Chapter 9

Muscular Training: Foundations and Benefits

1) Anatomical Systems: Muscular Training
(i) SKELETAL SYSTEM
Introduction to Muscular Training in ACE IFT Model:
 Muscular training, also known as resistance or strength training, is integral to the ACE Integrated Fitness
Training® Model.
 Benefits encompass enhanced skeletal muscle strength, improved bone mineral density (BMD), and better
blood glucose regulation.
 ACE® Certified Personal Trainers require knowledge of underlying anatomy and physiology for safe program
design and implementation.
Skeletal Muscles: A type of voluntary, striated muscle tissue attached to the skeleton that provides movement at the joints when it
contracts.
BMD: A measure of the amount of minerals (mainly calcium) contained in a certain volume of bone.
Glucose: A simple sugar, the form in which all carbs are used as the body’s principal energy source.

Skeletal System Overview:

 Human skeleton: active, living tissue.
 The human skeleton, consisting of 206 bones, serves multiple functions:
 Structural support (to soft tissues)
 Facilitation of movement
 Organ protection
 Hemopoiesis (blood cell formation)
 Bones provide attachment sites for muscles, enabling movement at joints (articulations) (when muscles
contract).
 Key bones that protect organs include skull (brain), vertebrae (spinal cord), ribcage (heart and lungs), and
pelvis (urinary bladder and reproductive organs).
 Bones store essential minerals like calcium and phosphorus, as well as sodium, potassium, other minerals and
fat.
 Bones are dynamic structures, continually breaking down (to release mineral and other substances into the
blood) and rebuilding (to offer flexible yet sturdy support).
 Post-birth, bones produce blood cells (e.g., red blood cells) within the circulatory system.
Bone Classification by Shape:
 Bones categorized by shape: long, short, flat, or irregular.
 Examples:
 Long bones (e.g., femur, humerus, ulna, tibia, fibula and phalanges) are longer than wide, pivotal for
limb movement.
 Short bones (e.g., carpals, tarsals) are roughly equal in length and width.
 Flat bones (e.g., ribs, sternum) are thin and curved.
  Irregular bones (e.g., hip bones, vertebrae) exhibit diverse shapes.
Bone Composition:
 Bones comprise two main types:
 Compact (cortical) bone: Dense bone found in shafts of long bone and vertebral endplates 75% of
skeleton, provides strength, tendon attachments, and organ protection without excessive weight.
 Spongy (trabecular) bone: 25%, cancellous bones composed of thin plates that form honeycomb like
inner structure, large surface area for mineral exchange and structural support.
 Trabecular bone prevalent in vertebrae and ends of long bones (sites under continuous stress from motion and
weight bearing), and are prone to fracture in conditions like osteoporosis.
Tendon: A band of fibrous tissues forming the termination of a muscle and attaching the muscle to the bone.
Osteoporosis: A disorder, primarily affecting postmenopausal women, in which BMD decreases and susceptibility to fractures
increases.

Long Bone Structure:

 Typical long bone consists of diaphysis (shaft), proximal and distal epiphyses (ends, wider than the shaft), and
medullary cavity (hollow space).
 Medullary cavity (Yellow bone marrow cavity): used for storage site for fat, lined with thin connective tissue
layer called endosteum.
 Diaphysis and outer epiphyses are cortical bone; trabecular bone concentrated in central epiphyseal regions.
 Some long bones contain ‘red marrow' in trabecular tissue of epiphyses: essential for blood cell production
(manufacture and maturation).
 In growing individuals (children & young adults), epiphyseal cartilage ("growth plate") separates diaphysis and
epiphysis, where bone growth occurs.
 In adults, this cartilage is replaced by bone (epiphyseal line).
 Periosteum, a dense (double layered) connective tissue layered with blood vessels and nerves, covers outer
bone surface and nourishes the bone.
Proximal: Nearest to the midline of the body or point of origin of a muscle.
Distal: Farthest from the midline of the body, or from the point of origin of a muscle.
Cartilage: A smooth, semi-opaque material that absorbs shock and reduce friction between the bones of joints.

