table, resulting in comparable design
the table gives the minimum nail size, WSP span rating, panel thick- requirements as the wind speeds are soft-converted from Vasd values per
ness, stud spacing, and nailing schedule. The limitations of the table are IBC Section 1609.3.1. The tabulated wind speeds are also consistent
that the building must be enclosed, the mean roof height must be not with those in 2021 International Residential Code (IRC) Table R602.3(3).
greater than 30 feet, and the topographic factor must be equal to 1.0. Footnote “b” was updated to reference ASCE 7 Section 30.4. Since
Change Significance: Tabulated values are modified for basic wind the revised table reflects basic wind speeds, the previous text in foot-
note “d” is no longer required
but is replaced by a new note.
Table 2304.6.1 Maximum Allowable Stress Design Basic Wind Speed, Vasd V, Permitted for Wood Structural Panel Wall Sheathing Used to
The new footnote “d” text rec-
Resist Wind Pressures a, b, c
ognizes the minimum specific
Minimum Minimum Maximum Maximum Allowable Stress Design
Minimum Nail
Wood Nominal Wall Stud
Panel Nail Spacing
Basic Wind Speed, Vasd (mph)
d gravity basis of 0.42 for the
Structural Panel Spacing WSP fastener spacing and
Edges Field
Panel Span Thickness (inches) provides a prescriptive option
(inches (inches Wind Exposure Category
Rating (inches) o.c.) o.c.)
(i.e., multiply spacing by 0.67)
Penetration for framing species with lower
Size (inches) B C D specific gravity down to a
specific gravity equal to 0.35.
6d 24/0 3/8 16 6 12 d 140 110 115 90 110 85
Engineered design of the WSP
Common
1.5 12 d 150 110 125 100 115 90 fasteners is required when the
(2.0" ×
0.113")
24/16 7/16 16 6 specific gravity is less than 0.35
6d 190 150 160 125 150 110
for the lumber species used for
12 d
170 130 140 110 135 105 wall framing.
8d 16 6
Common 6d 190 150 160 125 150 110
1.75 24/16 7/16
(2.5" ×
12 d 140 110 115 90 110 85 Fire Protection of
0.131") 24 6
6d 140 110 115 90 110 85 Connections
b. The table is based on wind pressures acting toward and away from building surfaces in accordance with Section 30.7 4 of ASCE 7. IBC Section 2304.10.1
Lateral requirements shall be in accordance with Section 2305 or 2308. provides two options for dem-
d. Vasd shall be determined in accordance with Section 1609.3.1. Where the specific gravity of the wood species used for wall framing is onstrating compliance for the
greater than or equal to 0.35 but less than 0.42 in accordance with AWC NDS, nail spacing in the field of the panel shall be multiplied by protection of connections in
0.67. Where the specific gravity of the wood species used for wall framing is less than 0.35, fastening of the wall sheathing shall be designed
Types IV-A, IV-B, and IV-C
in accordance with AWC NDS.
construction: a testing option
(Footnotes “a” and “c” did not change and are not shown for brevity)

M AY 2024 43
 and a calculation option. The provisions do not apply to connections 2304.10.1 Connection fire-resistance rating Fire protection of
in heavy timber (IV-HT) construction, because heavy timber structural connections. Fire-resistance ratings for connections in Connections
members do not have a prescribed fire-resistance rating. Connections used with fire-resistance-rated members and in fire-resistance-rated
in Type IV-A, IV-B and IV-C construction are required to have fire assemblies of Type IV-A, IV-B or IV-C construction shall be protected
protection for the time associated with fire protection of the primary for the time associated with the fire-resistance rating. Protection time
structural frame members (Figure 2). shall be determined by one of the following:
1. Testing in accordance with Section 703.2 where the connection is
Table 1. Standards Newly Referenced or Updated in the 2024 IBC part of the fire-resistance test.
American Wood Council 2. Engineering analysis that demonstrates that the temperature rise at
any portion of the connection is limited to an average temperature
ANSI/AWC NDS—2024 National Design Specification (NDS) for
Wood Construction—with NDS Supplement rise of 250°F (139°C), and a maximum temperature rise of 325°F
(181°C), for a time corresponding to the required fire-resistance
ANSI/AWC WFCM—2024 Wood Frame Construction Manual for One-
and Two-Family Dwellings rating of the structural element being connected. For the purposes
of this analysis, the connection includes connectors, fasteners and
AWC STJR—2024 Span Tables for Joists and Rafters portions of wood members included in the structural design of the
ASTM connection.
Change Significance: This change clarifies the code intent that
E2768 -11(2018) Standard Test Method for Extended Duration Surface
connections are required to be protected for the time associated with
Burning Characteristics of Building Materials (30 min Tunnel Test) the fire-resistance rating of members and assemblies as required by
D8223-19 Standard Practice for Evaluation of Fire-Retardant Treated IBC Sections 704.2 for the primary structural frame.
Laminated Veneer Lumber However, IBC Section 704.2 does not require connections that join
A641/A641M-19 Specification for Zinc-coated (Galvanized) Carbon elements of the structural frame to be tested per ASTM E119 Standard
Steel Wire Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials or
UL263 Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. The connec-
American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers tions must only be protected with a material having the fire-resistance
EP 484.3 DEC2017 (R2022) Diaphragm Design of Metal-clad, Wood- rating required for the structural members that they connect. It is neither
frame Rectangular Buildings practical nor possible to test connections in a standard fire test furnace
EP 486.3 SEP2017 (R2021) Shallow-post and Pier Foundation Design since there is no capability to test large connections used to transfer
gravity loads. In addition, neither ASTM E119 nor UL263 includes
EP 559.1 AUG2010 (R2019) Design Requirements and Bending any provisions on how to test connections and assess their performance.
Properties for Mechanically Laminated Wood Assemblies See the May 2023 issue of STRUCTURE for more background on
APA – The Engineered Wood Association design for fire protection of mass timber connections.
ANSI/APA A190.1—2022 Product Standard for Structural Glued
Laminated Timber Wood Shear Walls and Diaphragms
ANSI/APA PRR 410—2021 Standard for Performance-Rated Engineered
Wood Rim Boards IBC Section 2305.1 references AWC’s Special Design Provisions
APA PDS Supplement 1—23 Design and Fabrication of Plywood Curved for Wind and Seismic (SDPWS) for the design and construction of
Panels wood shear walls and wood diaphragms to resist wind, seismic, or
other lateral loads.
APA PDS Supplement 2—23 Design and Fabrication of Plywood-lumber 2305.1 General. Structures using wood-frame shear walls or wood-
Beams frame diaphragms to resist wind, or seismic or other lateral loads shall
APA PDS Supplement 3—23 Design and Fabrication of Plywood be designed and constructed in accordance with AWC SDPWS and
Stressed-skin Panels the applicable provisions of Sections 2305, 2306 and 2307.
APA PDS Supplement 4—23 Design and Fabrication of Plywood
Sandwich Panels
APA PDS Supplement 5—23 Design and Fabrication of All-plywood
Beams
APA T300—23 Glulam Connection Details

