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STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDELINES RC RESERVOIRS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This document describes the procedure to be used in the design of the structural elements of
reinforced concrete reservoirs at ground level (not elevated). The purpose of the guidelines
presented in this document is to speed up the design process, make it more uniform across
different engineers and less prone to mistakes and omissions. It is not the purpose of this
document to replace design codes, design courses or engineering judgement.

The document briefly reviews the components of the structural system that have to be
designed, the possible alternatives for each component, and then describes the design
procedure for each component.

For each component, the design guideline lists the elements to be designed, the checks to
be performed, the typical extreme values of the design variables, detailing hints, the relevant
code sections and the relevant references for more detailed information.

2.0 TYPES OF RESERVOIRS

The generally available concrete structural systems for large water reservoirs are:

2.1 CIRCULAR POST-TENSIONED PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

(using precast wall panels or cast in situ walls, with internal tendons or externally wrapped
strands). This system has several advantages, namely:

1. Reduced concrete volume.

2. Freedom from cracks (wall is under compression at all stages), hence reduced
maintenance costs.

The disadvantages of this system are:

1. It requires high quality materials and strict quality control during construction.
2. It requires provision for large movements at the base of the tank (order of 4cm for
the present case for sliding base condition), which complicates seismic resistance
(addition of restraining cables, or key). Alternatively, for fixed base conditions, the
large moments at the base may require vertical post-tensioning in addition to the
hoop post-tensioning.

2.2 CIRCULAR CAST-IN-SITU REINFORCED CONCRETE.

This system has some advantages, namely:

1. It requires commonly available materials and technology.

2. It can use hoop tension to reduce the amount of vertical reinforcement in the wall
structure.

However, in this particular case, with the tank dimensions involved, this system presents
several disadvantages:

1. Hoop action is relatively inefficient because of the large ratio of diameter to

height.
2. Shrinkage induced and thermally induced stresses are very large, as it is not
possible to provide expansion joints.
3. Amounts of reinforcement are very large.

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2.3 RECTANGULAR CAST-IN-SITU REINFORCED CONCRETE.

This system has several advantages, namely:

1. It requires commonly available materials and technology.

2. It requires very simple formwork.
3. It gives the designer freedom in locating expansion joints to minimize shrinkage
and thermal stresses.

The disadvantages of this system are:

1. It requires more concrete than the first system, particularly in the foundations.

3.0 RECTANGULAR REINFORCED CONCRETE RESERVOIRS

The structural design of a rectangular reinforced concrete reservoirs involves selecting a
configuration involving choices for several items as follows:

-Roof slab connected to walls or sliding on top of wall.

-Using expansion joints or not.
-Using flat or sloped floor and roof slabs.
-Selecting proportions for length, width, height and free board inside the tank.
-Selecting proportions for all structural elements.
-Selecting a design method (service or ultimate).
-Providing reinforcement for all structural elements.

3.1 DESIGN ITEMS AND ISSUES

Expanding on the items mentioned here above:

3.1.1 Roof slab connected to walls or sliding on top of wall:

One has to decide if the roof slab is connected to the perimeter walls or sliding on top of
them.

If the roof slab is connected to the perimeter wall, then the perimeter wall may be designed
as a propped cantilever and its flexural load is reduced. On the other hand, the roof slab is
subjected to in-plane tension load. Moreover, thermal expansion of the roof slab induces
additional moments at the base of the wall.

If the roof slab is sliding on top of the perimeter walls, then it does not receive in-plane
tension loads from the wall, and it does not apply imposed displacements on the wall. On the
other hand, the wall has to be designed as a cantilever wall.

A simplified analysis indicates that it is advantageous to connect the roof slab to the
perimeter wall if the height of the wall is greater than Hc, and to provide a sliding connection
otherwise, where:

Hc = ΔT .L Critical Height (m).

ΔT = Uniform temperature change applied on roof (C).
L = Largest plan dimension of reservoir (m).

For small tanks it may be advantageous to connect the roof slab to the perimeter walls, for
large tanks it is more advantageous to have the roof slab sliding on top of the wall.

