Introduction to Welding Technology

and Codes Course

Module 1
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

Overview

 Review the outline of the two-week course

 Course topics
 Instructors
 Describe learning objectives – what you will get out of this
course
 Provide an overview of the field of welding technology and
engineering and how it is applied in welding codes
 Get to know the other participants in the course

1-2
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

Module 1 Learning Objectives

 What you will learn from this course

 Types of welding processes – advantages and disadvantages
 How these processes work (or don’t work !!)
 Metallurgy of welding
 Principles of welding design – weld types and designations, weld
properties, and failure modes
 Weldability – why some welds fail and how to avoid failure of welds in
certain materials
 NDE techniques – advantages and limitations, and how to select
 Basic codes and standards including weld procedure and welder
qualification requirements
 What you won’t learn from this course
 How to weld !!

1-3
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

Expectations

 Periodic Review
 Discussion and review of modules when time permits
 No final exam requirement

 Participation – please ask questions !!

 Feedback
 Surveys on individual topics
 End of course survey

1-4
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

What is a Weld?

“A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals produced

either by heating the materials to the welding temperature,
with or without the application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone and with or without the use of
filler material”
-AWS A3.0 2001

1-5
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

What is Welding?

 Welding refers to an extensive group of manufacturing

processes
 Welding
 Adhesive bonding
 Brazing and Soldering

1-6
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

What is Welding?

 These processes join a wide range of materials

 Metals  Composites
 Ceramics  Electronic materials
 Polymers

1-7
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

What is Welding?

1-8
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

Welding in Our Society

1-9
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

Welding in the Nuclear Industry

 Reactor vessels and internals

 Steam generators
 Pressurizers
 Piping systems
 Nozzles
 Pumps
 Valves
 Construction steel
 Rebar

1-10
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

What is Welding Engineering?

 Several processes capable of performing a job

 Cost
 Fitness-for-service
Process Industrial Electrical
Technologies Engineering Engineering
Materials Mechanical Nondestructive
Science Engineering Evaluation
1-11
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

What Will You Learn ?

Duration
Topic Instructor
(Days)
Introduction 1 Steve Levesque

Welding and Cutting Processes 2.5 David Phillips

Welding Metallurgy 1.5 John Lippold

Welding Design 1 Avi Benetar

Weldability 1 Suresh Babu

Non-Destructive Examination 2 Roger Spencer

Summary 0.5 Matt Boring

1-12
Module 1 – Introduction Introduction

Get to Know the Other Course Participants

 Name and affiliation

 Why you are here?

 Expectations

 Other relevant background

1-13
Welding and Cutting Processes
Overview

Module 1A
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Fusion Welding

1-15
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Solid-State Welding

1-16
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Brazing and Soldering

1-17
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 A.K.A. stick welding

 Consumable metal electrode

with flux coating
 Flux forms a shielding atmosphere
and slag
 Simple and portable equipment

 Most widely used process in the

world
 Applicable to several nuclear
applications especially repair

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-18
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

 A.K.A. tig welding

 Non-consumable tungsten
electrode
 Can be performed with or without
filler material
 Gas shielding
 Manual, semi-automatic,
automatic

 Applicable to several nuclear

applications, widely used in
orbital welding and overlays

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-19
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) & Cutting

 Non-consumable electrode is used to create a plasma heat

source
 Can be used with or without filler
metal

 Applicable to many metals and

competes with GTAW in many
applications

 Widely used for cutting thinner

metals

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-20
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) &

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
 A.K.A. mig welding

 Continuously fed electrode

 Semi-automatic or automated
 Shielding through gas, flux or both
 Several transfer modes

 Applicable to several components,

although it is not used as widely
as SMAW and GTAW

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-21
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

 Continuously fed metal electrode

with a granular flux shielding
 Arc is “submerged” and not visible
to the user

 High deposition rates make this

technology attractive to large
component fabricators

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-22
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Electroslag Welding (ESW)

 Pieces welded by molten slag that

melts the filler metal and the
surfaces of both workpieces to be
welded
 ESW is not a true arc process

 Applicable to carbon and low alloy

steels and some stainless steels
 Used on large single pass welds
 Can be used in cladding applications

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-23
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Stud Welding

 Metal stud welded to the workpiece through a rapid discharge

of electrical energy
 Small heat affected zone

 Applications include construction

supports and also temporary
attachment of heat treatment
blankets

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-24
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Oxyfuel Welding, Heating & Cutting

 Oxygen used with a fuel (Acetylene,

MAPP, Propane) to create a heat
source
 Welding, heating, cutting applications

 Widely used to preheat and post weld

heat treatment

 As a cutting process it can be used to

cut through very thick section steel

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-25
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

High Energy Density Welding

 Power density (power / area) is significantly higher than that

achieved by the common arc welding processes
 Low heat input
 High production rates
 Accurate positioning
required
 High capital costs

 Can be used on a wide

variety of metals
 Laser cutting is widely used

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-26
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Friction Welding

 Rotational Friction Welding Processes

 Inertia and Continuous Drive Friction Welding
 Ideal for round bars and shapes
 One part is rotated at high speed relative to
other part
 Parts are brought together, axial force is
applied creating frictional heating
 Softened material is upset into the “flash”,
which is later removed

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-27
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Ultrasonic Welding

 A welding process that produces a

solid-state weld through the
application of high frequency
vibrations combined with low
pressure
 Negligible heating of parts
 Minimal deformation

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-28
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Resistance Welding

 Resistive heating through the

workpiece
 With or without melting
 Various amounts of pressure

 Applications
 Cladding
 Seam welds

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-29
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Brazing and Soldering

 Joining processes which utilize a

filler metal which melts below the
melting temperature of the base
metal
 Brazing: filler metal liquidus > 450ºC
 Soldering: filler metal liquidus < 450ºC
 Joint formation
 Filler metal melting
 Joint gap filled by capillary action
 Filler metal solidifies

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

1-30
Module 1 – Introduction Welding and Cutting Overview

Welding Automation

Semi-automatic Automatic

Machine
(Mechanized)
1-31
Welding Metallurgy Overview

Module 1B
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Physical Metallurgy Concepts

 Atomic Bonds
 Metallic Bonding
Fe is the solvent
 Elastic modulus
C is the solute
 Crystal Structures
 Defects
 Solid Solutions
 Phase Diagrams
γ  α + Fe3C
 Diffusion γ
γ
 Strengthening Mechanisms γ

Grain Size
Temperature
 α+γ γ + Fe3C
α
 Solid Solutions
 Cold Work (Strain Hardening) α + Fe3C
γ
γ
 Precipitation
Fe Composition C

1-33
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Physical Metallurgy Concepts

 Atomic bonds
 Ionic, covalent, metallic
 Metallic bonding
 Free electrons + Attractive force
 Elastic behavior (Coulomb attraction)

Total
force

Force
Metallic Bonding Bond
Distance

Metal ions
+ - + - + - + Length

“Sea” of
- + - + - + - Repulsive force
-
+ - + - + - +
electrons

1-34
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Physical Metallurgy Concepts

 Crystal structures
 BCC
 Iron & ferritic steels BCC
 FCC
 Ni alloys & Al alloys
 HCP
 Ti (alpha alloys) & Zr

FCC

HCP

1-35
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Physical Metallurgy Concepts

 Solid solutions
 Substitutional
 Ni-Cu alloys
 Interstitial Ni is the solvent
 Steels Cu is the solute

Substitutional

Fe is the solvent
C is the solute

Interstitial

1-36
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Physical Metallurgy Concepts

 Defects
 Dislocations & grain boundaries Grain boundaries
 Diffusion
 Vacancy, interstitial, interdiffusion
 Strengthening mechanisms
 Grain size reduction
 Solid solutions
 Strain hardening (cold work)
 Precipitation hardening
Cold work expressed in
terms of area reduction:

 Ainitial − A final 
%CW =   *100
 Ainitial 

1-37
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Phase Diagrams

Liquidus line

Solvus line

L
Temperature

L+α
L+β
α β

Solidus line
α+β

A B
Composition
1-38
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Phase Transformations

 TTT diagrams describe the

nucleation and growth behavior
at a hold temperature

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 1-39

Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Welding Metallurgy

 The cooling rate and chemical

composition affect the
microstructure of the welded Chemical Thermal
joint Composition Cycle
 The mechanical properties of a
welded joint depend on the
microstructure produced by
welding Microstructure

Mechanical
Properties

1-40
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Solidification

 Nucleation
 Heterogeneous nucleation is dominate in welding
 Occurs from a foreign particle (oxide, nitride, sulfide, etc.)
 Weld pool shape
 Teardrop vs. elliptical

Teardrop

Elliptical

1-41
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Regions of a Fusion Weld

Fusion
Boundary

Composite Region
True Heat-
Affected Zone

Unmixed Zone Partially Melted

Zone

1-42
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Fusion Zone Principles

 Dilution
 Amount of melted base metal mixed
with the filler metal
 Significant effect on microstructure
and properties
a+c
 May exhibit three regions Dilution (%) =
a+b+c
x 100
 Composite zone
 Transition zone Austenitic
Stainless Steel
 Unmixed zone
Weld
Metal Former
UMZ

SEM
1-43
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

True Heat-Affected Zone

 All metallurgical reactions occur in the solid-state

 Strongly dependent on weld thermal cycle and heat flow
conditions
 Solid-state metallurgical reactions
 Recrystallization
 Grain growth
 Allotropic/phase transformations
 Dissolution/overaging of precipitates
 Formation of precipitates
 Formation of residual stresses
 Degradation often associated with HAZ

1-44
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Alloys

 Carbon steels
 Stainless steels
 Ni-alloys
 Al-alloys
 Ti-alloys
 Cu-alloys
 Polymers

1-45
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Welding Metallurgy of Carbon Steels

1-46
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Local Hardening/Softening

 Thermal cycles and material composition may change the

mechanical properties locally
 The extent of softening and hardening
will depend on the alloy and the
welding conditions
 Preheat
 Reduce cooling rate of weld
 Reduces hydrogen cracking
susceptibility
 Post-weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
 Reduce risk of brittle fracture
 Match weld and HAZ closer to base metal
 Avoid stress corrosion cracking
Highest Intermediate Lowest
 Limit some types of local corrosion Hardness Hardness Hardness
 Temper Bead Welding
 Alternative to PWHT 1-47
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Welding Metallurgy of Stainless Steels

1-48
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Welding Metallurgy of Nickel-based Alloys

Ductility

Ductility Dip

TLiquidus TSolidus 0.5Tm Temperature

1-49
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Welding Metallurgy of Aluminum Alloys

1-50
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Welding Metallurgy of Titanium Alloys

1-51
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Welding Metallurgy of Copper Alloys

1-52
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Metallurgy Overview

Welding Metallurgy of Polymers

POLYMER

THERMOSET THERMOPLASTIC

AMORPHOUS SEMI-CRYSTALLINE

Thermoset
Amorphous Semi-crystalline

1-53
Welding Design Overview

Module 1C
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Welding Design and Testing

ƒ Understand the basic principals pertaining to

weld design with emphasis on the following
z The basic types of weld joints
z The basic types of welds and their symbols
z Residual stress and weld distortion
z Mechanical property testing
z Fitness-for-service

1-2
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Importance of Weld Design

ƒ Proper weld design and testing ensures that welds do not fail
under their intended load and environmental conditions
z The proper base materials must be chosen (and filler metals when
applicable)
z Appropriate weld strength requirements must be met
z Weld toughness and ductility
targets must be established
z Fatigue resistance against
cyclic loading has to be
considered

Liberty Ship Failure - 1943

1-3
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Basics of Joint Design

ƒ The shape, dimensions, and configuration of the joint(s) are

specified by the applicable welding code and designer
ƒ Five basic joint types
z Butt (1)
z Corner (2)
z Lap (3) 1
z Tee (4)
z Edge (5)
ƒ Several variations of each type 2

3
5 4

Flange Edge Joints

1-4
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Joint Design Variables

1. Bevel angle
1

2. Root opening
(root gap)
3

2
3. Root face
(land)

1-5
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Welding Symbol Example

ƒ Basic example of a welding symbol for fillet weld

5/16 12
FCAW

1-6
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Weld Nomenclature

2
1. Weld face

1 2 Weld
2. W ld ttoes
3
3. Leg length
5
4
4. Depth-of-fusion

5. Actual throat

1-7
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Residual Stress Concept

ƒ Residual stress is the result of structural and metallurgical

changes that take place during the welding process
z Rapid localized heating (melting) and
cooling (solidifying)
z Stresses can be high enough
to surpass the yield strength
of the base metal
ƒ Two major effects:
z Distortion
z Premature failure

1-8
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Types of Weld Distortion

(a) Transverse Shrinkage (d) Longitudinal Shrinkage

(b) A
Angular
l ChChange ( ) Longitudinal
(e) L it di l BBending
di

(c) Rotation Distortion (f) Buckling Distortion

Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991

1-9
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

What is the Significance?