APA X440—23 Product Guide: Glulam

APA X450—23 Glulam in Residential Building—Construction Guide

Truss Plate Institute

ANSI/TPI 1—2022 National Design Standard for Metal Plate
Connected Wood Truss Construction
West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau
AITC 200—20 Manufacturing Quality Control Systems Manual for
Structural Glued Laminated Timber Figure 2. Fire protection of connections in Type IV-A, IV-B and IV-C construction

44 STRUCTURE magazine
Figure 3. CLT shear wall Figure 4. Cripple wall heights that trigger engineered design

2305.1.2 Permanent load duration. Permanent loads are associated with Section 2308.3 shall be provided for the floor immediately above
with permanent load duration in accordance with the ANSI/AWC NDS. the cripple walls or post and beam systems and all structural elements and
For wood shear walls and wood diaphragms designed to resist lateral connections from this floor down to and including connections to the
loads of permanent load duration only and that are not in combination foundation and design of the foundation to transfer lateral loads from the
with wind or seismic lateral loads, the design unit shear capacities shall framing above in buildings where all of the following apply:
be taken as the AWC SDPWS nominal unit shear capacities, multiplied 1. The grade slope exceeds 1 unit vertical in 5 units horizontal where
by 0.2 for use with allowable stress design in Section 2306 and 0.3 for averaged across the full length of any side of the building.
use with load and resistance factor design in Section 2307. 2. The tallest cripple wall clear height exceeds 7 feet (2134 mm); or, where
Change Significance: Terminology in IBC Section 2305.1 changes a post and beam system occurs at the building perimeter, the post and
to use “wood shear walls” and “wood diaphragms” instead of “wood- beam system tallest post clear height exceeds 7 feet (2134 m).
frame” shear walls and diaphragms. The terminology change is driven 3. Of the total plan area below the lowest framed floor, whether open or
by the need to cover the design of both wood-frame and cross-lami- enclosed, less than 50 percent is occupiable space having interior wall
nated timber shear walls and diaphragms in the SDPWS (Figure 3). finishes conforming to Section 2304.7 or Chapter 25.
Reference to the SDPWS is appropriate for the design of wood shear Exception: Light-frame buildings in which the lowest framed floor is
walls and diaphragms to resist wind and seismic loads, but for resistance supported directly on concrete or masonry walls over the full length
to permanent lateral loads, such as soil loads in foundation design, the of all sides except the downhill side of the building are exempt from
nominal unit shear capacities in SDPWS need further reduction to this provision.
account for long-term effects. Permanent loads are associated with a Change Significance: These new load path provisions provide a cor-
permanent load duration factor (allowable stress design, ASD) or time- relation between the prescriptive requirements of IBC Section 2308 and
effect factor (load and resistance factor design, LRFD) as defined by IRC Section R301.2.2.6 Item 8. The hillside requirement was added to
the NDS. IBC Section 2305.1.2 now requires the use of a 0.2 factor the 2021 IRC with the intent of improving the seismic performance of
for ASD and a 0.3 factor for LFRD. hillside light-frame wood buildings. A related modification was also made
to ASCE 7-22 to provide additional guidance to engineers designing these
types of structures.
Hillside Light-frame Wood Construction
One of the most important aspects of prescriptive methods is meet- Wind Uplift
ing the restrictions and limitations required to use the method. The
structures for which conventional light-frame wood construction is Wind loads (based on main wind force-resisting system pressures)
applicable are described in IBC Section 2308.2. For light-frame wood can cause considerable uplift forces on roof framing. The uplift loads
dwellings on steep hillsides, the typical assumption of floor loads trans- must be positively transferred into the structure below to resist the
ferring to braced wall panels based on the tributary area of a flexible uplift (Figure 5).
wood floor may not provide adequate seismic performance (Figure 4). 2308.11.4 Wind uplift. The roof construction shall have rafter and
This building configuration was found to be vulnerable in the 1994 truss ties to the wall below. Resultant uplift loads shall be transferred
Northridge, California earthquake. Whether the earthquake motion to the foundation using a continuous load path. The rafter or truss-to-
occurs across the slope or perpendicular to the hill, seismic forces follow wall connection shall comply with Tables 2304.10.2 and 2308.11.4.
the stiffest load path to the uphill foundation, rather than distributing Exception: The truss-to-wall connection shall be determined from
evenly to all braced wall panels as assumed in prescriptive IBC seismic the uplift forces as specified on the truss design drawings or as shown
wall bracing provisions. on the construction documents.
Change Significance: Changes to IBC Section 2308.11.4 (formerly
CHAPTER 2 2308.7.5) and the corresponding table update roof-to-wall connection
DEFINITIONS uplift loads to comply with the IBC-referenced standard ASCE 7-22.
Tabulated wind uplift loads have been updated based on the basic wind
CRIPPLE WALL CLEAR HEIGHT. The vertical height of a cripple wall speeds used in ASCE 7-22 (and ASCE 7-16) which match the required
from the top of the foundation to the underside of floor framing above. basic wind speeds of IBC Figures 1609.3(1) through 1609.3(4). (see
2308.2 Limitations. Buildings are permitted to be constructed in accor- the March 2024 issue of STRUCTURE on IBC Chapter 16 loads for
dance with the provisions of conventional light-frame construction, subject more background)
to the limitations in Sections 2308.2.1 through 2308.2.6 2308.2.7. Basic wind speeds are tabulated for 90-140 mph which provides values
(No changes to Sections 2308.2.1, 2308.2.2, 2308.2.4 and 2308.2.5. up to the maximum wind speed permitted in IBC Section 2308.2.4
Changes to 2308.2.3 and 2308.2.6 not shown for brevity.) for conventional light-frame construction. Uplift loads for Exposures
2308.2.7 Hillside light-frame construction. Design in accordance C and D with an assumed mean roof height (MRH) of 33 feet are