3.1.2 Provision of expansion joints:

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One has to decide whether to provide expansion joints in the tank or not, this decision is
usually linked to the previous one. If the roof slab is connected to the perimeter wall, then
there is no need to provide expansion joints in the tank. If the roof slab is sliding on top of the
perimeter wall, then one can choose between providing expansion joints or not.

Providing expansion joints allows a reduction in the amount of secondary reinforcement

(shrinkage and temperature reinforcement). However, expansion joints are weak points in
the reservoir, particularly in seismic regions, and are a potential source of leakage if not
properly executed.

Expansion joints can generally be replaced by closure strips (shrinkage strips) that are
poured some time after completion of construction of the rest of the reservoir.

3.1.3 Overall proportions of reservoir:

The decision to use flat or sloping base and roof slabs shall be taken jointly with the
environmental department. Contractors prefer flat slab configurations with the necessary
slopes made of screed; construction is easier and there is more material use for billing…
Similarly, the length, width and depth of the tank could be optimized to minimize overall
material volumes, subject to site constraints on the reservoir plan configuration, and the inlet
and outlet levels. A square configuration in plan is preferred.

3.1.4 Perimeter wall:

The perimeter wall is subjected to the lateral hydrostatic pressure of the retained water
inside, the lateral pressure of the outside back-fill (if any), the vertical (and horizontal) load
from the roof slab resting on the wall, in-plane tension force from other walls, and stresses
induced from temperature change, temperature gradient and restrained shrinkage.

The design items for the perimeter wall are:

3.1.4.1 Wall thickness: The wall thickness may be constant in case of small reservoirs where
walls act as 2-way slabs (1/2<L/H<2) or as propped cantilevers, or variable where walls act
essentially as a cantilever.

Walls of constant thickness should not be less than 250mm for reservoirs above ground or
250mm for reservoirs below ground.

Walls of variable thickness should not be less than 300mm at top (for ease of placement of
concrete), and should not be less than Hw/8 at the base, where Hw is the depth of the
retained fluid.

The final thickness of the wall is determined from shear and flexure considerations. The
shear strength of the wall section at base should be sufficient to resist the applied shear
without shear reinforcement. The wall section at base should be sufficient so that service
flexural crack width does not exceed allowable limits, and the reinforcement ratio remain less
than ¼ the balanced reinforcement ratio ρ ≤ 1 ρ b .
4

3.1.4.2 Wall foundation proportions (toe, heel, thickness): The wall foundation shall be
designed to transmit to the underlying soil the loads applied to the wall and satisfy the
conditions of allowable soil bearing stress, full contact with the underlying soil, factor of
safety (FS) of 1.5 against sliding and overturning. For small reservoirs the base slab serves
also as the wall foundation.

For large reservoirs, the wall has a foundation distinct from the base slab (like a retaining
wall) that may be connected or not to the base slab. The wall foundation should satisfy the

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stability requirements against sliding and overturning on its own, with a factor of safety at
least greater than 1 and preferably greater than 1.5. If the latter limit cannot be achieved by
the footing alone, then shear keys may be added, or the footing may be connected to the
base slab and the connection designed for the required additional tension force to achieve
the required factor of safety against sliding.

3.1.4.3 Wall vertical reinforcement: The wall vertical reinforcement on the inside face is
designed to limit the reinforcement service stress to a value compatible with the allowable
crack width (0.2mm usually). The reinforcement spacing should be as low as possible with a
minimum of 125mm. There should be no more than 2 layers of reinforcement, and bar
diameter should preferably not exceed 25mm. The reinforcement ratio should satisfy the limit
ρ ≤ 1 4 ρ b . The wall reinforcement on the outer face is designed to the allowable flexural
service stress (0.4fy) or to limit crack width (0.2mm) in case of aggressive soil conditions.
The relation between crack width and flexural reinforcement stress is approximated by:

w = 3.3.c'.ε s
c' = c 2 + ( s / 2) 2
ε s = fs / Es

Where:
w = Crack width
c’ = Distance from reinforcement bar to middle of crack
c = Concrete cover
s = Bar spacing
es = Steel strain
fs = Steel stress
Es = Steel modulus of elasticity

3.1.4.4 Wall horizontal reinforcement: The wall horizontal reinforcement resists horizontal in-
plane tension due to hydrostatic pressure on neighboring walls (in small reservoirs only),
thermal gradient moments and in-plane tension due to uniform temperature drop and
shrinkage. The wall horizontal reinforcement shall be placed outside the vertical
reinforcement.