ƒ Residual stress:
z Degraded structural performance
z Reduced service life
ƒ Compression
z Buckling can occur at lower than
expected loads
ƒ Tension
z Can lead to higher than expected local
stresses, resulting in cracking
Y
Compression

Tension
X

Y 1-10
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Controlling Stress and Distortion

ƒ Several methods exist for better

control of residual stress and
distortion
z Reduce the total volume
of weld metal through joint
design improvements
z Pre-set the joint prior to welding
z Preheat the joint
ƒ Post-weld flame heating
can be used to remove
distortion

1-11
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Weld Properties

ƒ From a weld design standpoint, it is important to understand

the mechanical properties of welds
ƒ Some of the important properties of a weld include:
z Strength – the ability to withstand an applied load
z Ductility – the ability to deform/stretch without failing
z Hardness – the ability to resist indentation
z Toughness – the ability to absorb energy
z Soundness – freedom from imperfections
z Fatigue strength – resistance to failure under repeated loads

1-12
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Testing Weld Properties

ƒ There are numerous tests used to determine the various

properties of welds
z Non destructive tests (does not hinder future usage)
z Destructive tests (render the part useless)
ƒ Module 4 will cover the following destructive test methods
used to evaluate properties
z Tension tests – mechanical properties
z Hardness tests – mechanical properties
z Fracture toughness tests – mechanical properties
z Bend tests – weld soundness

1-13
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Tension Tests

ƒ Several standards and guidelines exist for tensile testing

z ASTM E8 “Standard Methods of Tension Testing of Metallic Materials”
ƒ Significance
z Tension tests provide information
on many different properties
Š Strength
Š D tilit
Ductility
Š Toughness
Š Can test the entire weld
joint or just the weld metal

All Weld Metal Tensile Test

Gauge Length

1-14
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Hardness Tests

ƒ Several standard techniques

ƒ Significance
z One of the most commonly and easily
measured mechanical properties
z Hardness and strength are directly
related for carbon steels
z Th f
Therefore it iis possible
ibl tto estimate
ti t ththe
tensile strength if the hardness is
known

1-15
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Fracture Toughness Tests

ƒ There are several standard techniques for testing fracture

toughness including:
z Charpy V-notch test Charpy V-Notch Tester

z Dynamic tear test

z Plane-strain fracture test
z Drop weight nil-ductility test
ƒ Significance
z Provides a measure of
resistance to crack initiation
or propagation or both
z The temperature of the
specimen has a significant
effect on the test results
Charpy V-Notch Specimen

1-16
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Design Overview

Bend Tests

ƒ There are three standard techniques for bend testing

z Guided bend
z Roller equipped
guided bend
z Wrap-around
guided bend
ƒ Significance Side Bend Root Bend

z To assess weld soundness

in procedure and performance
qualifications
Face Bend
z The ductility of a weld Side Bend

1-17
Weldability Overview

Module 1D
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Weld Defects

ƒ Fabrication-related
z Associated with primary fabrication or repair
z Can be controlled by combination of metallurgical and welding
process factors
z Use of appropriate inspection techniques is critical
ƒ Service-related
z Occur upon exposure to service environment
z Generally mechanically or environmentally induced
z May result from remnant weld defects or metallurgical phenomena
associated with the weld thermal cycle
z Inspection and design issues are important to control defect formation
and monitor propagation

1-19
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Non-Metallurgical Fabrication Defects

Lack of Fusion
(SMAW) Oxidation
Undercut Intrusion

Overbead Drop-Through
Porosity

1-20
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Cracking Phenomena

ƒ Solidification Cracking – “Hot Cracking”

z HAZ/PMZ liquation cracking
z Weld metal liquation cracking
ƒ Solid-State Cracking – “Warm Cracking”
z Ductility dip cracking
z Reheat cracking
z Strain-age cracking
z Copper contamination cracking
ƒ Hydrogen-Induced Cracking - “Cold Cracking”

1-21
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Solidification Cracking

1-22
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Solid-State Cracking

Ductility Dip Cracking Reheat Cracking

1-23
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Hydrogen Induced Cracking

1-24
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Fatigue and Fracture

Poor fatigue Good fatigue

Stress Range

resistance resistance

Fatigue
limit

Number of Cycles

1-25
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Fractography

Solidification Crack

HAZ Liquation

Fatigue Crack
1-26
Module 1 – Introduction Weldability Overview

Corrosion

Pit

Surface

Subsurface
Attack

Pitting Corrosion

Sensitization of Stainless Steels

1-27
Inspection Overview

Module 1E
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Non-Destructive Examination

1-29
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Non-Destructive Examination

ƒ Volumetric flaws ƒ Planar flaws

z Surface breaking z Surface breaking
Š Visual, liquid penetrant Š Visual
z Near surface z Near surface
Š Magnetic particle and eddy Š Magnetic particle and eddy
current current
z Internal z Internal
Š Ultrasonic testing and Š Ultrasonic testing
radiography

Near Surface Internal Surface Breaking

1-30
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Non-Destructive Examination

ƒ Volumetric flaws ƒ Planar flaws

z Porosity z Seams
z Inclusions z Lamination
Š Slag z Lack of bonding
Š Tungsten z Forging/rolling lap
z Shrinkage z Fatigue cracks
z H l and
Holes d voids
id z Stress corrosion cracks
z Corrosion z Incomplete fusion
Š Thinning/loss z Incomplete penetration
Š Pitting

1-31
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Visual Testing (VT)

ƒ Rulers
ƒ Tape measures
ƒ Calipers
ƒ Borescopes
ƒ Remote crawlers with cameras

ƒ Dimensional conformance,
flaw detection

1-32
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

ƒ Steps in an PT procedure
z Clean & Dry Component
z Apply penetrant
z Remove excess
z Apply developer
z Visual inspection
z Post clean component

ƒ Portable, easy to use

ƒ Surface breaking defects only

1-33
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

ƒ Steps in a MT procedure
z Component pre-cleaning
z Introduction of magnetic field
z Application of magnetic media
z Interpretation of magnetic particle indications

ƒ Can detect both surface and VERY

NEAR sub-surface defects
ƒ Cannot inspect non-ferrous
materials such as aluminum,
magnesium or most stainless
steels
Wet Fluorescent Method

1-34
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Eddy Current Testing (ECT)

ƒ Uses the principal of

“electromagnetism” as the basis
for conducting examinations

ƒ Surface and slightly subsurface

detection capabilities
p
z Discontinuities
Š Cracks, pores
z Geometry
Š Scratches, undercut
z Material properties
Š Heat treatment, residual stresses,
hardness, phase composition, creep,
fatigue, corrosion

1-35
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Radiographic Testing (RT)

ƒ The part is placed between the

radiation source and a piece of
film
z Part absorbs some radiation
z Thicker and more dense area will
stop more of the radiation
z Safety precautions
ƒ Technique is not limited by X-ray film
material type or density
z Detects both surface and subsurface
defects
ƒ Orientation of equipment
Top view of developed film
and flaw can be critical
z Extensive training
= less exposure
= more exposure
1-36
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

ƒ Sound produced by a vibrating

body (transducer) and travels in
the form of a wave
z Similar to light waves, they can be
reflected, refracted, and focused
z Ultrasonic reflections from the
presence of discontinuities or
geometric features enables detection
and location

initial
pulse
back surface
echo
crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
UT Instrument Screen

1-37
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Summary

ƒ Introduce common non-destructive inspection techniques,

procedures, and equipment
ƒ Describe advantages and limitations
ƒ Demonstrate how to select the best process for a given
application

1-38
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

Fitness-for-Service Concept

ƒ Definition
z Quantitative engineering evaluations demonstrating the structural
integrity of a flawed or damaged component and their fitness for
intended purpose
ƒ Rationale
z Design/welding codes and standards do not address the fact that
structures degrade while in service
ƒ Benefits
z Make run/repair/replace decisions
z Reduce unnecessary repairs and avoid unplanned shutdowns
z Accurately predict structural behaviors in service

1-39
Module 1 – Introduction Inspection Overview

What Does FFS Cover?

ƒ Safe operation
z Present the integrity of the component given current state of damage,
operating loads, and environmental conditions
ƒ Safety margin and re-rating
z The limiting operating condition to avoid failure of equipment
containing a known or postulated flaw
ƒ Projected
P j t d remaining
i i lif
life
z Run, repair, or replace based on future operation conditions and
environmental compatibility

1-40
Welding Codes Overview

Module 1F
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Products Covered by Standards of Various

Organizations
Product AISC ASME ASTM AWS
Base Metals X X X
Bridges X X
Buildings X X
Construction equip. X
Filler metals X X
Machine tools X
Power gen. equip. X
Piping X X
Presses X
Pressure vessels, boilers X
Ships X
Storage tanks X
Structures, general X X
1-42
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

ƒ Coordinating organization for US voluntary standards system

ƒ Does not produce standards, but approves those produced by
other organizations
ƒ US member of ISO and International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC)
ƒ Approximately 1010,000
000 ANSI documents currently
ƒ Provide a common language that can be used confidently by
industry, suppliers, customers, business, the public,
government, and labor

1-43
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM)
ƒ Develops and publishes specifications for use in the
production and testing of materials
z ASTM E8 – Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials
ƒ Cover virtually all materials used in industry and commerce
with exception of welding consumables, which are covered by
AWS
ƒ Currently publish 15 sections comprising 65 volumes and an
index
ƒ When ASTM specifications adopted by ASME for certain
applications, either in its entirety or in a revised form, ASME
adds an “S” in front of ASTM letter prefix
z ASTM A105, Carbon steel forgings for piping applications, is listed as
SA-105 in ASME

1-44
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel

Inspectors (NBBPVI)
ƒ Often referred to as the National Board, represents the
enforcement agencies empowered to assure adherence to
ASME B&PVC
ƒ Involved in boiler and pressure vessel
registration and investigation of
possible Code violations
ƒ Publishes National Board Inspection
Code (NBIC) that describes
maintenance, inspection and repair
requirements
ƒ Boiler and pressure vessel repair,
governed by the “R” stamp is also
under their jurisdiction

1-45
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

American Welding Society (AWS)

ƒ Publishes numerous documents covering welding and

welding related activities
ƒ AWS produces codes, specifications, recommended
practices, classifications, methods, and guides related to
welding
ƒ General subject
j areas
z Definitions and symbols, filler metals, qualification and testing, welding
processes, welding applications, safety

1-46
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code

ƒ General Requirements
ƒ Design of Welded Connections
ƒ Prequalification of WPSs
ƒ Qualification
ƒ Fabrication
ƒ Inspection
I ti
ƒ Stud Welding
ƒ Strengthening & Repairing Existing
Structures
ƒ Annexes (Mandatory): A – J
ƒ Annexes (Informative): K – V
ƒ Commentary
ƒ Index
1-47
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code

ƒ Chapter 1, General Requirements

z Basic information on the scope and limitations of the code
z Limitations - NOT intended to be used for the following
Š Yield stress > 100-ksi (690-Mpa)
Š Thickness < 1/8-in (3.2-mm)
Š Pressure vessels, pressure piping, bridges
Š Base metal other than carbon or low
low-alloy
alloy steels
z Definitions conform to AWS A3.0, supplemented by Annex K
z Welding symbols conform to AWS A2.4
z Engineer’s, contractor’s and inspector’s responsibilities
z Safety references, standard units of measurement and references

1-48
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code

ƒ Chapter 2, Design of Welded Connections

z Requirements for the design of welded connections composed of
tubular, or nontubular, product form members
Š Part A – Common Requirements for Design of Welded Connections
(Nontubular and Tubular Members)
Š Part B – Specific Requirements for Design of Nontubular Connections
(Statically or Cyclically Loaded)
Š Part C – Specific Requirements for Design of Nontubular Connections
(Cyclically Loaded)
Š Part D – Specific Requirements for Design of Tubular Connections
(Statically or Cyclically Loaded)

1-49
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code

ƒ Chapter 3, Prequalification of WPSs

z Prequalified WPSs (SWPSs), such as those found in AWS B2.1, may
be used without qualification
Š Limitations apply
Š Welder performance still needs to be qualified in accordance with Section
4
z Welding
g Processes
Š Prequalified processes
z SMAW, SAW, FCAW, and GMAW (except GMAW-S)
z FCAW and GMAW must use CV power supplies

Š Code approved processes

z ESW, EGW, GMAW-S, and GTAW
z WPSs must be qualified in accordance with Section 4

1-50
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code

ƒ Chapter 4, Qualification
z Requirements for qualification testing of WPSs and welding personnel
Š Part A – General Requirements
Š Part B – Welding Procedure Specification
z Multiple positions, material shapes, and weld types can be qualified by a single
WPS or welder performance qualification test
z Changes beyond the limitations of the PQR essential variables warrant
requalification
lifi ti
Š Part C – Performance Qualification
Š Part D – Requirements for CVN Testing

1-51
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code

ƒ Chapter 5, Fabrication
z Requirements for fabrication and erection of welded assemblies and
structures produced by any process acceptable under AWS D1.1
z Contains 31 sections which cover numerous topics
Š Base metal
Š Welding consumables
Š Preheat & interpass temperature
Š Backing, backing gas, or inserts
Š Preparation of base metal
Š Tack welds & construction aids
Š Control of distortion & shrinkage
Š Repairs
Š Minimum fillet weld size
Š Etc.

1-52
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of AWS D1.1 – Structural Welding Code

ƒ Chapter 6, Inspection
z Contains all of the requirements for the Inspector’s qualifications and
responsibilities, acceptance criteria for discontinuities, and procedures
for NDT
Š Part A – General Requirements
Š Part B – Contractor Responsibilities
Š Part C – Acceptance
p Criteria
Š Part D – NDT Procedures
Š Part E – Radiographic Testing (RT)
Š Part F – Ultrasonic Testing (UT) of Groove Welds
Š Part G – Other Examination Methods

1-53
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

(ASME)
ƒ Two standing ASME committees actively involved in the
formulation, revision, and interpretation of standards covering
products that may be fabricated by welding
ƒ Documents
z ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
Š Provide minimum requirements for the design, materials, fabrication,
erection,
ti testing,
t ti and
d inspection
i ti off boilers
b il and
d pressure vessels
l
Š Twelve (12) sections
z Code for Pressure Piping
Š Provide minimum requirements for the design, materials, fabrication,
erection, testing, and inspection of piping systems
Š Twelve (12) sections

1-54
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sections

ƒ ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

z Five sections cover the design and construction of boilers and
pressure vessels
Š I – Rules for Construction of Power Boilers
Š III – Rules for Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
z Division I – Rules for Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
z Subsection NB, NC, ND, NE, NF, NG, NH, and appendices
z Division II – Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containments
z Division III – Containment Systems and Transport Packaging for Spent Fuel and
High-Level Radioactive Waste
Š IV – Rules for Construction of Heating Boilers
Š VIII – Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels
z Division 1
z Division 2 – Alternative Rules
Š X – Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels

1-55
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sections

ƒ ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

z Sections cover material specifications, nondestructive examination,
and welding and brazing qualifications
Š II – Materials
z Part A: Ferrous Material Specifications
z Part B: Nonferrous Material Specifications
z Part C: Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Materials
z Part D: Properties
Š V – Nondestructive Examination
Š IX – Welding and Brazing Qualifications
z Part QW: Welding
z Part QB: Brazing

1-56
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sections

ƒ ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

z Three sections cover the care and operation of boilers or nuclear
power plant components
Š VI – Recommended Rules for the Care and Operation of Heating Boilers
Š VII – Recommended Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers
Š XI – Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant
Components
z One section covers the construction and continued service of
transport tanks
Š XII – Rules for Construction and Continued Service of Transport Tanks