M AY 2024 45
 Table 2308.11.4 Required Rating of Approved Uplift Connectors (pounds)a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h

Nominal Roof Span (feet) Overhangs

also now tabulated eliminating Design (pounds/
the need for the table in Footnote Basic Wind feet)d
12 20 24 28 32 36 40
“a”. A higher MRH will require Speed, Vasdi
engineering analysis for uplift Exposure B
connectors.
85 90 -72 -64 -120 -85 -145 -96 -169 -107 -193 -117 -217 -128 -241 -139 -38.55
Uplift connection requirements
now include the effects of 24-inch 90 100 -91 -102 -151 -139 -181 -158 -212 -177 -242 -195 -272 -214 -302 -233 -43.22
overhangs. Calculations are no 100 110 -131 -144 -281 -199 -262 -226 -305 -254 -349 -282 -393 -310 -436 -338 -53.36
longer required to determine the 110 120 -175 -190 -292 -265 -351 -302 -409 -339 -467 -377 -526 -414 -584 -452 -64.56
magnitude of the uplift loads by 130 -240 -335 -382 -431 -479 -528 -576
adding the overhang loads previ-
140 -294 -411 -470 -530 -590 -650 -710
ously found in the table. While
conservative, engineering analysis Exposure C
can be used to reduce uplift loads 90 -126 -175 -199 -223 -247 -272 -296
for roofs with shorter overhangs. 100 -179 -250 -285 -320 -356 -391 -426
Overhangs greater than 24 inches 110 -238 -332 -380 -428 -476 -525 -573
will require engineering analysis.
120 -302 -424 -485 -547 -608 -669 -731
A new exception is added to IBC
130 -371 -521 -597 -674 -751 -828 -904
Section 2308.11.4 to allow truss-
to-wall connections to be designed 140 -446 -628 -719 -812 -904 -997 -1090
using either the loads on the truss Exposure D
design drawings or the construc- 90 -166 -232 -265 -298 -311 -364 -396
tion documents. This new language
100 -229 -321 -367 -413 -459 -505 -551
is meant to be consistent with IRC
110 -298 -418 -478 -539 -601 -662 -723
Section R802.11.1 for truss uplift
resistance. 120 -373 -526 -603 -679 -756 -833 -910
130 -455 -641 -734 -829 -924 -1020 -1114
140 -544 -767 -878 -992 -1106 -1220 -1333
Conclusion a. The uplift connection requirements are based on a 33 30-foot mean roof height. located in Exposure B. For Exposure C or D and for
other mean roof heights, multiply the loads by the following adjustment coefficients:
Structural engineers should be
aware of significant structural Mean Roof Height (feet)
changes in the 2024 IBC Chapter EXPOSURE 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
23 on wood. Tabulated values are
B 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.09 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.22
modified for basic wind speeds to
be consistent with ASCE 7-22. C 1.21 1.29 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.49 1.53 1.56 1.59 1.62
New footnote text provides a pre- D 1.47 1.55 1.61 1.66 1.70 1.74 1.78 1.81 1.84 1.87
scriptive option for framing species d. The uplift connection requirements do not account for include the effects of 24" overhangs. The magnitude of the loads shall be increased
with a specific gravity lower than by adding the overhang loads found in the table. The overhang loads are based on framing spaced 24 inches on center. The overhang loads
0.42. Connections in Type IV-A, given shall be multiplied by the overhang projection and added to the roof uplift value in the table.
IV-B and IV-C construction are e. The uplift connection requirements are based on wind loading on end zones as defined in Figure 28.3-1 of ASCE 7. Connection loads for
required to have fire protection for connections located a distance of 20 percent of the least horizontal dimension of the building from the corner of the building are permitted to
the time associated with fire pro- be reduced by multiplying the table connection value by 0.75 and multiplying the overhang load by 0.8.
tection of the primary structural g. Interpolation is permitted for intermediate values of Vasd and roof spans.
frame. Design requirements for h. The rated capacity of approved tie-down devices is permitted to include up to a 60-percent increase for wind effects where allowed by
wood-frame and cross-laminated material specifications. The required rating of approved uplift connectors is based on allowable stress design loads.
timber shear walls and diaphragms i. Vasd shall be determined in accordance with Section 1609.3.1.
(Footnotes “b”, “c” and “f” did not change and are not shown for brevity)
are added. For resistance to per-
manent lateral loads, such as soil
loads in foundation design, capac-
ity reductions are added to account for long-term effects in nominal unit
shear capacities. New load path requirements are intended to improve the
seismic performance of hillside light-frame wood buildings. Roof-to-wall
connection uplift loads are updated to be consistent with ASCE 7-22. ■

John “Buddy” Showalter, PE, M. ASCE, M. NCSEA (bshowalter@iccsafe.org) is a Senior

Staff Engineer and Sandra Hyde, PE, M. ASCE, M. NCSEA (shyde@iccsafe.org) is
Managing Director of ICC’s Consulting Group.
Figure 5. Roof truss-to-wall uplift connectors (courtesy Norbord [David Lewis])

46 STRUCTURE magazine
structural
historic RESILIENCE
STRUCTURES
New Solution Needed
Following Flooding in Historic
Office Complex Buildings
A renovation project found success with a newly developed mat foundation system.
By Russ Miller-Johnson, PE, SE