The in-plane hydrostatic force per unit height is:

1 γ .H 2 B 1
T= which is always less than T = γ .H 2
2 2.H + B 2

1
T should not be less than T = γ .H 2 for large reservoirs.
4
The moment per unit height induced by thermal gradient is:
α .Ecr.Ie.∇T α .Ec.h 2 .∇T
M = or M =
h 48
where:
g = Unit weight of the retained fluid.
H = Depth of retained fluid
B = Horizontal dimension of reservoir (largest).
a = Coefficient of thermal expansion (10^-5).
Ecr = Reduced modulus of elasticity of concrete
Ie = Effective moment of inertia of wall section

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∇T = Thermal gradient
Ec = Instantaneous modulus of elasticity of concrete
h = Wall section thickness

The horizontal reinforcement in walls shall be calculated based on the hydrostatic induced
tension and moment, and shall not be less than the minimum amounts required for shrinkage
and temperature reinforcement. The horizontal temperature and shrinkage reinforcement per
face need not exceed 1500mm2/m (0.005b.h/2, h< 0.6m; ACI-350-7.12.2, BS-8007-5.3.3).
The horizontal reinforcement ratio per face shall not be less than 0.0018 (BS-8007 2.6.2.3).

In addition, the horizontal reinforcement must satisfy BS8007 requirements for limiting crack
width in immature concrete to less than 0.2mm:

w max = s max .R.α .T 1

fct Db
s max =
fb 2.ρ
As _ face
ρ=
b. min(250, h / 2)
fct = 1.6 MPa
fb = 2.4 MPa

R = Restraint factor: 0.5 at base of wall, center section, 0.25 at min(2.4m, 0.2L) from
construction or expansion joint or base (Fig. A3, Table A3, BS8007).
T1 = Design temperature drop (T1 ~ 23 + 0.0345h(mm) or 9.7+0.0833h-4.10-5.h2)

Where

s max = maximum crack spacing

r = reinforcement ratio per face
fct = Tensile strength of concrete at 3 days.
fb = Bond strength between deformed bar and concrete.
Db = Bar diameter.

3.1.4.5 Wall foundation main reinforcement: The wall foundation main reinforcement shall be
designed for the applied design moments and the working stress compatible with the
allowable crack width. The reinforcement ratio per face shall not be less than 0.0018 (BS-
8007-2.6.2.3).

3.1.4.6 Wall foundation secondary reinforcement: Unless subjected to a direct tension force,
the horizontal reinforcement per face need not exceed 1500mm2/m or 0.0025b.h
(0.005b.h/2, h<0.6m; ACI-350-7.12.2, BS-8007-5.3.3). The horizontal reinforcement ratio per
face shall not be less than 0.0018 (BS-8007-2.6.2.3).

In addition, the horizontal reinforcement must satisfy BS8007 requirements for limiting crack
width in immature concrete to less than 0.2mm, where the same relations as in 3.1.3.4 need
to be used and T1=34C.

3.1.5 Wall Corners

The corners of the exterior perimeter wall require additional horizontal reinforcement to resist
opening moments and tension forces. The additional reinforcement need not extent beyond
the corner a distance larger than the wall height. The bar diameter should be sufficiently
small to develop the bar within the wall thickness at the corner (Db < T/20).

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3.1.6 Floor slab:

The floor slab may be of constant thickness, or variable thickness with a thickening below the
columns supporting the roof slab.

The design items for the floor slab are:

3.1.6.1 Floor slab thickness: The floor slab thickness should not be less than 250mm or
Lc/33, where Lc is the spacing of columns. The floor thickness is determined from
considerations of punching shear, beam shear, beam flexure, and development length of
column longitudinal reinforcement.