1-57
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping Sections

ƒ Provides minimum requirements for different piping systems

z B31.1 – Power Piping
z B31.2 – Fuel Gas Piping
z B31.3 – Process Piping
z B31.4 – Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and
Other Liquids
z B31 5 – Refrigeration
B31.5 R fi ti Pi
Piping
i anddHHeatt T
Transfer
f C Components
t
z B31.8 – Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
z B31.8S – Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
z B31.9 – Building Services Piping
z B31.11 – Slurry Transportation Piping Systems
z B31G – Manual for Determining Remaining Strength of Corroded
Pipelines
z B31J – Standard Test Method for Determining Stress Intensification
Factors for Metallic Piping Components
z B31Q – Pipeline Personnel Qualification
1-58
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section III – Rules for

Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
ƒ ASME Section III is separated into three divisions
z Subsection NCA – General Requirements for Division 1 and Division 2
z Division I – Rules for Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
z Division II – Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containments
z Division III – Containment Systems and Transport Packaging for
Spent Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste
ƒ Division
Di i i 1 iis separated
t d iinto
t seven subsections
b ti
z Subsection NB, NC, ND, NE, NF, NG, and NH
z Subsections are separated by the application and design
requirements

1-59
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section III – Rules for

Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
ƒ Subsection NCA applies to both Division 1 and Division 2
vessels
z Article NCA-1000, Scope of Section III
Š List general material and design requirements
z Refers to ASME and ASTM specifications for materials
z Refers to ASME and AWS specifications for welding materials
z Article NCA
NCA-2000,
2000, Classification of Components and Supports
Š Provides general requirements such as design loads, service loads and
test loads
Š The class of component is based on the engineering design of the vessel
z Class 1 items are constructed in accordance with subsection NB
z Class 2 items are constructed in accordance with subsection NC
z Class 3 items are constructed in accordance with subsection ND
z Class MC items are constructed in accordance with subsection NE
z Metal containment vessels
z Class CS items are constructed in accordance with subsection NG
z Core support structures

1-60
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section III – Rules for

Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
ƒ Subsection NCA applies to both Division 1 and Division 2
vessels
z Article NCA-3000, Responsibilities and Duties
Š Outlines the responsibilities and duties of the construction contractors,
owners, designers, etc
z All welding curing Code construction shall be done by a Certificate Holder
z Welding procedures have been properly qualified by the Certificate Holder
z References ASME Section IX
z Article NCA-4000, Quality Assurance
Š Describes the requirements for a quality assurance programs
Š N-Type Certificate Holders shall comply with NQA-1-1994, “Quality
Assurance Program Requirements for Nuclear Facilities”
z Article NCA-5000, Authorized Inspector
Š Describes the duties of the authorized inspector
z Article NCA-8000, Certificates, Nameplates, Code Symbol Stamping,
and Data Reports
Š Describes the different ASME certificates and their applicability
1-61
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section III – Rules for

Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
ƒ Division 1, Subsection NB applies to Class 1 Components
z Article NB-1000, Introduction
Š Covers strength and pressure
integrity of items included in the
pressure containing boundary
z Article NB-2000, Material
Š Refers to ASME Section II for
welding and base material properties
z Mechanical and chemical analysis
requirements for the base material
and welds
z Article NB-3000, Design
Š Outlines all the design criteria that
needs to be addressed

1-62
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section III – Rules for

Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
ƒ Division 1, Subsection NB applies to Class 1 Components
z Article ND-4000, Fabrication and Installation
Š Refers to ASME Section IX for qualifications
z Stud and capacitor discharge welding is limited to temporary attachments
z Inertia and continuous drive friction welding is prohibited when welding pipe
Š Lists preheat, PWHT and toughness testing requirements if required
z Article ND-5000,
5000, Examination
Š Refers to Section V for examination methods
Š Defines the inspection requirements depending on the weld category
Š Provides construction acceptance criteria
Š Defines the qualification requirements for examination personnel
z Refers to ASNT Guidelines SNT-TC-1A

1-63
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section III – Rules for

Construction of Nuclear Facility Components
ƒ Division 1, Subsection ND applies to Class 3 Components
z Article ND-6000, Testing
Š Outlines the requirements for pneumatic or hydrostatic pressure testing
z Article ND-7000, Overpressure Protection
Š Describes the components of the pressure relief system
z Article ND-8000, Nameplates, Stamping, and Reports
Š Refers to Subsection NCA

1-64
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section II – Materials

ƒ Part A, Ferrous Material Specifications

z These specifications contain requirements and mechanical properties,
test specimens, and methods of testing for ferrous materials
z They are designated by SA numbers and are derived from ASTM "A"
specifications
ƒ Part B, Nonferrous Material Specifications
z These specifications
Th ifi ti contain
t i requirements
i t for
f heat
h t treatment,
t t t
manufacture, chemical composition, heat and product analyses,
mechanical test requirements and mechanical properties, test
specimens, and methods of testing for nonferrous materials
z They are designated by SB numbers and are derived from ASTM "B"
specifications

1-65
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section II – Materials

ƒ Part C, Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and

Filler Metals
z These material specifications contain requirements for the
manufacture, acceptability, chemical composition, mechanical
usability, surfacing, testing requirements and procedures, operating
characteristics, and intended uses for welding rods, electrodes and
filler metals
z These specifications are designated by SFA numbers and are derived
from AWS specifications
ƒ Part D, Properties
z This part provides tables of design stress values, tensile and yield
strength values, and tables and charts of material properties
Š Maximum material stress at temperature
Š Design stress intensity factors

1-66
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section V –

Nondestructive Evaluation
ƒ Subsection A, Nondestructive Methods of Examination
z Many of the inspection methods reference
mandatory appendices which apply to
specific inspection techniques or applications
Š The requirements may change depending on
the appendix used
ƒ Subsection B, Documents Adopted by
Section V
z ASME have adopted several ASTM
standards which are included in Section V

ƒ Acceptance criteria is found in the

code of construction not in Section V

1-67
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section V –

Nondestructive Evaluation
ƒ Subsection A, Nondestructive Methods of Examination
z Article 2, Radiographic Examination
z Article 4, Ultrasonic Examination Methods for Welds
z Article 5, Ultrasonic Examination Methods for Materials
z Article 6, Liquid Penetrant Examination
z Article 7, Magnetic Particle Examination
z Article 8, Eddy Current Examination of Tubular Products
z Article 9, Visual Examination

1-68
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section V –

Nondestructive Evaluation

1-69
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section V –

Nondestructive Evaluation

1-70
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section V –

Nondestructive Evaluation

1-71
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section V –

Nondestructive Evaluation
ƒ Each nondestructive evaluation article is generally broken into
several subsections which vary depending on applicability
z Scope
z General
Š States that a written procedure shall be included and gives requirements
that should be included in the procedure
z Equipment and Materials
Š Provides minimum requirements for the equipment and materials
Š Refers to other ASME and industry documents
z Miscellaneous Requirements
z Techniques
Š Describes different techniques of applying the examination method
z For radiographic examination, the technique could be single-wall or double-wall
z For ultrasonic examination, the technique could be straight beam or angle beam

1-72
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section V –

Nondestructive Evaluation
z Calibration
Š Describes the calibration requirements for the examination method
z For radiographic examination, the calibration should include verifying the source
size and the requirements for either a densitometer or a step wedge comparison
z For ultrasonic examination, the calibration includes instrument linearity checks
and requirement for the calibration block depending on the application
z Examination
Š Includes the steps that should be followed when performing an
examination
z Evaluation
Š Describes how to evaluate the evaluation
z For radiographic examination, the evaluation includes making the sure the film
is free from blemishes that may mask indications
z For ultrasonic examination, the evaluation includes determining what flaws
require addition evaluation
z Not all ultrasonic reflectors indicate flaws, since certain conditions
may produce indications that are not relevant
z Documentation
Š Defines what should be included in the nondestructive evaluation report
1-73
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section V –

Nondestructive Evaluation

1-74
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding and Brazing Qualifications
ƒ Scope
z Covers the qualification of welders,
welding operators, brazers, and
brazing operators, and the
procedures employed in welding or
brazing
Š Referenced by ASME B&PV Code and
ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping
ƒ Part QW – Welding
z Article I, II, III, IV, V
ƒ Part QB – Brazing
z Articles XI, XII, XIII, XIV
ƒ Appendices

1-75
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding and Brazing Qualifications
ƒ Primary purpose for procedure qualification
z To verify compatibility of materials and techniques to result in a sound
weld with acceptable properties
Š WPS qualified by mechanical testing
Š PQR documentation
z To qualify a welding procedure the weld must me destructively
tested
ƒ Primary purpose for performance qualification (i.e. welder
qualifications)
z To verify the ability of an individual to execute a qualified welding
procedure specification to produce a sound weld
Š Can be qualified by mechanical test or NDE

1-76
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding and Brazing Qualifications
ƒ Part QW Welding
z Article I, Welding General Requirements
z Article II, Welding Procedure Qualifications
z Article III, Welding Performance Qualifications
z Article IV, Welding Data
z Article V, Standard Welding Procedure Specifications (SWPS)
ƒ Part QB Brazing
z Article XI, Brazing General Requirements
z Article XII, Brazing Procedure Qualifications
z Article XIII, Brazing Performance Qualifications
z Article XIV, Brazing Data

1-77
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
ƒ Article I, Welding General Requirements
z QW-100, General
Š Describes a welding procedure specification (WPS) and procedure
qualification record (PQR)
z WPS defines the way a weld should be made
z PQR is the documentation that a weld made using the WPS is acceptable
z QW-110, Weld Orientation
Š Defines flat, horizontal, overhead and vertical
z QW-120, Test Positions for Groove Welds
z QW-130, Test Positions for Fillet Welds

1-78
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Typical PQR format

1-79
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Typical WPS format

1-80
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Test Positions for Groove Welds in Pipe

1-81
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
ƒ Article I, Welding General Requirements
z QW-140, Types and Purposes of Tests & Examinations
Š Describes the types of tests that are used to qualify welding procedures
including acceptance criteria
z QW-150, Tension Tests
z QW-160, Guided-Bend Tests
z QW-170 Notch-Toughness Tests
QW-170,
z QW-180, Fillet-Weld Tests
z QW-190, Other Tests and Examinations
Š Describes NDE inspection methods including acceptance criteria for
qualifying procedures and welder qualification
Š References back to Section V
z QW-191 Radiographic Examination
z QW-194 Visual Examination
z QW-195 Liquid Penetrant Examination

1-82
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
ƒ Article II, Welding Procedure Qualifications
z QW-200, General
Š Describes what the information belong in the WPS and PQR
Š Changes to the WPS
z Changes can be made to nonessential variables without requalification
z Changes to essential variables or supplementary essential variable (when
required) require requalification
Š Manufacturer’s and Contractor’s responsibility
Š Processes covered
z Oxy-fuel, SMAW, SAW, GMAW, FCAW, GTAW, PAW, ESW, EGW, EBW, Stud,
Inertia & Cont. Drive Friction Welding, Resistance Welding, LBW, Flash Welding
Š Type and number of tests required for procedure qualification

1-83
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications

1-84
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
ƒ Article II, Welding Procedure Qualifications
z QW-250, Welding Variables
Š Lists the essential, nonessential, and supplementary essential variables
for each welding process in Section IX
Š Essential variables
z Those in which a change is considered to affect the mechanical properties of
the weldment, and shall require requalification
Š Nonessential variables
z Those in which a change may be made in the WPS without requalification
Š Supplementary essential variables
z When notch-toughness is required, supplementary essential variables become
essential variables

ƒ The procedure variables cover all aspects of the weld

quality

1-85
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications

1-86
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications

1-87
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
ƒ Article III, Welding Performance Qualifications
z QW-300, General
Š Welders or welding operators may be qualified by mechanical bending
tests, radiography of a test plate, or radiography of the initial production
weld
Š Welders are qualified to weld with a process not a specific WPS
z QW-320, Retests and Renewal of Qualifications
z QW-350, Welding Variables for Welders
z QW-360, Welding Variables for Welding Operators

1-88
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications

1-89
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
ƒ Article IV, Welding Data
z QW-400, Variables
Š QW-410, Technique
Š QW-420, Material Groupings
z P-Numbers
Š QW-430, F-Numbers
Š QW-440,
QW 440, Weld Metal Chemical Composition
Š QW-450, Specimens
Š QW-460, Graphics
Š QW-490, Definitions
z Variables are grouped into categories
Š Some variables apply to all process
z Preheat, Base Metal Thickness, etc.
Š Some variables apply to one or two processes
z Shielding gas, Shielding Flux, etc.