Bone Remodeling:
 Continuous bone breakdown and restoration in adults, with most of the skeleton replaced approximately every
10 years.
 Remodeling is responsible for reshaping and rebuilding of skeleton; driven by signals from osteoblasts (bone
builders/forming cells) and osteoclasts (bone breakers/cell that reabsorbs or erodes bone mineral), the
specialized bone cells.
 Function: Repairs damage from repeated stress, prevents excessive aging of bone (old bones loses resilience
and become brittle) and regulates mineral levels (releasing calcium and phosphorus when these mineral -are
deficient or need is increased during pregnancy or lactation) .
 Although genetic, physical activity influences bone size and shape via Wolff's law: "form follows function." This
laws states that bone is capable of increasing it’s strength in response to stress (exercise) by laying down more
bone.
  Bones respond to stressors (from exercise) by increasing density (laying down more bone tissue), while
inactivity leads to mineral loss and reduced density.
 Maintaining adequate bone density is vital for adults.

CATEGORIES OF SKELETON SYSTEM

(A) Axial Skeleton
 Bones of head, neck and trunk. 80 of 206 bones are axial skeleton (74+6 Auditory Ossicles)
 Components: Skull, vertebral column, sternum, ribs.
 Functions: Main Axial support, CNS (Brain & spinal cord) and thoracic organ protection.
 Vertebral column: 33 vertebrae categorized by regions:
o Cervical vertebrae (upper-region/neck): 7, smallest and most delicate 7

o Thoracic vertebrae (mid-region): 12, each attached to a rib 19

o Lumbar vertebrae (lower region): 5 24

o Sacrum (fused vertebrae): 5 25

o Coccyx (fused vertebrae): 4 26

 Lumbar vertebrae: Largest and heaviest, support ground reaction (Gravitational pull) and axial compression
forces.
 Fundamental knowledge of structure of vertebral column is important as mechanics of spine effect exercise
performance.
(B) Appendicular Skeleton:
 Consists of 126 bones.
 Components (Definition): Upper & lower limb bones, shoulder(pectoral) & hip(pelvic) girdles.
 Means of articulation with Axial Skeleton:
o Shoulder girdle (Scapula and Clavicle), minimal attachment at sternum (little support for upper body
structures – sufficient as don’t bear body weight), = allows wide shoulder movement
o Pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium, pubis collectively os coxae), supports body weight, extensively attaches to
axial skeleton via sacrum.
 Pelvic girdle united by strong pubic symphysis joint made of cartilage. *

(C) Articulations (Joints):

 Meaning: Junctions where bones meet.
 Types: Fibrous (immovable), cartilaginous (limited/no movement), synovial (freely movable).
 Fibrous joints: Tightly held by fibrous connective tissue (e.g., skull sutures, distal ends of tibia-fibula):
immovable/little to no movement; also called Synarthrodial (syn=together, arthro = joint)
 Cartilaginous joints: Connected by cartilage, limited/no movement (e.g., pubic symphysis - junction of the two
pubic bones, vertebral symphyses - junctions between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae).
  A characteristic of cartilaginous bone is the fibrocartilaginous pad, or disk, that separates two bones. Also
called *symphysis.
 Synovial joints: Freely movable, classified as diarthroses (Through joints). Most common type.
 Four traits of Synovial joints:
o Articular cartilage (Hyaline cartilage) - Covers bone ends

o Articular capsule - Encloses joint with double layer membrane. Outer layer (composed of dense fibrous
tissues) is called Ligaments (strong, fibrous tissue that connects one bone to another); strengthen the
joint. Inner layer is Synovial membrane.
o Synovial membrane - Inner layer supplied with capillaries, produces thick fluid (synovial fluid)

o Synovial fluid - Nourishes articular cartilage and lubricates the join surface.

 Some synovial joints have articular disks; made of fibrocartilage (e.g., menisci in knee); absorb shock, stabilize,
direct synovial fluid to aid nourishment, increase joint contact area thereby reducing joint pressure.
 Movements of Synovial Joints:
Anatomical Position:
 Reference position for describing body structures.
 Erect posture with head, eyes, palms facing forward (anterior), feet close, toes pointing forward, and arms
hanging by the sides.
Anterior: Anatomical term meaning towards the front (Ventral)

Synovial Joint Movement:

 Influenced by shape of bony structures and articular surfaces.
 Joints move around axis of rotation.
 Axis of rotation: Imaginary line about which joint rotates, forms right angle/perpendicular to the plane of
movement/motion.
Plane of movement: Conceptual planes in which the body moves, Sagittal, Frontal and Transverse. Used to describes anatomical
movement.