3.1.6.2 Floor slab reinforcement: Floor slab reinforcement is designed such that the service
crack width under flexure and tension is less than the allowable crack width (0.2mm usually).
Unless subjected to a direct tension and large moments, the horizontal reinforcement per
face need not exceed 1500mm2/m or 0.0025b.h (ACI-350-7.12.2, BS-8007-5.3.3). The
horizontal reinforcement ratio per face shall not be less than 0.0018 (BS-8007-2.6.2.3).

3.1.6.3 Floor slab contraction, construction and expansion joints: The floor slab should be
provided with contraction and construction joints, and possibly expansion joints. The spacing
of contraction joints should not exceed 20.h (where h is the floor slab thickness).
Construction joints shall be fitted with shear keys only if the slab thickness exceeds 400mm.

3.1.7 Roof slab:

The roof slab is generally of reinforced concrete solid slab construction. It shall be designed
as a two-way slab, with or without drop panels or column capitals. Contractors generally
prefer to have a flat soffit without drop panels or column capitals, a flat top and provide the
drainage slope with screed.

The roof slab thickness is determined from considerations of punching shear, beam shear
and beam flexure.

The bottom reinforcement of the roof slab needs to be designed to keep service crack width
within allowable limits (0.2mm usually). The top reinforcement of the roof slab may be
designed to allowable service stress (0.6fy or a crack width of 0.25mm). The top
reinforcement ratio shall not exceed 0.375rb (ACI-350-13.5.3.3), and the slab thickness shall
satisfy the requirements of ACI-350-13.5.3.3 concerning punching shear.

3.1.8 Roof support columns:

The roof support columns could be square or circular in square reservoirs, or could be
rectangular in rectangular tanks. The minimum column dimension need not be smaller than
H/15 (where H is the column height) or 300mm.

3.1.9 Baffle walls:

Baffle walls could be made either of reinforced concrete or of glass fiber reinforced concrete
(GRC). In the former case, they could be designed as bearing walls that replace columns. In
the latter case, they are non-structural members supported by columns around them. In both
cases, baffle walls need to be checked for lateral uniformly distributed fluid load
corresponding to twice the sloshing depth or twice the free board.

3.1.10 Inlet and outlet chambers:

Inlet and outlet chamber walls are designed as 2-way slabs subjected to uniformly distributed
loads from soil pressure or fluid pressure, or pipe hydraulic loads. The minimum wall
thickness is determined from considerations of punching shear (pipe baffles), beam shear
and beam flexure.

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3.2 DESIGN LOADS:

In addition to the self weight of the structure itself, the following loads shall be assumed in
the design, unless specific loads are assigned.

3.2.1 Dead loads:

Roof waterproofing, insulation, screed and protection: 380 kgf/m2.

3.2.2 Live loads:

Water tank roof: 100 kgf/m2.

3.2.3 Environmental loads:

3.2.3.1 Seismic excitation: Seismic excitation causes sloshing of the retained fluid, and
inertial forces in the roof and walls of the tank.

Sloshing of the retained fluid increases the required free board of the tank and increases the
hydrostatic fluid force. The increase in hydrostatic force is accounted for by applying the
rules of ACI-350.3-1 for calculating convective mass, impulsive mass and their inertial forces.
For reservoirs of usual proportions in the Middle-East, these forces are never governing.

Conventional seismic analysis is applied to the roof and supporting columns, mainly to
determine the required expansion joint width (if any) between roof sections, and to design
column reinforcement and check punching shear at both ends of the column.

Base rock seismic acceleration: As per location

Site magnification factor: As per geotechnical recommendations
Strength reduction factor for columns and walls: R=3

3.2.3.2 Uniform Temperature change: Temperature variations induce imposed deformations

in the structure, which if restrained from occurring will cause thermal stresses and forces.
The magnitude of thermal stresses or forces depends on the effective stiffness of the
structure (EA or EI), which decreases rapidly with cracking.