1-90
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications

1-91
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
P-No. Description
1 C, C-Mn, and C-Mn-Si steels
3 Low-alloy steels [Mo, Mn-Mo, Si-Mo and Cr-Mo (Cr ≤ ¾% and total
alloy content < 2%)]
4 Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr between ¾% and 2% and total alloy
content < 2 ¾%
5A Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr ≤ 3% and < 85 ksi minimum tensile
strength
5B Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr > 3% and ≤ 85 ksi minimum tensile
strength
5C Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr between 2 ¼ % and 3% and ≥ 85 ksi
minimum tensile strength
6 Martensitic stainless steels
7 Ferritic stainless steels - nonhardneable
8 Austenitic stainless steels
1-92
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
P-No. Description
9A, 9B, 9C Nickel alloy steels with 4.5% Ni
10A – 10K Mn-V and Cr-V steels, 26% Cr-3% Ni-3% Mo, and 29% Cr-4%
Mo-2% Ni steels and duplex stainless steels
11A, 11B Low-alloy quench and tempered steels with > 95 ksi minimum
tensile strength
21 – 25 Aluminum and aluminum-base alloys
31 – 35 Copper and copper-base alloys
41 – 47 Nickel and nickel-base alloys
51 – 53 Titanium and titanium-base alloys
61, 62 Zirconium and zirconium-base alloys

1-93
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section IX –

Welding Qualifications
ƒ Article V, Standard Welding Procedure Specifications
(SWPSs)
z SWPSs that may be used for Section IX are listed in Appendix E
z AWS B2.1, Standard Welding Procedure Specifications
Š Each is specific to the combination of base materials, welding process(es),
and welding filler metals covered by the scope of each
Š Supported by procedure qualification records (PQRs)
z If the SWPS, or a similar SWPS hasn’t been used by the
manufacturer, than they must weld and test one groove weld test
coupon following the SWPS
Š Additional SWPSs that are similar may be used without demonstration
z Limitations apply

1-94
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section XI – Rules for Inservice

Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
ƒ ASME Section XI is separated into three divisions depending
on application
z Division 1, Rules for Inspection and Testing of Components of Light-
Water Cooled Reactors
Š IWA, General requirements
Š IWB, Requirements for Class 1
Š IWC Requirements for Class 2
IWC,
Š IWD, Requirements for Class 3
Š IDE, Requirements for Class MC
Š IWF, Requirements for Supports
Š IWL, Requirements for Concrete Components
Š Mandatory Appendices
Š Non-Mandatory Appendices
z Division 2, Rules for Inspection and Testing of Components of Gas-
Cooled Reactors
z Division 3, Rules for Inspection and Testing of Components of Liquid
Metal Cooled Reactors
1-95
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section XI – Rules for Inservice

Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
ƒ Division 1, Rules for Inspection and Testing of Components of
Light-Water Cooled Reactors
z IWA, General Requirements
Š IWA-1000, Scope and Responsibility
Š IWA-2000, Examination and Inspection
z Includes the qualifications of the examination personnel, the examination
methods and inspection programs
Š IWA-3000, Standards for Examination Evaluation
z Discuss how the evaluate the examination and determine flaws
Š IWA-4000, Repair/Replacement Activities
z Defines what needs to be repaired, how to make the repair and how to inspect
the repair
Š IWA-5000, System Pressure Tests
z Discuss how to pressure test the system and document the results
Š IWA-6000, Records and Reports
Š IWA-9000, Glossary

1-96
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section XI – Rules for Inservice

Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
ƒ Division 1, Rules for Inspection and Testing of Components of
Light-Water Cooled Reactors
z IWB, Class 1 Components
Š IWB-1000, Scope and Responsibility
Š IWB-2000, Examination and Inspection
z Defines how and when to inspect
Š IWB
IWB-3000
3000, Acceptance Standards
z Provides descriptions of acceptable flaws and methods to analysis flaws
Š IWB-5000, System Pressure Tests
z Discuss how to pressure test the system and document the results
z IWC-XXXX, Class 2 Components and IWD-XXXX, Class 3
Components
Š Generally IWC and IWD have much less detail than IWB, and IWC and
IWD will frequently refer user to IWB

1-97
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME Section XI – Rules for Inservice

Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
ƒ Division 1, Rules for Inspection and Testing of Components of
Light-Water Cooled Reactors
z IWE-XXXX, Requirements for Class MC and Metallic Liners of Class
CC Components of Light-Water Cooled Plants
z IWF-XXXX, Requirements for Class 1, 2, 3 and MC component
supports of Light-Water Cooled Plants
z IWL-XXXX Requirements for Class CC Concrete Components of
IWL-XXXX,
Light-Water Cooled Plants
z Appendices
Š Mandatory (I-X)
Š Nonmandatory (A-R)

1-98
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

ƒ Chapter I, Scope and Definitions

ƒ Chapter II, Design
ƒ Chapter III, Materials
ƒ Chapter IV, Dimensional
Requirements
ƒ Chapter V
V, Fabrication
Fabrication,
Assembly, and Erection
ƒ Chapter VI, Inspection,
Examination, and Testing
ƒ Chapter VII, Operation and
Maintenance
ƒ Mandatory Appendices
ƒ Nonmandatory Appendices
1-99
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

ƒ Chapter I, Scope and Definitions

z The code includes piping found in electric power generating stations,
industrial and institutional plants, geothermal heating systems, and
central and district heating and cooling systems
Š Includes but not limited to steam, water, oil, gas, and air service
z Where steam or vapor is generated at a minimum pressure 15 psig
z Where high temperature water is generated at a minimum pressure of 160 psig
and/or
d/ a minimum
i i ttemperature
t off 250ºF (120ºC)
z Defines what applications are not covered by B31.1
Š Components covered by Sections of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code
Š Steam and condensate piping design for 15 psig or less, or hot water
systems designed for 30 psig or less
Š Towers, building frames, tanks, mechanical equipment, instruments, and
foundations
Š Many other applications

1-100
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

1-101
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

ƒ Chapter II, Design

z Design conditions are define pressure, temperatures and various
forces applicable to the design of power piping systems
Š Design for the most severe conditions
z Includes design criteria for piping and components in the piping
system
Š Temperature Pressure Ratings
Temperature-Pressure
Š Allowable stress
Š Weld joint efficiency factors
Š Reinforcement of branch connections
Š Valve requirements
Š Flange, bolting, facing and gasket requirements
Š Pipe supports

1-102
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

ƒ Chapter III, Materials

z Refers to ASME Section II, ASTM Specifications, and numerous other
industry standards for the type and product form of materials using in
piping systems
z Refers to tabulated stress values in Appendix A
Š Specifies the difference between listed materials, unlisted materials and
unknown materials
z Describes limitations of different material types
Š Temperature limitations
Š Pressure limitations
ƒ Chapter IV, Dimensional Requirements
z Refers to other ASME Sections, other ASTM Specifications, and
numerous other industry standards for the dimensional tolerances of
materials using in piping systems

1-103
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

ƒ Chapter V, Fabrication, Assembly, and Erection

z Address specific requirements related to fabrication, assembly, and
erection which include welding and brazing
Š The qualification of welding procedures and welder and welding operators
shall conform to the requirements of the ASME Section IX
z Each employer shall be responsible for qualifying any WPS; however a WPS
qualified by a technically competent group or agency could be used if approved
by the owner
z Each employer shall be responsible for qualifying all the welders and welding
operators employed by him; however the employer can accept qualification from
previous employers if accepted by the owner
Š The welding materials shall conform to ASME Section II Part C
Š List visual weld contour criteria including some acceptable fillet weld sizes
Š Preheat and PWHT Requirements
Š Assembly guidance for other then welded joints

1-104
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

ƒ Chapter VI, Inspection, Examination, and Testing

z Listed the NDE methods that are allowed
Š Visual Examination
Š Magnetic Particle Examination
Š Liquid Penetrant Examination
Š Radiography
Š Ultrasonic Inspection
z States each examination method shall be performed in accordance
with ASME Section V
z Gives the construction acceptance criteria for each NDE method
Š The construction acceptance criteria may be different than the qualification
acceptance criteria
z Personnel who perform nondestructive examination of welds shall be
qualified and certified for each examination method
Š References ASME Section V for personnel qualification
z Provides guidance for pressure testing

1-105
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

1-106
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

ƒ Chapter VI, Inspection, Examination, and Testing

1-107
Module 1 – Introduction Welding Codes Overview

Overview of ASME B31.1 – Power Piping

ƒ Chapter VII, Operation and Maintenance

z The Code does not prescribe detailed operating and maintenance
procedures that cover all cases
Š Each Operating Company shall develop operation and maintenance
procedures necessary to ensure safe facility operations
Š Some requirements are listed but they do not cover all aspects of
operation
z Company shall perform condition assessments of the piping system at
regular intervals as determined by engineering
Š Some requirements are listed but they do not cover all aspects of
operation
z Records shall be maintained and easily accessible for the life of the
piping system

1-108
Welding and Cutting Processes

Module 2
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes

Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes

ƒ 2A – Introduction to Arc Welding Processes

ƒ 2B – Introduction to Non-Arc Welding Processes

ƒ 2C – Brazing and Soldering

ƒ 2D – Introduction to Cutting Processes

ƒ 2E – Welding Process Applications

2-2
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes

Module 2 Learning Objectives

ƒ Definitions and terminology associated with arc welding

z Description of welding arcs
z Arc welding power supply types and characteristics
ƒ Basic operational concepts of SMAW, GTAW, GMAW,
FCAW, SAW, ESW, and EGW welding
ƒ Overview of specialized
p welding
gpprocesses including
g narrow
groove welding, low hydrogen practices, overlays (HFWMO,
CRWMO, structural) and stud welding
ƒ Code requirements (essential, supplementary essentials, and
non-essential variables)
ƒ Welding Safety
ƒ Practical Experience (SMAW, GTAW, and GMAW)
ƒ Welding Process Demonstrations

2-3
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes

Module 2 Learning Objectives

ƒ Definitions and terminology associated with non-arc welding

processes
ƒ Descriptions and capabilities of non-arc welding processes
ƒ Advantages, disadvantages, and applications of non-arc
welding processes
ƒ Important operating parameters of non-arc
non arc welding processes
ƒ Safety issues
ƒ Applicable codes, standards, and specifications
ƒ Demonstrations

2-4
Introduction to Arc Welding Processes

Module 2A
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Process Definition

ƒ Forms of arc welding vary by means of:

z Controlling the arc
z Shielding of the molten metal
z Filler metal addition (if used)
ƒ Upper: Standard terminology - AWS
ƒ Lower: Commonlyy used trade names

SMAW FUSION WELDING

EGW
“Stick”

GMAW ARC WELDING

ESW
“MIG”

FCAW
PAW
“Flux Core” GTAW
SAW
“TIG”
2-6
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Basic Arc Welding Circuit

2-7
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Welding Arc

Welding Electrode
Region

Work Electrode
Region

2-8
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Electrode Types

ƒ Consumable Electrodes
z Melt and transfer to the weld for filling joint
Š Carbon steel
Š Low-alloy steel
Š Stainless steel
Š Aluminum
Š Magnesium
Š Copper
Š Titanium
z Filler metal
ƒ Nonconsumable Electrodes
z Provide electrode for arc and do not melt
Š Tungsten
Š Carbon
z Filler material, when used, is provided separately

2-9
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Consumable Electrode Classification

(Filler Metal)
ƒ Prefix
z E = Electrode, R = Rod
ƒ Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
z First 2 or 3 digits indicate minimum UTS in KSI
z Examples ER70S-1, E-7018 are 70 KSI UTS
ƒ Other information maybe
y specified
p
z Chemistry (ex. Cr, Mo, Mn, and Ni additions)
z Process information (ex. S: solid, F: flux, T: tubular)
z Primary welding positions
ƒ Stainless Steels Use AISI Numbers
ƒ Specific details contained in the electrode designation are
dependent on the process

2-10
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Arc Welding Power Sources

ƒ Two types: constant voltage (CV) and constant current (CC)

z Some power supplies are capable of both CC and CV operation

ƒ Constant voltage
z Generally used with welding
processes that employ a
continuously
ti l ffed
d consumablebl
electrode, typically in the form
of wire (ex. GMAW, FCAW)

2-11
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Arc Welding Power Sources

ƒ Constant current
z Slight variations in voltage due to
changes in arc length have a minimal
effect on current
z Generally used for manual welding
with a covered electrode or a tungsten
electrode, where variations in arc (CC)

length are unavoidable (ex. SMAW,

GTAW)
Š When used in a semi-automated or
automated application, external control
devices are needed (ex. GMAW,
FCAW)

2-12
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Primary Operating Parameters

ƒ Arc Voltage/Arc Length

ƒ Arc Current
ƒ Electrode Feed Rate
(Consumable)
ƒ Welding Travel Speed
ƒ Polarity

2-13
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Arc Voltage

ƒ Mainly related to arc length

ƒ Affects concentration of arc heat
z Shorter arc, more heat concentration
z Longer arc, less heat concentration
ƒ Voltage can be regulated to control arc length
ƒ Varies little with arc current and welding speed
z Has little affect on energy input and amount of melting
ƒ Typical arc voltages: 8- to 40-volts

2-14
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Arc Current

ƒ Mainly affects amount of arc heat

ƒ Determines electrode melting rate (consumable)
ƒ Directly affects energy input to work and melting
z More current, more melting
z Less current, less melting
ƒ Often regulated to control arc and energy input
ƒ Arc currents: 1- to 1000-amperes
z More typically, 50- to 500-amperes

2-15
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Electrode Feed Rate

ƒ Directly determines amount of metal deposited

ƒ Closely related to current
z Current must provide equal melt-off rate
ƒ May be supplied manually or via an automatic feed system
ƒ Typically, 10’s to 100’s of inches-per-minute (ipm)

2-16
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Welding Travel Speed

ƒ Has little affect on arc and electrode melting

ƒ Directly affects metal deposition per length of weld
ƒ Mainly affects energy input to work
z Faster travel, less energy input and base metal melting
z Slower travel, more energy input and base metal melting
ƒ An important parameter to productivity
ƒ May be provided manually or mechanized
ƒ Typical range is 5- to 100-in/min

2-17
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Energy Input

2-18
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Electrical Polarity

ƒ Electrical polarity is important to arc operation

ƒ Electrode positive
z DCEP
z DCRP (reverse polarity)
ƒ Electrode negative
z DCEN
C
z DCSP (straight polarity)
ƒ Alternating polarity
z AC
z VP (variable polarity)

2-19
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

The DCEN Arc

2-20
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

The DCEP Arc

2-21
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Need for Shielding from Atmosphere

ƒ Molten metal reacts with the atmosphere to form oxides and

nitrides
z Porosity can result
z Metallurgical changes can occur
ƒ Weld mechanical properties are generally reduced

ƒ Note that the weld should be free of dirt, grease, paint, scale,
and other foreign objects to ensure weld quality
z Fluxes and shielding gasses are not designed to scavenge these
components from the solidifying weld metal

2-22
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Flux Shielding

ƒ Provides a gas to shield the arc and prevent excessive

atmospheric contamination of the molten filler metal and weld
pool.
ƒ Provides scavengers, deoxidizers, and fluxing agents to
cleanse the weld and prevent excessive grain growth in the
weld metal.
ƒ Establishes the electrical characteristics of the electrode.
ƒ Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the
air and enhance the mechanical properties, bead shape, and
surface cleanliness of the weld metal.
ƒ Provides a means of adding alloying elements to change the
mechanical properties of the weld metal.