T he State Office Complex historic buildings in Waterbury, Vermont,

were devastated by Tropical Storm Irene’s 2011 flooding. The
fully inundated partial basement levels, used for office, storage, and
mechanical system functions, were a complete property loss with exten-
sive clean-up and remediation to remove alluvial debris and incipient
mold. The mandated renovation project selected 13 of the original 20
buildings for preservation and resilient improvements requiring the
interconnected basements to be “flood-proofed” for 500-year event flood
criteria. A range of both dry and wet floodproofing options were studied.
The design team developed a stressed-skin type “sandwich” mat foun-
dation system, comprised of steel fiber-reinforced concrete outer layers
with a lightweight flowable cellular concrete fill (FCCF) center, for
eliminating basement level flooding. The design balanced the settlement
resulting from the added infill weight with the competing hydrostatic
uplift effects due to the basement level being below the design flood
elevation. The system significantly reduced the difficulties of con- Flooding at the State Office Complex in Waterbury, Vermont, in July 2023 reached the
struction in existing basements and met the owner and construction approximate 50-year level. This was 3 feet above the previous basement floor level of the
manager’s budget and schedule constraints. Since 2014, the installation preserved, historic buildings. Photo courtesy of fluidstateconsulting.com.
has not seen settlement distress; and in July 2023 it withstood flooded
conditions approaching the design flood elevation. future monetary outlays, reduced environmental impact, and the desire
The 2011 flooding first reached the partial basement levels by surface to maintain the location as a locus for state operations.
flow into window well and utility passages at the outlying buildings. A The circa 1890 low-rise buildings consist of interior and exterior
utility and passageway tunnel system, originally built for the complex's multi-wythe load bearing brick masonry walls supporting wood-framed
prior use as a State Hospital, allowed the water to flow freely into all floors and roofs. Limited existing drawings showed stone and brick
the basements. With depths up to 7 feet, operational relocation costs foundation walls on rough strips of concrete, confirmed by test pits
and service time losses, as well as the clean-up costs were extensive, and probing. GEODesign, Inc., the Geotechnical Engineer of Record
and the complex was completely and indefinitely shut down. Because (GER), found that the surcharge weight of conventional granular
basements have limited access and confined space work issues, drying earthen fills or naturally balanced fills such as sand, would likely lead
and removing waste, is routinely a long-term problem. to widespread long-term settlement of the underlying silts, clays, and
The renovation project was mandated to preserve the selected build- sandy soils. The findings did consider that initial settlements had likely
ings with flood resilient measures to the 500-year elevation based on occurred from flooding “pre-load”, which was reported to have been at
Appendix G of the IBC and the FEMA-based Executive Order for least 10 feet deep around the buildings in the 1920s before upstream
Critical facility use function. This elevation was above Irene’s level by river flood-control measures were constructed.
about 3 feet as well as above the local Waterbury municipal Design The GER analyzed a range of potential surcharges in the basements
Flood Elevation requirement at 2 feet above the FIRM-mapped Zone for settlement effects that could limit settlement potential distress to
AE 100-year Base Flood Elevation. The existing wood-framed ground an acceptable design level. At a 500 pounds per square foot (psf ) design
floors were about 6 inches above the design level. The State of Vermont load for over 9 feet of fill, calculations indicated overall movements
Building and General Services specified that no open wet floodproofed up to 1-inch and settlement distortions in the range of L/250, well in
spaces below that ground level were permitted to remain, so as to elimi- excess of a L/2500 reference criteria for unreinforced brick masonry
nate future cleanup and potential for utility use. Preliminary work by buildings. To achieve even lighter loadings to limit settlements to
the design and construction team determined that raising the buildings acceptable levels with just unstructured fills, the use of lightweight
above a service crawl space, itself above the design elevation, or dry polyfoam or foam-enhanced cellular flowable fills would be needed.
floodproofing the basements as reinforced concrete tank-like structures And to employ those, with the basements almost entirely below the
was not economically viable. The project team elected to fill the base- design water elevations, buoyancy-resisting structural measures were
ment in alignment with the State’s focus on resiliency, prioritizing lower required. However, global uplift forces of a very light fill weight that was