Types of Joints:
 Uniplanar (Uniaxial Joints):
o Move in one plane; have one axis of rotation;

o Called "hinge" joints, examples: Ankles, elbows.

 Biplanar (Biaxial Joints):

o Move in two planes.

o Examples: Foot (calcaneocuboid joint), knee, hand, wrist.

 Multiplanar (Triaxial Joints):

o Move in three axes of rotation/planes.

o Examples: Hip, thumb, shoulder.

Planes of Movement
  Sagittal Plane:
o The longitudinal plane that divides the body into right and left portions.

o Movement is anteriorly and posteriorly around an imaginary horizontal line (passes through side to
side; mediolateral axis of rotation).
 Frontal Plane:
o A longitudinal section, divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.

o Runs at a right angle to the sagittal plane.

o Movement is laterally and medially around the anteroposterior axis (passes anterior to posterior).

 Transverse Plane:
o Imaginary lines divide the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) parts. Aka Horizontal plane.

o Movement around a longitudinal axis.

Major Joint Movements:

 Gliding, Angular, Circumduction and Rotation are Synovial joint movements.
 Gliding:
o Surfaces of 2 adjoining bones move back and forth upon each other

o Example: articulation btw head of rib & body of associated vertebra, btw 2 vertebras, Wrist and Ankle.

 Angular Movements:
o Increase or decrease in angle btw 2 adjoining bones.

o Four defined movements: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction.

o Flexion: Two bones forming a joint are brough closer together; Decreases joint angle (in sagittal plane)
(e.g., elbow flexion).
o Extension: Straightening/extending a joint. Increases joint angle in sagittal plane (e.g., knee extension).

o Abduction: Movement away from midline of body (e.g., lifting arm or leg).

o Adduction: Movement toward midline of body (e.g., lowering arm or leg).

Note: 1) Fingers/toes; reference point of abduction and adduction is midline of hand and foot respectively.
2) Generally all abduction and adduction movement occur in Frontal Plane.

 Circumduction:
o Sequential combination of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction.

o Creates circular motion (e.g., swimmer's arm circles).

o Hip and shoulder joints are capable of incorporating all 4 angular movement i.e., Circumduction.

 Rotation:
o Motion around a central longitudinal axis.

o Example:
 1. Internal (medial) rotation: Anterior (of Humerus/femur) surface moves inward; External
(lateral) rotation: Anterior (of Humerus/femur) surface moves outward.
2. Supination and Pronation: (For radioulnar joint)
Supination: Forearm rotates outward/external rotation of forearm, palm faces anteriorly;
Pronation: Forearm rotates inward/Internal rotation of forearm, palm faces posteriorly. (Radius
cross diagonally over the ulna)
3. Rotation of spine.
o Rotation around longitudinal axis occurs in transverse plane.

Major Joints in the Body

Type of Joint Sub Type Joint Names Body Movement Number of
Part Axes
Condyloid Metacarpophalangeal Foot Flexion and extension; 2
(no gliding Metatarsophalangeal Hand abduction and adduction;
movement) Radiocarpal Wrist circumduction
Hinge Talocrural Ankle Planter Flexion and 1
Ulna and Humerus Elbow Dorsiflexion
Flexion and Extension

Pivot Proximal radioulnar Forearm Pronation and supination 1

Saddle Carpometacarpal Thumb Flexion and extension; 3
Synovial abduction and adduction;
circumduction; opposition
Ball and Socket Shoulder, Hip - Flexion and extension; 3
abduction and adduction;
circumduction; internal and
external rotation
Modified Hinge Tibia and femur Knee Flexion and Extension, 2
internal and External
rotation
Cartilaginous - Ribs and sternum Chest Slight movement possible 0

Fibrous - Btw Distal Tibia and Fibula Calf Slight movement possible 0

ACENote: Subtype of Synovial Joints:

 Condyloid joint: Two oval-shaped surfaces, one convex and one concave.
 Hinge joint: cylindrical surface and groove.
 Pivot joint: Ring and peg.
 Saddle joint: Two saddle-shaped surfaces.
 Ball and socket joint: Ball-shaped head and cup-shaped socket.