2-23
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Welding Fluxes

Ingredient Function
Iron oxide Slag former, arc stabilizer
Titanium oxide Alloy
Calcium fluoride Slag former, arc stabilizer
Magnesium oxide Fluxing agent
Potassium silicate Slag binder,
Slag, binder fluxing agent
Other silicates Gas former, arc stabilizer
Calcium carbonates Gas former
Cellulose Alloy, deoxidizer
Ferro-chrome Alloy
Other carbonates Gas former
Ferro-manganese Alloy
Ferro-silicon Deoxidizer

2-24
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Gas Shielding

ƒ Mainly purges the weld area to shield it from the atmosphere

ƒ Argon is the most common inert gas
ƒ Carbon dioxide is sometimes used
z Less expensive
z Similar to gases produced from fluxes
ƒ CO2 and O2 are commonly mixed with argon
z Oxidation stabilizes arc and metal transfer
z Improves weld bead wetting
ƒ H2 can be added to increase arc heat in some cases
ƒ Helium may also be used to increase arc heat
ƒ Require addition of deoxidizers to filler materials

2-25
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Introduction

Sources of Shielding

2-26
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Arc Welding Hazards

ƒ Arc Radiation
z UV damage to skin and eyes
ƒ Electrical Shock
z Welding voltages are generally safe
z Anomalous conditions can arise
ƒ Fumes and Gases
z Suffocation
z Long term breathing of fume
ƒ Compressed Gases
z Explosion of cylinders
ƒ Burns - Hot Metal
ƒ Fire - Ignition of Nearby Flammable Materials

2-27
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Arc Welding Safety

ƒ AWS Z49.1: 2005

z Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied processes
z Training (mandated under provisions of the U.S. Occupational Safety
and Health Act (OSHA), especially those of the Hazard
Communication Standard, 29 CFR 1910.1200)
ƒ Management Support
ƒ Ventilation
V til ti
ƒ General Housekeeping
ƒ Eye and Skin Protection from Radiation
ƒ Hot Work Permit System

Reference: AWS Z49-1 or WHB, V1, Ch16

2-28
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

ANSI/ASC Z49.1 Safety in Welding, Cutting

and Allied Processes
ƒ A document outlining safe
practices for welding and
cutting operations
ƒ Is referenced almost in all AWS
welding codes
ƒ When the code is mandated byy
the contract or laws, ANSI/ASC
Z49.1 is also invoked.

2-29
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Management Support

ƒ Evidenced by:
z Stating clear safety objectives
z Showing commitment to safety
z Designating safe work areas
z Developing safety procedures
z Providing safe equipment
z Implementing safety training

2-30
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Personal Protective Equipment

ƒ Sturdy boots, no laces

ƒ Clean clothing
ƒ Woolen is best
ƒ Treated cotton acceptable
ƒ No synthetics
ƒ Pants
P t without
ith t cuffs
ff
ƒ Pants outside boots
ƒ Flaps on shirt pockets
ƒ Cap
ƒ Gloves
ƒ Leathers

2-31
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Eye, Ear, Face, and Head Protection

2-32
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Lens Shade Selector

2-33
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Fume Exposure and Ventilation

Fume Plume

note head position

2-34
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Welding in Confined Space

2-35
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Shield Gases

ƒ Argon, Helium – Inert

ƒ Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide – Reactive
ƒ Odorless
ƒ Colorless
ƒ Can displace oxygen

2-36
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Safe Welding and Cutting of Containers

Manifold/Piping System Compressed Gas

2-37
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Safety

Compressed Gases Cylinder Safety

Oxygen Manifold System Acetylene Manifold System

- Oxygen Supports Combustion – A Fuel Gas

2-38
Arc Welding Power Sources

Module 2A.1
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Power Sources

Arc Welding Power Source

ƒ Provide suitably conditioned electrical power for the arc

z Reduce line voltage to arc voltage
z Provide suitable output characteristic for a stable arc
ƒ Allow operator input of weld parameters/sequences
ƒ Interfaces to/from other equipment
z Wire feeders
z Controllers
z Robot systems

2-40
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Power Sources

Sources of Electricity

ƒ Engine driven generator/alternator

ƒ Utility power

2-41
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Power Sources

Usable Arc Welding Voltage, Current Range

ƒ Industrial line voltages are 208VAC to 480VAC

ƒ Voltage range for a welding arc is 20V to 80V
ƒ Welding power sources need a transformer to convert line
voltage to welding voltage
ƒ Motor driven generators (for field use) directly output voltages
that are usable for arc welding
ƒ Typical welding arc currents range from 100A to 1000A
ƒ 2kVA to 80kVA of electrical power is needed

2-42
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Power Sources

Arc Welding Power Source Characteristics

ƒ Type of current
z Transformers - AC
z Transformers with rectifiers - AC/DC
ƒ Welding current rating
ƒ Duty cycle
ƒ Service classification
ƒ Input power requirements
ƒ Special features
z Remote control
z High frequency
z Pulsation
z Start and finish schedules
z Wave balancing and line voltage compensation

2-43
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Power Sources

Line-Powered Welding Power Source Components

Arc Welding Power Source

Electrode
Fused Disconnect Switch (open)

Input
AC

Reduce Control Output

Voltage Characteristics

Chassis Ground Connections

Earth Ground

2-44
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Power Sources

Basic Characteristics of Power Sources

ƒ Constant Current
z Transistor switching inverter

VOLTAGE
supplies provide a relatively
constant current at a given setting

CURRENT Arc Force

ƒ Constant Voltage Adjustment

z Voltage remains relatively stable

and current varies to maintain an arc

VOLTAGE
voltage

CURRENT
2-45
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Power Sources

Output Control Methods

ƒ Transformers
z Tapped secondary
z Movable coil or shunt
ƒ Reactor (inductor, older technology)
z Movable reactor core
z Saturable reactor (magnetic amplifier)
ƒ Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR, newer technology)
ƒ Transistor (newest technology)
z Linear
z Switching - inverter

2-46
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Welding Power Sources

Other Features

ƒ Single phase
ƒ Three phase
ƒ Remote control
ƒ Pulsation
ƒ Variable polarity AC
ƒ High
Hi h ffrequency
ƒ Synergic controls
ƒ Start control
ƒ Arc force control
ƒ Finish - down slope

2-47
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Module 2A.2
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Elements of a Typical Welding Circuit for SMAW

Source: AWS Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 2

2-49
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Definition of SMAW

ƒ An arc welding process in

which coalescence of metals
is produced by heat from an
electric arc that is maintained
between the tip of a covered
electrode and the surface of
the base metal in the joint being
welded

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 2

2-50
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

SMAW

Medium arc length Long arc length

170A, 12V, T=5.5 IPM 170A, 14V, T=5.5 IPM

6012 electrode was used

Recording rate was 125 frames per second

2-51
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Electrode Covering

ƒ Depending on the type, the covering performs one or more of

the following:
z Provide a gas cover to shield the arc and prevent excessive
atmospheric contamination of the molten filler metal
z Provide scavengers, deoxidizers, and fluxing agents to cleanse the
weld and (potentially) prevent excessive grain growth in the weld
metal
z Establishes the electrical characteristics of the arc.
z Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the air and
enhance the mechanical properties, bead shape, and surface
cleanliness of the weld metal
z Provides a means of adding alloying elements to weld metal to alter
the microstructure and mechanical properties of the weld metal

2-52
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Characteristics of SMAW

ƒ Outgrowth of original welding process developed in the early

20th century
ƒ Most widely used process worldwide
ƒ Normally performed manually by skilled welders
ƒ Equipment and consumable costs are low
ƒ Extremely versatile
ƒ Productivity is low
ƒ Fume generation rates are high
ƒ Generally considered “low tech”

2-53
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

SMAW Advantages

ƒ Most widely used process worldwide – broad skill-base

ƒ Equipment and consumable costs are low – “low-tech”
ƒ Extremely versatile
ƒ Easily implemented for field
welding
ƒ Relatively adaptable to part
fit-up variances
z Operator skill is required

Underwater welding with SMAW

2-54
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Limitations

ƒ Requires relatively high-

skilled manual welder
ƒ Deposition rate is low
ƒ Defect rates are relatively
high
ƒ Fume generation rates are
high

2-55
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Effect of Welding Parameters on Bead Profile

A) Proper amperage, arc

length, and travel speed
B) Amperage too low
C) Amperage too high
D) Arc length too short
E) Arc length too long
F) Travel speed too slow
G) Travel speed too fast

Courtesy AWS Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2, page 64

2-56
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Orientation of the Electrode

Courtesy AWS Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2, page 66

2-57
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Typical Electrode Orientation and

Welding Technique for Carbon Steel Electrodes

* Travel angle may be 10- to 30-degrees for electrodes with heavy iron powder coatings

From AWS Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2, page 65

2-58
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Recommended Dimensions of Grooves for

Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Steel

From AWS Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2, page 59

2-59
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

AWS A5.1 Specification for Carbon Steel

Electrodes for SMAW
ƒ E-XXXX
z E = Electrode (coated)
z First 2 digits = Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) in ksi
z Third digit = position
Š 1 is all positions
Š 2 is flat or horizontal
Š 4 is flat
flat, overhead,
overhead horizontal or vertical
vertical-down
down
z Fourth digit = type of coating
Š 0 is DCEP Cellulose-sodium silicate
Š 1 is AC/DCEP, Cellulose, potassium
Š 2 is AC/DCEN, Rutile, sodium
Š 3 is AC/DC, Rutile, potassium
Š 4 is AC/DC, Rutile/iron powder
Š 5 is DCEP, Lime, sodium
Š 6 is AC/DCEP, Lime, potassium
Š 7 is AC/DC, Iron oxide/iron powder
Š 8 is AC/DCEP, lime/iron powder
2-60
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

SMAW Electrode Classification Example

ƒ E7018
z “E” indicates “stick” electrode
z 70 indicates nominal tensile strength of 70-ksi
z 1 indicates use for welding in all positions
z 8 indicates low hydrogen coating
ƒ E6010
z “E” indicates “stick” electrode
z 60 indicates nominal tensile strength of 60-ksi
z 1 indicates use for welding in all positions
z 0 indicates cellulose coating

2-61
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

AWS A5.4 Specification for Stainless Steel

Electrodes for SMAW
ƒ Uses AISI number to denote alloy and suffix for coating type
z -15 = DCEP
z -16 = AC/DC
ƒ Examples
z E-308-15 is a 308 alloy with DCEP lime coating
z E-312-16 is a 312 alloy with AC/DC rutile coating

2-62
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

AWS A5.5 Specification for Low Alloy

Steel Covered Electrodes
ƒ Similar to AWS A5.1
ƒ May be five digits
ƒ Suffix denotes type of alloy
z A C-Mo
z B Cr-Mo
z C Ni
z D Mn-Mo
z E Ni-Mo
ƒ E-8018-B2
z 80,000-ksi UTS
z G General
z All positions
z M Military
z Alloyed with Cr-Mo
z W Weathering
z Lime, AC/DC

2-63
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

ASME Classifications

ƒ ASME classifies electrodes by F-No. and ASME Specification

z The same F-No. are electrodes with the same usability characteristics
Š All cellulosic electrodes are F-No. 3
Š All low-hydrogen electrodes are F-No. 4
z ASME specifications are the same as AWS specifications with the
addition of “SF”
Š AWS Specification A5.1
A5 1 is ASME Specification SFA
SFA-5
5.1
1

ƒ Electrodes can be in the same ASME specifications but in

different F-no. groups and vice versa
z E6010 is SFA-5.1 and F-No. 3
z E7018 is SFA-5.1 and F-No. 4
z E8018-B2 is SFA-5.5 and F-No. 4

2-64
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Quality Issues

ƒ Discontinuities associated with

manual welding process that
utilizes flux for pool shielding
z Slag inclusions
z Lack of fusion
ƒ Other possible effects on quality
are porosity and hydrogen
cracking

Lack-of-fusion defects
in two-sided SMA weld

2-65
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Low Hydrogen Practice

ƒ Hydrogen embrittlement is a common problem in medium-

and high-carbon steel alloys
z Causes delayed cracking in HAZ
z Worse in thick sections, restrained parts
ƒ Low hydrogen welding practices keep
electrodes and weldment dry, prevent
introduction of hydrogen into the weld metal
z Preheat, minimum interpass temperatures
ƒ Rod ovens and portable rod
containers prevent moisture
from being absorbed in
electrode coatings

2-66
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
SMAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.4 φ F-Number X
.5 φ A-Number X
.6 φ Diameter X
.7 φ Diameter > 1/4 in. X
.12
12 φ Classification X
QW-404
Filler .30 φt X
Metals .33 φ Classification X

2-67
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
SMAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 + Position X

QW-405 .2 φ Position X
Positions .3 φ ↑↓ Vertical Welding X
.1 > Heat Input X
QW-409
Electrical 4
.4 φ Current or Polarity X X
Characteristics .8 φ I & E Range X

.5 φ Method of Cleaning
QW-410
Technique .25 φ Manual or Automatic X

2-68
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Module 2A.3
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTAW Process Description

ƒ An arc is formed between a nonconsumable (tungsten)

electrode and the workpiece electrode
ƒ The energy from the arc melts the workpiece, and the molten
metal solidifies to form a weld bead
ƒ Shielding gas provides the medium for arc formation and
protects the molten p
p pool and electrode from oxidation

2-70
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Basic Components of GTAW

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

2-71
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Autogeneous GTAW

Recording rate was 125 Hz

250A 11.5V 10 IPM

170A 10.5V, T=5.5 IPM 170A 11.5V, T=5.5 IPM

2-72
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTAW Filler Metal

Good wire position

Recording rate: 250 Hz

170A 14.5V 5.5 IPM 35.4 IPM

Bad wire position – off target Bad wire position – too high

170A 12.5V 5.5IPM 35.4 IPM 170A 16.5V 5.5 IPM 35.4 IPM 2-73
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTAW - Range of Operation

ƒ Current: <1- to 500-amps, typically 30 to 150

ƒ Voltage: 9- to 20-volts, typically 10- to 12-volts for argon
ƒ Arc Gap: 0.02- to ¼-in., typically 1/16-in.
ƒ Welding Speed: 1- to 40-in/min, typically 3- to 6-in/min.
ƒ Shielding Gas: argon, argon hydrogen mixtures, helium,
argon helium mixtures
ƒ Thickness: 0.004-in. upwards, typically up to 0.1-in. in a
single pass or ¼-in. with multiple passes
ƒ May be without filler (autogenous) or with added filler, usually
as wire, 1/32- to 3/32-in. diameter

2-74
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTAW Process Description: Terminology

ƒ Gas Tungsten Arc Welding: GTAW - AWS Definition

ƒ Tungsten Inert Gas Welding: TIG - Europe and worldwide,
also often used in the U.S.
ƒ Wolfram Inert Gas Welding: WIG - Used in Germany
ƒ Heliarc: Original name in U.S.
ƒ Argonarc: Original name in UU.K.
K

2-75
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTAW Applications

ƒ Full penetration welds, typically up to 0.1-in.