M AY 2024 47
 acceptable for settlement would exceed the alleviate most of the reinforcing placement
permissible buoyancy factor of safety even if effort, steel fiber reinforcing in the mix was
all the available building structure was engaged used for flexural strength and to address min-
as ballast. Without an apparent convenient, imum shrinkage and temperature criteria.
conventional remedy, Engineering Ventures The steel fiber supplier, Fab-Form, provided
teamed with the GER in an iterative solution Helix’s fibers supported by Wicke Herfst
study for a mat foundation system to distribute Maver’s engineered calculations to confirm
gravity loads and stiffen against settlements dosage rates for strength and stiffness require-
movements, in balance with resisting buoy- ments in the mix design. Conventional
ancy loads. reinforcing was used to directly engage the
Options that were designed and studied bearing walls and to transfer load to the post
included a “dry” floodproofing tank with a bases for gravity and uplift load resistance.
structured reinforced concrete mat base and While the elastic shear design values were
side walls encapsulating a light fill; a com- Shown is the plan view of the basement bearing wall layout used to qualify the middle FCCF material
plete fill of a reinforced, sand-lightweight with moment distribution with uplift and gravity loads using RAM for horizontal shear transfer between the
Elements software.
concrete mat; and a coffered, ribbed “waffle” upper and lower concrete layer, to account
mat with poly-foam infill. While these mat for a range of anomalies including potential
designs limited differential settlements, the long-term sinking effect unforeseeable soft soil pockets, placement stoppage joints, catastrophic
from total weight and costs were excessive. The team also studied a flood levels, or weak existing brick wall spots, steel reinforcing stand-
two-way structured slab at grade with a hold-down pile grid system ees were used as a secondary, ductile and overload horizontal shear
over foam-based fill, but this solution was also not viable due to cost transfer mechanism.
and schedule constraints. Individual building mat foundation analytical models were devel-
While none of the more conventional options studied were viable, oped using RAM Elements. The three standard zones of subgrade
the analysis exercise illustrated that a structured fill system that used modulus values were developed and incrementally iterated with the
the full depth of the basement for stiffness could efficiently limit the GER using results for displacement and bearing stress review and
differential settlements to the comparatively small allowable design modification. The design team selected an overall design settlement
limits for the brick masonry walls. The infill solution also armored limit of 1-inch and an L/600 differential settlement limit as target
the basement walls above grade against hydrostatic pressures and design parameters. While these values exceeded recommendations, the
potential debris impact. Building off of the understanding that for structured mat and overall renovation budget allowed for sufficient
common concrete structural elements, a lot of the actual cementi- mitigation for any minor brick wall repairs that might be required.
tious material functions as a placeholder for reinforcing coverage or Analyses were run for each building using a range of mat materials
form-filler and is not used to resist stresses at a given location, the and subgrade stiffnesses. Design properties were varied globally to
team explored concepts similar to precast concrete sandwich or wood account for local “soft pocket” possibilities, as well as to address creep
structural insulated panels. effects. The hybrid sandwich mat foundation weighed in at an average
The final solution consisted of a structural mat foundation with 12-inch density of approximately 60 pounds per cubic foot, with the structural
thick “flange” top and bottom reinforced conventional concrete layers capability to distribute the loads from the bearing walls and the fills
with a lightweight foamed cellular fill (FCCF) shear-based mid-section. to address settlement implications and resist hydrostatic uplift to the
The material specifications were developed with the concrete contrac- walls serving as ballast.
tor, using a full-range water reducer The Architectural team of Goody
and a blended aggregate to enhanced Clancy and Freeman, French, Freeman
flowability of the fiber-rich layers given concurrently developed related
their inherent stickiness. Establishing designs and specifications for each
a 56-day test period allowed for a rela- option accounting for the moisture
tively higher water cement ratio and effects of below grade walls, build-
the use of fly ash to further allow for ing enclosures requirements, and
uniform placements from a limited plumbing implications. Additionally
amount of access locations. A range of staging plans were developed with the
foamed concrete strengths and densi- construction team, to allow for mat
ties was evaluated for required modulus installation to replace existing ground
and strength mechanical properties, floor framing serving as wall bracing
permeability, local availability, instal- without the need to temporary shor-
lation, and cure time logistics, and ing. As an integral part of the design
cost performance implications. The and pre-construction assessment
best overall fit for the project was a 32 and estimating work, material test-
pounds per cubic foot (pcf ) material ing and survey monitoring plans were
of 250 pounds per square inch (psi) developed. These included density,
strength for the middle fill. strength and modulus testing for the
The existing posts and complicated mix designs during construction for
cross wall geometries in the basement both layers. Surveys taken throughout
drove up the cost of conventional steel construction before and after the mat
reinforcing placement in the mat. To A schematic section of sandwiched mat foundation is detailed. pours found total settlements of up to

48 STRUCTURE magazine
 The basement bearing wall mat mid-layer reinforcing installation and standees in lower layer
The exterior wall with fill system and waterproofing measures is shown in progress at a crawl is in progress here. Existing wood floor framing is left in place for bracing until mid-layer is
space location after lower mat layer installed. Photo by Engineering Ventures, PC. sufficiently cured. Photo by Engineering Ventures, PC.

5/16-inch, averaging in the range of 3/16-inch, with associated dif- that caused previous damage. The sandwich mat foundation system
ferential settlements not exceeding established L/600 curvature levels. was found, and now tested, to be an economical solution that met
Settlement distress from the mat work has not been observed, and the State’s preservation goals. ■
uplift-inducing recent flooding has not resulted in any reported issues.
The preservation of the historic portions of the Waterbury State
Office complex for community and environmental well-being required Russ Miller-Johnson, PE, SE, is a Senior Engineer and former Principal with Engineering
the engagement of the Owner, Construction team and Design consul- Ventures in Burlington, Vermont (russmj@engineeringventures.com). Miller-Johnson has
tants in all project phases. Their collaboration, effort and expertise to served on a broad variety of projects and has designed with many types of materials
expand conventional solution boundaries is reflected in the facility’s throughout his sustainability-focused practice.
recent resilient performance against flood conditions similar to those

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M AY 2024 49
 NCSEA News
NCSEA Announces Its 2024-25 Board of Directors
The National Council of Structural Engineers Associations is pleased to announce its 2024-25 Board of Directors.
• Chris Cerino, PE, STV, Inc., will serve as its president, replacing Ryan Kersting, SE, Buehler Engineering, Inc., who will transition
to Past President for one year before exiting the Board.
• Jami Lorenz, SE, SMA Architecture + Design, P.C., was named vice president, and Ken O’Dell, SE, MHP, Inc. Structural Engineers,
as its secretary. Brian Petruzzi, PE, Meta, will serve his second year as Treasurer.
• Jeannette Torrents, PE, SE, JVA, Inc., will be Senior Director. The Senior Director is a new Board position that expands the Board’s
capacity to manage additional initiatives by extending the service of an experienced Director.
• Michelle Ryland, SE, RA, Klein & Hoffman, Inc., and Andrew Lovenstein, PE, SI, J.S. Held, LLC, have been newly appointed as
directors.
Board of Directors member terms began April 1, 2024, and will conclude on March 31, 2025. To learn more about the NCSEA Board,
please visit: https://www.ncsea.com/about-ncsea/ncsea-board/.

President Vice President Secretary Treasurer Senior Director Past President

Chris Cerino, PE Jami Lorenz, PE Ken O’Dell, SE Brian Petruzzi, PE Jeannette Torrents, PE, SE Ryan Kersting, SE
STV, Inc. SMA Architecture + MHP, Inc. Structural Meta JVA, Inc. Buehler Engineering, Inc.
Design Engineers

Director Director Director Director

Andrew Lovenstein, PE, SI Michelle Ryland, SE, RA Angela Stasulis, PE, SE Cervente D. Sudduth,
J.S. Held, LLC Klein & Hoffman, Inc. Shear Structural PE ENV SP
Dubois Consultants

NCSEA Webinars
Visit www.ncsea.com/education for the latest news
on upcoming webinars and other virtual events.