The effective modulus of elasticity to use is a reduced one, due to the slow rate of application
of temperature induced forces. Typically, the effective modulus of elasticity is taken as ½ the
instantaneous modulus of elasticity, defined in the code: Eeff=1/2.Ec

The effective cross-section area or inertia is much less than the uncracked cross-section
area or inertia (1/3 to ½). Typically, a stiffness reduction factor of ½ is used for cross-section
and inertia. Even with these refinements, the calculated thermally induced forces may require
significant amount of reinforcement. However, it is not necessary to exceed the amount of
reinforcement calculated by applying the provisions of BS8007 section 5.3.3 and Appendix A
(summarized in section 3.1.3.4 above).

If the provisions of BS8007 section 5.3.3 and Appendix A (summarized in section 3.1.3.4
above) are applied, there is no need to consider the uniform temperature case.

3.2.3.3 Temperature gradient: The exterior walls and roof need to be designed for a thermal
gradient (typically high temperature on the outside face, in the Middle East). The temperature
difference, of the order of 25C to 30C occurs in the first 30cm of thickness and has a non-
linear distribution. For simplicity, a linear gradient is assumed through the thickness of the
top slab, and through the walls. The corresponding moment is calculated as indicated in
section 3.1.3.4 above.

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3.3 DESIGN LOAD CASES

The design load cases to consider are:

3.3.1 DL (Dead load):

DL consists of the self weight of the structure.

3.3.2 SDL (Superimposed dead load):

SDL consists of the superimposed loads permanently applied to the structure (waterproofing,
screed, insulation, etc…).

3.3.3 L (Live load):

LL consists of the live load applied on the roof or around the tank (construction and
maintenance crew and machinery).

3.3.4 F (Fluid load):

F consists of the hydraulic pressure applied by the retained fluid on the external walls, base
slab and baffle walls.

3.3.5 H (Soil load):

H consists of the loads applied by the backfill soil around the tank on the perimeter wall and
the foundations of that wall. This load is applied separately from the fluid load F to obtain
maximum effect.

3.3.6 E (Earthquake load):

E consists of earthquake loads, generally applied on the structure of the tank and contains
subcases for each principal direction. The principal directions are combined as SRSS or as
main direction +/-0.3 of the orthogonal direction.

3.3.7 T (Thermal gradient):

T consists of the thermal gradient load applied on the roof slab and the perimeter walls.

3.4 DESIGN LOAD COMBINATIONS:

There are design load combinations for allowable stress design and for ultimate strength
design. Typically, we shall use allowable stress design for water retaining reservoirs.
In the following D=DL+SDL.

3.4.1 Allowable stress design load combinations:

S1=D+F
S2=D+H+F+L
S3=D+H+T+L
S4=D+H+F+0.7E
S5=0.6D+H
S6=0.6D+H+0.7E

In the above combinations no increase in allowable stresses shall be permitted.

3.4.2 Ultimate strength design load combinations:

U1=1.4D+1.4T
U2=1.4D+1.7L
U3=1.4D+1.7L+1.7H
U4=1.05D+1.05T+1.28L
U5=1.05D+1.28L+1.40E
U6=0.9D+1.7H

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U7=0.9D+1.43E

For flexure and shear:

U8=1.82D+2.21L+2.21F
U9=1.17D+2.21F

For hoop tension:

U10=2.31D+2.81L+2.81F
U11=1.49D+2.81F

The corresponding strength reduction factors are f = 0.90 for tension and flexure, 0.85 for
shear, 0.70 for compression and flexure as per ACI350-9.3.2.

3.5 DESIGN CODES AND REFERENCES:

• American Concrete Institute Committee 350 “Environmental Engineering Concrete
Structures”.
• American Concrete Institute Committee 350 “Seismic Design of Liquid-Containing
Concrete Structures” ACI350.3-01.
• American Concrete Institute Committee 224 “Joints in Concrete Structures”.
• American Concrete Institute Committee 224 “Cracking of Concrete Members in Direct
Tension”.
• British Standard “Design of Concrete Structures for Retaining Aqueous Liquids” BS
8007-1987.
• US Army Corps of Engineers “Retaining and Flood Walls” EM 1110-2-2502.