ƒ Root runs, particularly in pipe welds
ƒ Autogenous welds (no filler)
ƒ High quality welds
ƒ Fill runs, typically up to 0.5-in.
ƒ Most
M t metalst l
z Stainless steels and nickel-based alloys
z Carbon and low alloy steels
z Aluminum and magnesium alloys
z Titanium and reactive metals

2-76
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTAW Applications

ƒ Small components - sensors, medical and electronic

ƒ Tube to tube welds, orbital or rotated tube
ƒ Tube to tube plate welds, condensers, heat exchangers
ƒ Repairs, all industries (e.g., aerospace)
ƒ Process equipment, food industry
ƒ Cladding,
Cl ddi overlays
l
ƒ Sheet metal applications

2-77
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTAW Process Advantages

ƒ Can be used in all positions, manual or mechanized

ƒ Provides excellent control on thin and intricate parts
ƒ No slag or spatter; post weld cleaning often not required
ƒ Use with or without filler wire
ƒ Welds almost all metals
ƒ Precise
P i control t l off weld
ld h
heatt
ƒ High quality

2-78
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GTAW Process Limitations

ƒ Lower deposition rates than consumable electrode processes

ƒ Requires more dexterity and coordination for manual welding
than consumable electrode processes
ƒ Requires high gas purity, low tolerance for drafty
environments means it cannot be used outdoors without
special
p p
precautions
ƒ Low tolerance to contaminants
ƒ Generally requires arc starting system
ƒ Requires precise positioning of electrode

2-79
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Characteristics of Current Types for GTAW

Current type DC DC AC (balanced)

Electrode polarity Negative positive balanced

Electrode and ion

flow

Penetration
characteristics

Oxide cleaning
No Yes Yes-once every half cycle
action
Heat balance in the 70% at work end; 30% 30% at work end; 70% at 50% at work end; 50% at
arc (approx.) at electrode end electrode end electrode end
penetration Deep; narrow Shallow; wide medium
Excellent Poor Good
Electrode capacity
e.g.1/8in-400A e.g.1/4-120A e.g.1/8in-225A

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook Volume 2, 7th Edition

2-80
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Shielding Gas for GTAW

ƒ Argon is used most extensively

z Lower cost and flow rate than helium
z Easier arc starting
z Better cross draft resistance
ƒ Helium is preferred for some applications
z Transfers more heat to workpiece - useful for metals with high thermal
conductivity and for high speed welding
z Argon-helium mixtures are used to gain advantages of both gases
ƒ Argon-Helium mixtures
z Used to increase penetration on stainless steels, along with up to 15%
hydrogen

2-81
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Pulsed Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

2-82
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Hot Wire GTAW

2-83
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

High Frequency (HF) Arc Starting

ƒ Spark gap oscillator generates HF (VRMS ~ 3500 V, f ~

10kHz)
ƒ Air core transformer couples HF to welding electrode
ƒ HF bypass filter prevents HF current from passing back into
welding machine (and causing possible damage to
electronics 2-84
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Specifications and Practices

ƒ Electrode and filler metal specifications

z AWS A5.12, Specification for Tungsten and Tungsten Alloy Electrodes
for Metal Arc Welding and Cutting
z AWS A5.18, Specification for Carbon Steel Filler Metals for Gas
Shielded Arc Welding
z ASME uses the same labeling system for GTAW filler metals as
SMAW electrodes
Š SF labeling
ƒ Recommended practice documents
ƒ C5.5, Recommended Practices for Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding
ƒ C5.10, Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Arc
Welding and Cutting

2-85
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
GTAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.3 φ Size X
.4 φ F-Number X
.5 φ A-Number X
.12 φ Classification X
.14
14 ± Filler X
.22 ± Consumable Insert X
.23 φ Filler Metal Product Form X
.30 φt X
QW-404
Filler .33 φ Classification X
Metals .50 ± Flux X

2-86
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
GTAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 + Position X

QW-405 .2 φ Position X
Positions .3 φ ↑↓ Vertical Welding X
.1 ± Trail or φ Composition X
2
.2 φ Single
Single, Mixture
Mixture, or % X
.3 φ Flow Rate X
.5 ± or φ Backing Flow X

QW-408 .9 - Backing or φ Composition X

Gas .10 φ Shielding or Trailing X

2-87
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
GTAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 > Heat Input X
.3 ± Pulsing I X
.4 φ Current or Polarity X X
QW-409
Electrical .8 φ I & E Range X
Characteristic .12 φ Tugsten Electrode X
φ Orifice, Cup, or Nozzle
.3 Size X
.5 φ Method of Cleaning X
φ Single to Multi
.10 Electrodes X X
.11 φ Closed to Out Chamber X

QW-410 .15 φ Electrode Spacing X

Technique .25 φ Manual to Automatic X

2-88
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Module 2A.4
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Definition

ƒ Nonconsumable electrode
ƒ Heat is produced from a plasma jet
z Arc can be transferred or nontransferred
ƒ Shielding is obtained from the ionized gas
z Usually supplemented by an auxiliary source of shielding gas
ƒ Filler metal may of may not be used
ƒ Pressure is not used
ƒ Variables
z Plasma current
z Orifice diameter and shape
z Type of orifice gas
z Flow rate of orifice gas
z Type of shielding gas

2-90
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma Arc Torch

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

2-91
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

Why Arc Constriction?

ƒ Columnar shaped plasma jet

z Significantly reduces sensitivity to variations in arc length
z More stable plasma jet
z Permits the use of longer arc lengths
z Less welder skill is required (compared to GTAW)
ƒ Higher energy density
z Increased penetration and travel speeds

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2, 8th Edition

2-92
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

Transferred and Nontransferred Plasma Arc

Modes

CONSTRICTING NOZZLE

ORIFICE GAS

SHIELDING
GAS

WORK

TRANSFERRED NONTRANSFERRED

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2, 8th Edition

2-93
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

Consumables

ƒ Techniques for adding filler metal

z Cold wire feed
Š Filler wire is introduced at the leading edge of the weld pool
Š May be done manually or by conventional GTAW wirefeeders
z Hot wire feed
Š Wirefeeder introduces wire at the trailing edge of the weld pool
z Dabber technique
Š Filler wire feed is pulsed in synchronization with the pulsing of the plasma
arc current
ƒ AWS specifications for consumables used for PAW are the
same as those used for GTAW
z Filler wires, electrodes, and shielding gases

2-94
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

Advantages and Disadvantages

ƒ Advantages
z Columnar plasma jet
Š Higher energy density enables faster welding speeds, lower heat input,
and less distortion
Š Improved arc stability and tolerance to variations in torch-to-work distance
Š Permits the use of longer torch-to-work distances
q
Š Less welder skill is required ((compared
p to GTAW))
ƒ Disadvantages
z Higher equipment cost
z Lower tolerance to variations in fit-up
z Manual PAW torches are more difficult to manipulate than manual
GTAW torches

2-95
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

Applications

ƒ Process techniques
z Keyhole mode
z Melt-in mode
ƒ Applicable to all metals weldable by the GTAW process
z All metals except aluminum and magnesium are welded with DCEN
ƒ Applications
pp
z Build-ups for aerospace components
z Medical pacemakers
z Electronic components
z Bellows and seals
z Motors and transformers
z Tube mills
z Cladding, wire mesh, process piping

2-96
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
PAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.3 φ Size X
.4 φ F-Number X
.5 φ A-Number X
.12 φ Classification X
.14
14 ± Filler X
.22 ± Consumable Insert X
.23 φ Filler Metal Product Form X
.27 φ Alloy Elements X
QW-404
Filler .30 φt X
Metals .33 φ Classification X

2-97
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
PAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 + Position X

QW-405 .2 φ Position X
Positions .3 φ ↑↓ Vertical Welding X
.1 ± Trail or φ Composition X
4
.4 φ Composition X
.5 ± or φ Backing Flow X
.9 - Backing or φ Composition X

QW-408 .10 φ Shielding or Trailing X

Gas .21 φ Flow Rate X

2-98
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Plasma Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
PAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 > Heat Input X
.4 φ Current or Polarity X X
QW-409
Electrical .8 φ I & E Range X
Characteristics .12 φ Tugsten Electrode X
φ Orifice
Orifice, Cup
Cup, or Nozzle
.3 Size X
.5 φ Method of Cleaning X
φ Single to Multi
.10 Electrodes X X
.11 φ Closed to Out Chamber X

QW-410 .12 φ Melt-in to Keyhole X

Technique .15 φ Electrode Spacing X

2-99
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Module 2A.5
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

SAW Definition

ƒ At least one consumable bare metal electrode

ƒ Arc(s) produce heat
ƒ Shielded by granular, fusible material on workpieces
ƒ Used without the application of pressure

2-101
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

SAW Components

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

2-102
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

SAW Definitions and Variables

Definitions Variables
Machine Welding amperage
Automatic Welding voltage
Semiautomatic Travel speed
Tandem arc Electrode size
Flux Electrode extension
Flux recovery units Width and depth of flux
Tractors
Manipulators
Positioners

2-103
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

Consumables for SAW

ƒ AWS A5.17, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and

Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding
z F7A6-EM12K - 70,000 psi UTS, Charpy toughness of 20 ft-lb @ -60F,
with EM12K Medium Mn, 0.12%C, Killed
Š F - Flux
Š 7 - Tensile Strength in 10,000 psi
Š A - Condition of heat treatment
Š 6 - Lowest temperature (x -10°C) with Charpy toughness of 20ft-lb
Š E - Solid electrode, EC - cored electrode
Š M - Classification of manganese content
Š L - Low, M - Medium, H - High
Š 12 - Carbon content in hundredths of a percent
Š K - Killed

2-104
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

Selection and Application Criteria for SAW

ƒ Advantages
z Superior weld quality
z Often self cleaning
z High deposition rates
z Minimum edge preparation
z No radiant energy
z Minimum fume problem
ƒ Disadvantages
z Flux housekeeping
z Usable only in flat position

2-105
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

Effect of Amperage Variation

on Weld Bead Shape and Penetration

Semiautomatic welding Machine welding

3/32 in. wire, 35V, 24in./s 7/32 in. wire, 34V, 30in./s

350 500 650 700 1000 850

A A A A A A

Welding Processes -- Arc and Gas Welding and Cutting, Brazing and Soldering, AWS Welding Handbook, 7th Ed,
Vol. 2, p. 203, fig. 6.5.

2-106
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

Effect of Arc Voltage Variations

on Weld Bead Shape and Penetration

Semiautomatic welding Machine welding

3/32 in. wire, 500A, 24in./s 7/32 in. wire, 850A, 30in./s

27V 45V 34V

25V 35V 45V

Welding Processes -- Arc and Gas Welding and Cutting, Brazing and Soldering, AWS Welding Handbook, 7th Ed, Vol. 2,
p. 203, fig. 6.6.

2-107
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

Effect of Travel Speed Variation

on Weld Bead Shape and Penetration

Semiautomatic welding Machine welding

3/32 in. wire, 500A, 35V 7/32 in. wire, 850A, 34V

12 24 48 60 15 30
in./min in./min in./min in./min in./min in./min

Welding Processes -- Arc and Gas Welding and Cutting, Brazing and Soldering, AWS Welding Handbook, 7th Ed,
Vol. 2, p. 204, fig. 6.7.

2-108
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

Effect of Electrode Size on Weld Bead

Shape and Penetration

Machine welding
600A, 30V， 30in./min

Electrode size
1/8in. 5/32in. 7/32in.

Welding Processes -- Arc and Gas Welding and Cutting, Brazing and Soldering, AWS Welding Handbook, 7th Ed,
Vol. 2, p. 205, fig. 6.8.

2-109
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

Effect of Work Inclination

on Weld Bead Shape in 13-mm (1/2 in.) Plate

Flat position weld Downhill weld (1/8 slope)

Uphill weld (1/8 slope) Lateral weld (1/19 slope)

Welding Processes -- Arc and Gas Welding and Cutting, Brazing and Soldering, AWS Welding Handbook, 7th Ed,
Vol. 2, p. 215, fig. 6.12.

2-110
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
SAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.4 φ F-Number X
.5 φ A-Number X
.6 φ Diameter X
.9 φ Flux/Wire Classification X
.10
10 φ Alloy Flux X
.24 ± or φ Supplemental X
.27 φ Alloy Elements X
.29 φ Flux Designation X
.30 φt X
.33 φ Classification X
.34 φ Flux Type X
QW-404
Filler .35 φ Flux/Wire Classification X X
Metals .36 Recrushed Slag X

2-111
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Submerged Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
SAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
QW-405
Positions .1 + Position X
.1 > Heat Input X
QW-409
Electrical .4 φ Current or Polarity X X
Characteristics .8 φ I & E Range X
.5 φ Method of Cleaning X
.8 φ Tube-Work Distance X
φ Single to Multi
.10 Electrodes X X

QW-410 .15 φ Electrode Spacing X

Technique .25 φ Manual or Automatic X

2-112
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
and Flux Cored Arc Welding
(GMAW & FCAW)
Module 2A.6
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

2-114
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Flux Cored Arc Welding

Self-Shielded FCAW Gas-Shielded FCAW

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2, 8th Edition

2-115
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

GMAW/FCAW Equipment

SHIELDING GAS
REGULATOR

ELECTRODE SUPPLY
7

ELECTRODE FEED UNIT

SHIELDING GAS
SUPPLY

3
2 5
4 8
POWER
6 SOURCE
9
WELDING GUN
WATER
CIRCULATOR
1 10
WORKPIECE

1 WORK LEAD 6 CABLE ASSEMBLY

2 WATER TO GUN 7 SHIELDING GAS FROM CYLINDER
3 WATER FROM GUN 8 WELDING CONTACTOR CONTROL
4 GUN SWITCH CIRCUIT 9 POWER CABLE
5 SHIELDING GAS TO GUN 10 PRIMARY INPUT POWER

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2, 8th Edition

2-116
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Consumables for GMAW

ƒ Primary consumables are the wire and the shielding gas

ƒ A5.18 Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Rods for
Gas Shielded Arc Welding
ƒ C5.10 Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Arc
Welding and Plasma Cutting
ƒ ERxxS
ERxxS-yy
z ER – Electrode or rod
z xx - Two or three digits for tensile strength in KSI
z S - Solid wire
z y - Suffix for specifying chemistry and other details