May 14 Cantilever Column Systems

May 21 Champlain Towers South—WJE Collapse Investigation
June 4 The Parametric Genome—A Structural Approach
June 13 Other Structures: KF Aerospace Spiral Stair

Purchase an NCSEA webinar subscription and get access to all the educational
content you’ll ever need! Subscribers receive access to a full year’s worth of live
NCSEA education webinars (25+) and a recorded library of past
webinars (170+) – all developed by leading experts;
available whenever, wherever you need them!
Recommendations for Performing Structural Engineering Quality Assurance Reviews

50 STRUCTURE magazine
 News from the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations

NCSEA Foundation Announces Its

2024-25 Board of Directors
The NCSEA Foundation is pleased to announce its 2024-25 Board
of Directors.
• Tricia Ruby, Ruby + Associates, a Degenkolb Company, will
serve as its President, replacing Emily Guglielmo, Martin/Martin
Consulting Engineers, who will transition to Past President.
• Tom Grogan was named Vice President.
• Ron Klemencic, Magnusson Klemencic Associates, and Lauren
Piepho, HGA, have been newly appointed as Directors.
Board of Directors member terms began April 1, 2024, and will President Vice President Past President
conclude on March 31, 2025. To learn more about the NCSEA Tricia Ruby Tom Grogan, PE, SE Emily Guglielmo, PE, SE
Foundation, please visit www.ncsea.com/foundation/about/. Ruby + Associates, a Martin/Martin
Degenkolb Company Consulting Engineers

Director Director Director Director Director Director

Ron Klemencic, PE, SE Judy Lio, Professor Jami Lorenz, PE Brian Petruzzi, PE Lauren Piepho, PE Sara Roberts, PE
Magnusson Klemencic School of Civil SMA Architecture + Meta HGA KPFF
Associates & Construction Design
Engineering, Oregon
State University

Call for NCSEA Awards Nominations

The NCSEA Special Awards are presented to members who have provided outstanding service and commitment to the association and to
the structural engineering profession. The categories for these awards include the NCSEA Service Award, the Robert Cornforth Award, the
Susan M. Frey NCSEA Educator Award, and the Susan A. Jorgensen Presidential Leadership Award.
NCSEA’s Structural Engineering Excellence (SEE) Awards highlight structural engineering ingenuity throughout the world and incred-
ible achievements in the profession. Projects are judged on innovative design, engineering achievement and creativity. NCSEA encourages
both structural engineers and structural engineering firms to submit their projects, providing an opportunity to showcase their successes
and accomplishments.
The awards are presented in the following categories:
• New Buildings < $30 Million
• New Buildings $30 Million to $80 Million
• New Buildings $80 Million to $200 Million
• New Buildings Over $200 Million
• New Bridges or Transportation Structures
• Forensic/Renovation/Retrofit/Rehabilitation Structures < $20 Million
• Forensic/Renovation/Retrofit/Rehabilitation Structures > $20 Million
• Other Structures
For more information on how to submit, visit www.ncsea.com/events/awards/. Entries are due Monday, June 17.
The winners will be honored at NCSEA’s Structural Engineering Summit, Nov. 5-8, in Las Vegas, in STRUCTURE magazine, in a profes-
sionally produced video, and on the NCSEA website.

M AY 2024 51
 SEI Update
Highlights From SEICon24
This past March, this year’s SEI annual conference SEICon24 held in collaboration with NASCC Steel Conference, showcased a fusion
of innovation, expertise, and collaboration within the structural engineering community. From the heart of San Antonio, attendees were
warmly greeted, setting the stage for a wide exchange of ideas and learning.
SEICon24 marked a significant milestone as SEI celebrated more than 90 Futures Fund scholarship winners. The participation of these
budding young professionals and students injected palpable energy into education sessions and events like our Meet the Leaders breakfast.
Education sessions offered attendees a wealth of knowledge and expertise, covering a spectrum of topics ranging from cutting-edge design
standards to emerging trends in the field. Notable addresses from SEI President Jerry Hajjar and SEI Fellow David Odeh underscored the
importance of sustainability, resilience, and innovation in structural design, reaffirming the community’s commitment to advancing the
field. Attendees were challenged to adapt their designs to meet the evolving demands of emerging global challenges. Celebrations were in
order as SEI President Jerry Hajjar was honored with the prestigious SSRC Lynn S. Beedle Award for lifetime achievement. This esteemed
recognition serves as a testament to Hajjar’s unwavering dedication to the field.
Against this backdrop of celebration and recognition including ASCE/SEI award winners and new SEI Fellows, SEICon24 emerged as a
rounding success, having fostered collaboration and strengthened the community’s commitment to advancing the art and science of structural
engineering. As we shift our focus to the future, excitement mounts for Structures Congress 2025 in Phoenix, which promises to continue
the tradition of ingenuity, education, and advancement.

ASCE/SEI Awardee Recognition

52 STRUCTURE magazine
 News of the Structural Engineering Institute of ASCE
“Thank you to the SEI Futures
Fund for their support to
attend SEICon2024! It was
very informative and inspiring,
expanding my horizon to the
new and emerging trends
developed by different
professors and industry leaders.
Meeting like-minded engineers,
networking during the event,
SEI Futures Fund Scholarship Recipients receiving feedback and
comments from the experts on
SEI Futures Fund my research topics, and learning
Give your gift of support to champion the future of structural engineering. Join us to invest techniques from successful
in the next generation of young professionals, supporting innovation, and advancing our
field towards new heights. leaders to sharpen soft skills
Learn more at www.asce.org/SEIFuturesFund. were highlights for me.”
—Sheila Ariana, S.M.ASCE

Remembering Jim Rossberg, Founding SEI Director

We are very sad to share the news that our friend and colleague Jim Rossberg passed away on March 25.
Rossberg launched the Structural Engineering Institute in 1997, one of ASCE’s first two Institutes. His list of accomplishments is
extensive, and his legacy lives on at SEI/ASCE.
Read more at https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/civil-engineering-source/article/2024/04/04/
jim-rossberg-who-launched-asce-7-the-structural-engineering-institute-and-the-societys-9-11-investigations-dies-at-65.

Congratulations
to O.H. Ammann
Research Fellowship
Recipients
• Sheila Ariana, S.M.ASCE, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst
• Pedram Bazrafshan, S.M.ASCE, Drexel
University
• Abdullah Braik, S.M.ASCE, Texas
A&M University
• Henrique Martins, S.M.ASCE,
University of Notre Dame
• Xukai Zhang, S.M.ASCE, Texas A&M
University
Learn more at O. H. Ammann Research
Fellowship in Structural Engineering | ASCE.