2-117
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Consumables for FCAW

ƒ A5.20 Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux

Cored Arc Welding
ƒ C5.10 Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases
for Arc Welding and Plasma Cutting
ƒ ExyT-ab
z E - Electrode
z x – One or two digits for tensile strength in 10’s of KSI
z y - Welding position (0 = flat or horizontal, 1 – all)
z T - Tubular
z a - Usability, performance

2-118
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

GMAW/FCAW Variables

ƒ Wire feed speed (WFS)

z Controls the welding current
ƒ Arc voltage
ƒ Polarity
ƒ Travel speed
ƒ Electrode extension
ƒ Torch angles
z Work and travel angles
ƒ Joint design
ƒ Electrode diameter
ƒ Shielding gas

2-119
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

WFS, Voltage, and CTWD

ƒ WFS
z Primary variable that controls heating and melting power to the
electrode
z Increasing the WFS increases the deposition rate and weld
penetration
ƒ Voltage
z IImpacts
t the
th melting
lti efficiency
ffi i att th
the workpiece
k i and
d th
the weld
ld shape
h
z Improper voltage can result in arc instabilities and inadequate welds
ƒ Contact Tip to Word Distance (CTWD)
z Longer CTWDs result in greater preheating in the electrode stick-out,
lower heat input into the workpiece, and a more crowned weld bead
Š Secondary affect on heat input to the workpiece compared to current,
voltage, and travel speed

2-120
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Modes of Metal Transfer

Spray Globular

Short-circuiting
Pulse-spray

2-121
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

GMAW (transfer mode)

Globular mode Spray mode

T
Travel
l di
direction
ti

WFS=200 IPM, 29V, T=10 IPM

ER70S-3, 0.052” welding wire was used

Ar-10%CO2 shielding gas was used Stainless Wire ER308L

Recording rate
125 Hz for globular and spray modes

2-122
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

FCAW

WFS= 225 IPM, V= 29V , T= 10 IPM

0.045” welding wire was used

Ar-10%CO2 shielding gas was used
Recording rate was 1125 Hz

2-123
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Short Circuit Transfer

Wire shorts to Arc reignites

plate
Metal transfer

2-124
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Globular Transfer

Drop short circuits and

explodes producing spatter

Irregular
droplet size Random
transfer

2-125
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Spray Transfer

2-126
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Pulse Spray Transfer

ƒ Synergic control: in modern supplies, pulse waveforms are

automatically adjusted to accommodate a wire feed rate set
by the user

2-127
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

GMAW (transfer mode)

Pulsed mode

2-128
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Typical Weld Cycle

Electrode contacts workpiece
(short circuit current)

Start current Welding current

peed, and travel speed

Crater fill current

Open circuit voltage
Welding wire
feed speed
Start wire
feed speed Burnback voltage
Current, voltage, wire feed sp

Crater fill
wire feed
Welding voltage speed
Run-in Start voltage
wire feed
speed

Travel speed
Crater fill voltage

Preflow Run-in Start Weld Crater fill Burnback Postflow

time time time time time time time

Welding cycle time

2-129
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal Arc Welding Advancements

Reciprocating Wire Feed GMAW

2-130
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Selection and Application Criteria for GMAW

ƒ Advantages
z Welds all commercial metals
z All positions
z High deposition rates compared to GTAW and SMAW
Š Continuously fed filler wire
z Long welds without stops and starts
z Mi i l post-weld
Minimal t ld and
d iinter-pass
t cleaning
l i
ƒ Limitations
z Welding equipment is more complex than that for SMAW
Š More difficult to use in hard to reach places
Š Welding torch size
z Welding torch must be kept in close proximity to the workpieces in
order to achieve adequate shielding
z Arc must be protected against air drafts

2-131
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

Selection and Application Criteria for FCAW

ƒ Advantages
z High deposition rates
z Deeper penetration than SMAW
z High quality welds
z Less pre-cleaning than GMAW
z Slag covering helps with out-of-position welds
z Self-shielded FCAW is draft tolerant
ƒ Disadvantages
z Slag must be removed
z Higher fume generation than GMAW and SAW
z Spatter
z Equipment is more expensive and complex than SMAW
z FCAW wire is more expensive

2-132
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
GMAW & FCAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.4 φ F-Number X
.5 φ A-Number X
.6 φ Diameter X
.12 φ Classification X
.23
23 φ Filler Metal Product Form X
.24 ± or φ Supplemental X
.27 φ Alloy Elements X
.30 φt X
QW-404
Filler .32 t Limits (S.Cir. Arc) X
Metals .33 φ Classification X

2-133
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
GMAW & FCAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 + Position X

QW-405 .2 φ Position X
Positions .3 φ ↑↓ Vertical Welding X
.1 ± Trail or φ Composition X
2
.2 φ Single
Single, Mixture
Mixture, or % X
.3 φ Flow Rate X
.5 ± or φ Backing Flow X

QW-408 .9 - Backing or φ Composition X

Gas .10 φ Shielding or Trailing X

2-134
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Gas Metal and Flux Cored Arc Welding

ASME Section IX –
GMAW & FCAW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 > Heat Input X
.2 φ Transfer Mode X
QW-409
Electrical .4 φ Current or Polarity X X
Characteristics .8 φ I & E Range X
φ Orifice
Orifice, Cup
Cup, or Nozzle
.3 Size X
.5 φ Method of Cleaning X
.8 φ Tube-Work Distance X
.10 φ Single to Multi Electrodes X X

QW-410 .15 φ Electrode Spacing X

Technique .25 φ Manual or Automatic X

2-135
Other Arc Welding Processes

Module 2A.7
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electroslag Welding

Electroslag Welding (ESW) Definition

ƒ Pieces welded by molten slag that

melts the filler metal and the
surfaces of the workpieces to be
welded
ƒ ESW is not a “true” arc process

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

2-137
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electroslag Welding

Advantages of ESW

ƒ Deposition rates of 35- to 45-lbs/hr

ƒ Sections with thicknesses ≥ ¾-in
ƒ Preheating and post-heating are normally not required
ƒ Long molten time allows gas and slag to escape
ƒ High duty cycle with little operator fatigue
ƒ Minimum
Mi i material
t i lhhandling
dli
ƒ Minimum distortion
ƒ No spatter
z 100% of filler metal is transferred to the weld
ƒ Fastest welding process for large, thick materials

2-138
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electroslag Welding

Limitations of ESW

ƒ Limited to carbon, low alloy, and some stainless steels

ƒ Only applicable to vertically positioned joints
ƒ Single pass welding only
z Process cannot be interrupted, or else weld will contain discontinuities
and flaws
ƒ Minimum base metal thickness of approximately
pp y¾¾-in
ƒ Complex material shapes may be difficult or impossible to
weld

2-139
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electroslag Welding

Application of ESW

ƒ Used for welding carbon, low alloy, and some stainless steels
in a single pass
ƒ Recognized by all of the important national codes
z Several have requirements that differ from other welding processes
ƒ Widely used for structural applications
z Transition jjoint between different flange
g thicknesses
z Stiffeners in box columns and wide flanges
ƒ Large presses and machinery with large, heavy plate
ƒ Pressure vessels

2-140
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electroslag Welding

Safety and Health of ESW

ƒ Refer to Z49.1 of AWS and OSHA Title 29 Part 1910 for

details
ƒ Safety glasses with side shields are recommended
ƒ Electrical safety due to all parts of operation being electrically
"HOT"
ƒ Stay away from fumes
ƒ Slag leakage may be a problem
ƒ Be cautious with hot shoes, sumps, and run-off blocks

2-141
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electroslag Welding

ASME Section IX –
ESW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.4 φ F-Number X
.5 φ A-Number X
.6 φ Diameter X
.12 φ Classification X
.17
17 φ Flux Type or Composition X
.18 φ Wire to Plate X
QW-404
Filler .19 φ Consumable Guide X
Metals .33 φ Classification X
QW-409
Electrical
Characteristics .5 φ ± 15% I & E Range X
.5 φ Method of Cleaning X

QW-410 .10 φ Single to Multi Electrodes X X

Technique .15 φ Electrode Spacing X

2-142
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electrogas Welding

Electrogas Welding (EGW) Definition

ƒ Arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous

filler metal electrode and the weld pool
ƒ Employs vertical position
welding with backing to
confine the molten weld
pool
ƒ Externally applied shielding
gas may or may not be
used
z No granular flux

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2, 9th Ed.

2-143
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electrogas Welding

Application of EGW

ƒ Storage tanks, ship hulls, structural members, and

pressure vessels
z High heat input gives large grain size
z Used for 3/8- to 4-in. thicknesses
z Reduced need for preheat
z Reduced need for PWHT
z Reduced distortion
ƒ Problem may be low notch toughness
ƒ High voltages are needed to melt into sidewalls

2-144
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electrogas Welding

ASME Section IX –
EGW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.4 φ F-Number X
.5 φ A-Number X
.6 φ Diameter X
.12 φ Classification X
QW-404
Fill
Filler 23
.23 φ Filler Metal Product Form X
Metals .33 φ Classification X

QW-408 .2 φ Single, Mixture, or % X

Gas .4 φ Flow Rate X

2-145
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electrogas Welding

ASME Section IX –
EGW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 > Heat Input X
QW-409
Electrical .4 φ Current or Polarity X X
Characteristics .8 φ I & E Range X
.5 φ Method of Cleaning X
.8
8 φ Tube
Tube-Work
Work Distance X
φ Single to Multi
QW-410 .10 Electrodes X X
Technique .15 φ Electrode Spacing X

2-146
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Stud Welding

Arc Stud Welding Definition

ƒ Attachment of threaded studs to

base plate
ƒ Local melting at interface by
~0.1-2 second arc
ƒ Metal expulsion during plunging
ƒ Capacitor discharge is a less
common process for stud
welding

Source: AWS Handbook 9th ed. Vol. 1

2-147
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Arc Stud Welding

ASME Section IX –
Arc Stud Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential

QW-402 .8 φ Stud Shape Size X

Joints .9 - Flux or Ferrule X
QW-405
Positions .1 + Position X
QW-408
Gas .2 φ Single, Mixture, or % X
.4 φ Current or Polarity X
.8 φ I & E Range X
.9 φ Arc Timing X
QW-409
Electrical .10 φ Amperage X
Characteristics .11 φ Power Source X
QW-410
Technique .22 φ Gun Model or Lift X

2-148
Introduction to Non-Arc Welding
Processes

Module 2B
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes

Introduction to Non-Arc Welding Processes

ƒ Non-Arc Welding processes refer to a wide range of

processes which produce a weld without the use of an
electrical arc
z High Energy Density Welding processes
Š Main advantage – low heat input
Š Main disadvantage – expensive equipment
z Solid-State Welding processes
Š Main advantage – good for dissimilar metal joints
Š Main disadvantage – usually not ideal for high production
z Resistance Welding processes
Š Main advantage – fast welding times
Š Main disadvantage – difficult to inspect

2-2
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Non-Arc Welding Introduction

Introduction to Non-Arc Welding Processes

ƒ Brazing and Soldering

z Main advantage – minimal degradation to base metal properties
z Main disadvantage – requirement for significant joint preparation
ƒ Thermite Welding
z Main advantage – extremely portable
z Main disadvantage – significant set-up time
ƒ Oxyfuel Gas Welding
z Main advantage - portable, versatile, low cost equipment
z Main disadvantage - very slow

ƒ In general, most non-arc welding processes are conducive to

original fabrication only, and not ideal choices for repair
welding (with one exception being Thermite Welding)

2-3
High Energy Density (HED) Welding

Module 2B.1
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

Types of HED Welding

ƒ Electron Beam Welding

z Process details
z Equipment
z Safety
ƒ Laser Welding
z Process details
z Different types of lasers and equipment
z Comparison to Electron Beam Welding
z Hybrid Laser Welding
z Safety

2-5
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

HED Welding

ƒ Power density (power / area) is significantly higher than that

achieved by the common arc welding processes

ƒ In HED processes the power density is greater than 5 x 102

kW/cm2:
z Electron Beam Welding
g
z Laser Beam Welding
z Plasma Arc Welding

2-6
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

Range of Power Densities

ƒ Depends on the power and spot size

ƒ Melting and vaporization processes will be dominant in the
molten pool kW/cm2
ƒ Vaporization may cause
keyhole formation 106

105

104

103

EBW
CO2 Laser
PAW
102 Arc
10
100
2-7
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

HED Welding

ƒ Laser and electron beams can be focused to a very small

spot size (the diameter of human hair, 0.05 mm)
ƒ CW (constant wave) power density can reach as high as 105
kW/cm2
ƒ HED processes can melt and/or vaporize materials including:
z Metals and alloys
y
z Plastics and composites
z Wood
z Rubber
z Ceramics and Concrete

2-8
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

HED Welding Applications

ƒ Automotive
z Transmission components
z Structural
ƒ Aerospace
z Jet Engines
ƒ Medical
z Pacemakers
z Batteries
ƒ Electrical
z Relays
z Electronic Devices

[Source: Internet]

2-9
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

HED Welding

ƒ Advantages (compared to Arc Welding processes)

z Low overall heat input results in low distortion and minimal
degradation to the base metal microstructure (small heat affected
zone)
z Very fast single pass weld speeds possible
z Easily automated in the case of Laser Welding
z Non-contact processes,
processes no tool or electrode wear
z No filler metal required
ƒ Disadvantages
z Accurate joint positioning and fit-up required
z High equipment cost
z Safety concerns

2-10
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

Welding Processes Comparison

Quality LBW EBW Arc Resistance

Welding ++ ++ - +
Speed
Low Heat ++ ++ - +
Input
Narrow HAZ ++ ++ - -
Weld Bead + + -
Appearance
Deep + ++ - -
Penetration
Equipment - - + +
Cost
Equipment + + +
Reliability
+ = Advantage - = Disadvantage

2-11
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

Relative Joining Efficiencies

Process Joining Efficiency

mm2/kJ
High Frequency Resistance Welding 65 - 100
Electron beam (EBW) 20 – 30
Laser (LBW) 15 - 25
Submerged arc welding (SAW) 4 – 10
Shielded metal arc (SMAW) 2-3
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) 0.8 - 2
Oxyacetylene flame 0.2 - 0.5

[Ref: “Laser Material Processing”, W. M. Steen]

2-12
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

Power Densities and Weld Profiles

ƒ Flux shielded arc welding 0.5 - 50 kW/cm2

ƒ Gas shielded arc welding 0.5 -50 kW/cm2

ƒ Plasma 50 - 5×103 kW/cm2

ƒ Laser or electron beam 5×103 - 5×105 kW/cm2

[Ref: “Laser Material Processing”, W. M. Steen]

2-13
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

HED Welding Features

ƒ Pressure on weld pool surface forms a deep depression

(keyhole)
ƒ Weld depth is generally significantly greater than width

Keyhole in Electron Beam Welding

[Ref: “AWS Handbook, Vol. 3, Welding Processes, Part 2, 9th Ed.]