M AY 2024 53
 CASE in Point
Tools To Help Your Business Grow...
CASE has committees that work together to produce specific resources available to members, from contract
documents to whitepapers, to help your business succeed.
If you are a member of CASE, all CASE publications are free to you. NCSEA and SEI members receive a
discount on publications. Use discount code - NCSEASEI2022 when you check out.
Check out some of the new CASE Publications …

CASE Commentary D: Teaming Agreements

An important aspect of a joint project pursuit between a contractor or design professional and a structural engineer is
an agreement covering the activities of the parties prior to contract award. This agreement is commonly referred to as a
teaming agreement. Teaming agreements are often associated with design-build projects but can be used on any project
pursued jointly by two or more parties. Many organizations familiar to structural engineers provide a standard form teaming agree-
ment. This commentary summarizes the contents and typical clauses of the standard form teaming agreements offered by four of these
organizations:

• American Institute of Architects (AIA): Contract C102-2015

• Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee (EJCDC): Contracts D-580 and E-580
• Design-Build Institute of America (DBIA): Contract No. 580
• Consensus Docs: Contract Nos. 296 and 498.

Guideline 976-D: Commentary on 2020 Code of Standard Practice (COSP) for Steel Joists and Joist Girders

The Steel Joist Institute (SJI) Code of Standard Practice (Code or COSP) for steel joists and Joist Girders establishes trade practices
for the steel joist and Joist Girder industry. The practices presented in the COSP are “in accordance with good engineering practice,
tend to ensure safety in steel joist and Joist Girder construction, and are standard within the industry” (Section 1.1). Unlike the AISC
Code of Standard Practice, the SJI COSP is not a comprehensive summary of acceptable practices for all involved parties, including the
fabricators, erectors, structural engineers, owners and general contractors or construction managers. Rather the SJI COSP is focused
primarily on the characteristics and properties of joists and Joist Girders themselves and the structural engineer’s responsibilities in
properly specifying them for the purposes of design, bidding and installation.

The specification of joists and Joist Girders can provide an economical structural solution, but there are very specific requirements that
must be understood by all parties. The 2020 SJI COSP provides a practical approach to specifying joists, to introduce design terms for
use by the structural engineer, and to identify and clarify topics that may have been subject to varying interpretation in the past. This
commentary provides observations and analysis of specific aspects of the COSP that have a direct impact on the structural engineer’s
practice of specifying steel joists. A familiarity and understanding of the entire SJI COSP is necessary to ensure the proper design and
documentation of steel joists and Joist Girders. However, the following discussion highlights sections of particular interest to the
specifying structural engineer.

You can purchase these and other Risk Management Tools at

https://www.acec.org/member-center/get-involved/coalitions/case/resources/

Is there something missing for your business practice? CASE is committed to publishing the right tools for you.
Have an idea? We’d love to hear from you!

Follow ACEC Coalitions on LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/in/acec-coalitions

54 STRUCTURE magazine
 News of the Coalition of American Structural Engineers

Upcoming Events
Joint Town Hall Event with CASE, NCSEA, and SEI
Recording Available

Leadership from CASE, NCSEA, and SEI hosted a virtual joint town
hall event to discuss how the three organizations are progressing to
fulfill the Vision for the Future of Structural Engineering (adopted
April 2019), highlighting initiatives to advance the profession and
enhance member engagement.

The town hall is an opportunity to catch up on things you might have missed and gain insight into what the three organizations are doing
moving forward.

This complimentary event was recorded and is available to watch. Check out:

https://program.acec.org/joint-town-hall-event-case-ncsea-and-sei

Managing Small Projects Successfully

May 29-June 6, Online
For engineering firm project managers and firm principals, smaller
projects can be a core revenue driver. But, smaller projects can poten-
tially carry big risks that can be a drag on resources, profitability, and
client satisfaction. The good news is this course puts the right set of
skills in your toolbox to ensure that small projects deliver maximum
profits.

Register now for Managing Small Projects Successfully: How to

Prevent Small Projects from Becoming Big Problems and learn the
skills, hacks, secrets, formulas, trouble-shooters and problem-solving
that make engineering firm executives and clients delighted with small
project progress and outcomes.

From planning, scheduling and budgeting to team management and

business development, this live online program packs everything you
need into just 8 hours of instruction, broken into two-hour sessions to
work with your busy schedule. It is packed with proven insights from
the engineering project management experts at PSMJ Resources, Inc.

Earn up to 8 PDHs!

www.acec.org/event/managing-small-projects-successfully-how-
to-prevent-small-projects-from-becoming-big-problems-sum-
mer-2024/

CASE Summer Meeting

August 8-9, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Save the date! The CASE Summer Meeting will be in Minneapolis, Minnesota this year. The meeting will feature breakout sessions for the
CASE Committees, interactive discussions on structural engineering and business resources, education sessions, and more. Registration
coming soon. Follow the coalitions LinkedIn page to stay up to date. https://www.linkedin.com/in/acec-coalitions.

M AY 2024 55
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structural FORUM

It Is OK to Struggle
The structural engineering profession has many stressors, and asking for help is one of the strongest ways to cope.
By Chad S. Mitchell, PE, SE

T he structural engineering profession is full of stressors. Whether life

safety, deadlines or cost/budget concerns, there is never an absence
of stress. Even the best engineers have their challenges; they either
limits of physics to make our clients’ visions a reality. As technology
advances with BIM software, we are often asked to work through designs
that are constantly changing.
have tools to manage the stress or they likely hide their struggles. Per a With the increase in material costs since the pandemic, we often are
2016 Center for Disease Control and Prevention study, architects and asked to redesign multiple times, with multiple materials to get the
engineers had the fifth highest suicide rate at 32 per 100,000, double the budget to pencil. The design team is often under unrealistic deadlines
national rate at the time. As May is National Mental Health Awareness due to jurisdiction review backlogs.
Month, this article aims to provide insight and resources for taking care Firms that are understaffed require their engineers to take on more
of your mental health and supporting colleagues who may be struggling. projects. These engineers meet company goals by working longer hours
I personally have struggled as the years since COVID-19 turned our or rushing through processes—or both. With a looming enrollment cliff
world upside down. However, the pandemic was not the only cause of at engineering schools created by lower birth rates, reinforcements do
my struggles. I always had a lot on my plate, as people would say, but I not appear to be coming.
seemed to be able to manage the stressors. As my responsibilities grew, Adding the stresses from personal life, these all combine for an
my toolset to manage the stress grew at a much slower rate. Because I environment I have not seen in my two-decade career.
am one of those who hide their struggles, it may not have been noticed,
but it surely was happening.
The struggles have pushed me to the point of looking for change. I Solutions for Industry
love what we do. I consider engineering one of my love languages and
cannot imagine doing anything else. But I am unable to continue in the We as structural engineers cannot control most of the causes of our
industry in the long-term without changes. stress. We cannot control the nature of our industry: the deadlines,
the costs, the clients. We can, however, work on the tools we use to
manage the external pressures.
Stressors As firm leaders, we need to set our teams up for success. We need
to do a better job planning and properly staffing our projects,
Structural engineering contains so many variables that we need to work improving the training of new engineers so that the struggle is not
through, and the stakes are high. Too often, we are asked to push the technical shortcomings, and pushing back on clients when deadlines

M AY 2024 57
 are unreasonable and designs are unrealistic.
It is important to have a plan in place for employees having mental Helpful Resources
health issues. The plan can include something as simple as checking Suicide & Crisis Lifeline Call or Text 988
in on employees who seem to be struggling at work. It is not a National Suicide Prevention Lifeline 1-800-273-TALK
technical issue that they are struggling with, but the stresses of www.psychologytoday.com
their career. Simply checking in on an employee might be enough
to open up the discussion of mental health.
Being isolated and feeling alone in work can add to struggles. I
speak from experience. It is important to be there for our work
families. We may not always have the solution, but being able to allows the seismic loading to be reduced by increasing the response
be open with struggles is such a powerful step. modification factor (R-Factor). A system design with ductility
In times of mental health crisis, firms should have a plan on how considered, such as a special moment frame (R=8), has a third as
to react—similar to plans for other emergencies. much force as a moment frame that does not consider ductility
requirements (R=3).
We need to increase our R-Factors to combat the stressors we
Solutions for Me have in our profession. Build in ductility. Therapy is my ductility.
Talking about my struggles is my ductility. Writing this article is
My biggest step to working through my struggles was to be open my ductility.
and not hide them. I do not have the toolset at this time to manage
everything alone. Being honest with my supervisors that I was
struggling gave me an opening to start working on my mental Ask
health. A part of this is normalizing mental health struggles. I have
recently started seeing a therapist and it has been a game changer. If you are struggling like me, do not hide it. The old way was just
As engineers we think we can solve any problem. But there are to work harder; be stronger; don’t complain. This only attracts
just too many unknowns in the equation that is the human mind. more load. Let people know you are struggling. They can help.
In my last session, my therapist introduced me to a concept called Reaching out for help is not a weakness. It is one of the strongest
“Ask vs. Guess” culture. In Ask culture, people ask for help when they things you can do.
need it. Guess culture people worry that they will inconvenience Therapy is covered by many insurance plans. If it is not, I would
people by asking for help. A trap I fell into as my struggles started challenge firm leaders to find a way to encourage that mental health
was to hide them and try to dig out of the hole by myself. I thought be covered in some way. Firms pay for continuing education, why
that if I just worked a little more, I could get ahead. I was trying not an allowance for therapy? In the United States, most health
to do everything myself, thinking my coworkers were too busy to insurance is company-provided. Companies realized that healthy
have time to help me with my struggles. Being able to ask for help employees are productive employees. Mentally healthy employees
and delegate work is essential. I am just now understanding this, are even more productive. Invest in the mental health of your
and it has changed things greatly. employees. In the hiring struggles, it is financially prudent to do
“No” is a complete sentence. I have always had a hard time saying what you can to keep employees vs. finding new ones when they
no to things. I am a member of too many professional society leave due to burn out.
committees. Assess your commitments and focus on those that If you would like to start therapy, you can search for a therapist
you are truly passionate about, while passing on the opportunities in your area at www.psychologytoday.com.
that do not align as well with your interests and schedule. Normalizing mental health will make it easier for people to ask for
It is important to stay physically healthy as well. Take walks. Take help. Build local networks of friends, family, and coworkers who
actual lunch breaks. Do not eat lunch at your desk while working understand what stresses you deal with day today and that you can
on a Revit model. Take the time to recharge. These steps, pun count on in times of need.
intended, can help with mental health. Studies have shown a link Find ways to personally recharge. Practice meditation or try
between physical and mental health. Exercise increases levels of breathing exercises. When I am in a stressful situation, I tend to
dopamine, which has been shown to reduce depression and anxiety. forget to breathe. The simple step of focusing on breathing is a way
for me to bring down my anxiety. Mindfulness apps on your phone
also can help with anxiety. Firms should be open to offering ways
Increasing our R-Factor to allow employees to recharge or step away temporarily if needed.
A refreshed employee is much more efficient than a burned out
As structural engineers design a building for seismic, we have two one—and much more efficient than training a replacement.
approaches that can be used. One is to provide an over-strength Help is out there! And be the help others need! ■
factor, which increases the forces for which lateral resisting elements
need to be designed. Members are designed such their capacity is
much greater than the forces created by the maximum earthquake
event. This is analogous to the just work harder mentality. Chad S. Mitchell, PE, SE, is an Associate Principal at S. A. Miro, Inc. in Denver,
This works well for low seismic regions. But when in higher Colorado and past president of the Structural Engineers Association of Colorado
seismic areas, the overstrength approach creates loads that are (SEAC). He is currently SEAC’s delegate to the National Council of Structural
much higher than what would be reasonable for the design of Engineers Associations (NCSEA). Structural engineering is his love language, and
members. To account for this, ductility is introduced into the he is loving therapy as his way to work at tackling this crazy equation called life.
lateral system to dissipate energy from the earthquake. This ductility (cmitchell@samiro.com)

58 STRUCTURE magazine