2-14
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

“Keyhole” Formation

Laser
Beam Keyhole

Work piece

2-15
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes High Energy Density Welding

Weld Joint Design for HED Welding

ƒ Butt, corner, lap, edge and

T-joints can be made by Beam Beam
electron beam welding
using square-groove or
seam welds.
Square-groove weld
ƒ Fillet welds are difficult to butt jjoint
make and are not Edge weld, corner
generally used. flange joint
Beam
Beam

Square-groove weld, Seam weld,

T-joint lap joint

2-16
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electron Beam Welding

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) – Concept

Emitter (Cathode)

Grid (Bias Cup)

Accelerating Electrode
(Anode)
Magnetic Focusing Lens

Magnetic Deflection Coil

Workpiece

2-17
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electron Beam Welding

Control of the Electron Beam

ƒ Electron beam systems

employ an electromagnetic
lens to focus the electron
beam into a small spot on the
workpiece
ƒ The deflection coils are
generally positioned below the
focusing lens, and are used to
deflect the electron beam from
its normal axial position

Focus depth
Deflection range

2-18
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electron Beam Welding

Electron Beam Welding – Key Variables

ƒ Factors that affect electron beam welds

z Electron-beam gun design
z Focusing
z Accelerating voltage
z Beam current
z Welding speed
z Vacuum environment

2-19
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electron Beam Welding

Penetration as a Function of Operating Pressure in

Electron Beam Welding
ƒ HV – Hard Vacuum
ƒ MV – Medium Vacuum
ƒ NV – Non-Vacuum 100%

80%

60%

40%
10 -7 10 -6 .5x10 -5 torr
20%

0%
1 × 10-3 2 × 10-2 2 × 10-1 50 760 mmHg
partial quick
1 x 10 -4 2 x 10 -4 3 x 10 -4 torr
HV MV NV
[Ref: “AWS Handbook, Vol. 3, Welding Processes, Part 2, 9th Ed.]

2-20
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electron Beam Welding

Effect of Electron Beam Focusing on Weld Bead

Geometry and Penetration

[Ref: “AWS Handbook, Vol. 3, Welding Processes, Part 2, 9th Ed.]

2-21
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electron Beam Welding

Electron Beam Safety

ƒ Electric shock risk due to extremely high voltages

ƒ X-rays which are generated when beam contacts parts being
welded
ƒ Fumes and gases
ƒ Visible radiation from intense heating

2-22
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electron Beam Welding

ASME Section IX –
Electron Beam Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Cross Section or Speed X
.2 < t or φ Composition X
.8 ± or φ Composition X
.14 ± Filler X
.20
20 φ Method of Addition X
QW-404
Filler .21 φ Analysis X
Metals .33 φ Classification X
QW-408
Gas .6 φ Environment X

2-23
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Electron Beam Welding

ASME Section IX –
Electron Beam Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
φ I, E, Speed, Distance,
QW-409 .6 Osc. X
Electrical
Characteristics .7 φ Pulsing Frequency X
.5 φ Method of Cleaning X
.14 φ Angle or Beam Axis X
.17 φ Type Equipment X
.18 > Pressure of Vacuum X
φ Filament Type, Size,
QW-410 .19 etc. X
Technique .20 + Wash Pass X

2-24
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

ƒ The word “LASER” is an acronym for “light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation”
ƒ A focused Laser Beam Welding (LBW) machine is an
excellent source of concentrated power
ƒ Three basic types of lasers are used in welding: gas (CO2),
solid-state lasers ((Nd:YAG),
), fiber

2-25
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Comparison of LBW to EBW

ƒ No vacuum requirement for LBW – much more conducive to

high speed production
ƒ Very flexible beam deliver systems with LBW – ease of
automation
ƒ No X-ray hazards with LBW, but eye safety is important
ƒ EBW capable of welding much thicker cross-sections
cross sections

2-26
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Three Important Laser Components

ƒ Laser gain medium

ƒ Pumping energy
ƒ Optical resonator cavity

Nd: YAG solid-state laser

Partially
reflective mirror

Flashlamp (pump source)

Highly reflective
Laser output
mirror

Nd:YAG crystal (laser medium)

Optical resonator
2-27
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

CO2 Lasers

Laser

CO2 + N2 + He Laser beam

Electron stream

ƒ Electrical current passes through a low pressure gas mixture

of CO2, nitrogen and helium to excite gas molecules, obtain a
population inversion
ƒ Most CO2 lasers produce either a continuous wave (CW) or
pulsed output.
z The pulses are generated by periodically interrupting the energy input
to the laser cavity

2-28
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Nd:YAG Lasers

ƒ Lasing medium for the Nd:YAG laser is a transparent rod of

yttrium aluminum garnet crystal implanted with neodymium
ions
ƒ Laser cavity consists of lamps,
mirror reflector and YAG rod
ƒ Nd:YAG laser has a
wavelength of 1.06 mm
ƒ Advantages over CO2 laser
output
z Optical fiber delivery, easy to
adapt to robotics
z Increased absorption in metals

2-29
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Fiber Lasers

5kW
Single Mode

Multiple 1kW single

Multi-KW
mode fibers interfaced
Multi-Mode
to a larger
multi-mode fiber by a
patented technique

2-30
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Laser Beam Focusing

ƒ Focal spot diameter of a high power laser beam is best

measured with an optical instrument but can be estimated by
spot welds or holes
ƒ Standard optical formulae
z Focal point diameter » M2 4lf/(pD)
z Depth of focus = 4M2lf 2/(pD 2)

f
λ- Wavelength, M 2 – beam quality factor
ds – spot diameter,
2-31
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Laser Beam Focusing

2-32
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Types of Laser Optics

ƒ The higher power lasers generally

employ reflective style optics Windows
z Mirrors
ƒ These mirrors are usually water
cooled to withstand high incident
Output couplers
powers
ƒ They may be either bare or coated
ƒ Highly polished, bare copper mirrors
are commonly employed, but gold- Mirrors

coated mirrors will provide the

highest reflectivity

2-33
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Fiber Optics

ƒ Working distances up to 150 m

ƒ Can reach difficult-to-access places
ƒ Can be taken under water
Launch Optics Focus Mirror
ƒ Multi-station operation
ƒ Robotics applications
ƒ Flexibility
Fl ibilit

2-34
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

Laser Safety

ƒ Carbon dioxide laser machines have a good industrial safety

record
ƒ Very few serious beam related accidents reported
ƒ Certain lasers such YAG and Fiber Lasers require special eye
protection to filter out their dangerous wavelength
ƒ Danger associated with high voltage system used to generate
the electrical discharge
ƒ Lasers pose serious eye and burn hazards

2-35
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

ASME Section IX –
LBW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Cross Section or Speed X
.2 < t or φ Composition X
.8 ± or φ Composition X
.14 ± Filler X
.20
20 φ Method of Addition X
QW-404
Filler .21 φ Analysis X
Metals .33 φ Classification X
.2 φ Single, Mixture, or % X
.6 φ Environment X
.11 ± Gases X

QW-408 .12 φ > 5% Gases X

Gas .13 φ Plasma Jet Position X

2-36
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Laser Welding

ASME Section IX –
LBW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.19 φ Pulse X

QW-409 .20 φ Mode, Energy X

Electrical φ Power, Speed, D/fl,
Characteristics .21 Distance X
.5 φ Method of Cleaning X
.14 φ Angle or Beam Axis X

QW-410 .17 φ Type Equipment X

Technique .20 + Wash Pass X

2-37
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Hybrid Laser Welding

Hybrid Laser Welding

ƒ Reflects a recent trend toward combining two welding

processes into one
ƒ Very common approach is to combine
LBW and GMAW
ƒ Utilizes the advantages of each
process and minimizes the
p
disadvantages
z High welding speed of LBW
z Wider weld profile of GMAW provides
better tolerance to weld gap and
alignment
z Laser stabilizes arc
z Flexibility of fiber delivery with LBW
z Capability for weld reinforcement with
GMAW
[Courtesy: EWI]
2-38
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Hybrid Laser Welding

Hybrid Laser Welding

ƒ Laser beam “leads” the weld puddle Laser GMAW

ƒ Laser spot stabilizes the arc Beam

ƒ Laser and GMAW is the most Laser

Plume
Shielding
Gas
common hybrid process, but other Keyhole
Fusion
Zone
combinations are being explored

ƒ ASME Section IX is currently

working to incorporate laser
hybrid as a welding process

Hybrid Weld in Aluminum

[Courtesy: EWI]

2-39
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Hybrid Laser Welding

Hybrid Laser GMAW

2-40
Solid-State Welding

Module 2B.2
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Introduction

Solid-State Welding Overview

ƒ A group of welding processes that produces a metallurgical

bond between two metals at temperatures below the melting
point of the base metal”

ƒ Fundamentals
z Metallic bonding
g
z Barriers to bonding
z Overcoming barriers to bonding
z Roll bonding theory
ƒ Processes
z Friction Welding
z Diffusion Welding
z Explosion Welding
z Ultrasonic Welding

2-42
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Introduction

Advantages Compared to Arc Welding Processes

ƒ Elimination of molten metal reduces the chance for forming

weld defects
ƒ Dissimilar metal joints are possible
ƒ Usually produces very high quality, high strength weld joints
ƒ Consumables such as filler metals and shielding gas are not
required
ƒ Often used for welding materials that cannot be welded with
conventional welding processes

2-43
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Introduction

Disadvantages Compared to Arc Welding

Processes
ƒ Usually requires expensive equipment
ƒ Not always conducive to high production
ƒ Significant joint preparation is sometimes required
ƒ Limited joint designs
ƒ Non-destructive inspection can be difficult

2-44
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Introduction

Applications

ƒ Jet engines
ƒ Automotive components
ƒ Cookware
ƒ Electrical devices
ƒ Microelectronics
ƒ Heat
H t exchangers
h
ƒ Medical products
ƒ Many more!

[Source: Internet]

2-45
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Principles

Metallic Bonding

ƒ Valence electrons are not bound to a single atom and are free
to drift (which is why metals conduct electricity) to form a
“cloud” of electrons Ion cores Valence electron cloud
ƒ Remaining non-valence electrons
and atomic nuclei form ion cores
ƒ The binding g forces between the
ion cores and electron cloud hold
the atoms together

2-46
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Principles

Metallic Bonding

ƒ Driving force for bonding of metals:

z Adhesion, (formation of metallic bonds) between two metal surfaces
can occur due to inter-atomic forces described previously
z To occur, the two surfaces must be brought extremely close together
~ 10 A – a nearly perfectly smooth surface!
z No industrial process is capable of achieving such a smooth surface

Attraction Approx. 10 A
Force

r
Repulsion Inter-atomic
separation

2-47
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Principles

Metallic Bonding

ƒ If there is a driving force for welding, why aren’t metals easily

welded with Solid-State Welding Processes?
z Barriers to bonding hinder intimate contact:
Š Asperities (surface roughness)
Š Oxides
Š Surface contamination

2-48
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Principles

Interfaces - Asperities

ƒ Barriers to Solid-State Welding – asperities

z High and low areas of metal surfaces
z Prevent intimate contact
z All metals will have some surface roughness
Asperities

2-49
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Principles

Interfaces - Oxides

ƒ Barriers to Solid-State Welding – oxides

z Most metals react with atmosphere and form oxide films
z Oxide films are hard and brittle and interfere with metal-to-metal
contact
z Sufficient deformation is required to break up oxide films during Solid-
State Welding
Oxide film on metal

2-50
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Principles

Interfaces - Contamination

ƒ Barriers to Solid State Welding - surface contamination:

z Oils, scales, grease, etc.
z Adhere to surface by secondary bonding
z Reduce metal-to-metal contact
z Must be removed prior to welding, or during the Solid-State Welding
process being utilized

2-51
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Roll Bonding

ƒ Roll bonding theory

z Roll bonding introduces nascent surface – new metal-to-metal
surfaces formed during plastic deformation
z Asperities are collapsed and oxides broken up
z Increased nascent surface results in
increased weld strength
z This theory is describes the main
objective of most Solid-State
Welding processes
Š Create nascent surfaces Nascent
Surface Original interface

Roll bonding produces nascent surfaces

needed for Solid-State Welding

2-52
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Friction Welding Processes

ƒ Processes – Friction Welding

z Inertia Friction Welding
Š Inertia of rotating flywheel generates heat
z Continuous Drive Friction Welding
Š Continuous drive system (i.e. hydraulic) for more precise control of
rotational velocity and frictional heating
z Friction Stir Welding
Š Non-consumable pin rotated along joint to produce frictional heating
z Linear Friction Welding
Š Linear translation of parts in contact with each other produces frictional
heating

2-53
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Friction Welding Processes

ƒ Friction Welding – Advantages

z Extremely reproducible, high quality
joints
z Fewer variables than most welding
processes
z Forging action reduces need for joint
preparation
z Ideal for joining dissimilar materials
z Easily automated for high volume
production
z Can join plastics

2-54
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Friction Welding Processes

ƒ Friction Welding – Disadvantages

z Equipment cost is high
z Application limited by part geometry and size
z Some processes (i.e. Friction Stir Welding are slow)
z Difficulty in joining dissimilar materials with large differences in
properties

2-55
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Friction Welding Processes

ƒ Rotational Friction Welding Processes

z Inertia and Continuous Drive Friction Welding
Š Ideal for round bars and shapes
Š One part is rotated at high speed
relative to other part
Š Parts are brought together, axial
force is applied creating frictional
heating
Š Softened material is upset into
the “flash”, which is later removed

2-56
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Inertia Friction Welding (IFW)

ƒ Utilizes kinetic energy of rotating flywheel

ƒ Flywheel connected to one
part while other remains
stationary
ƒ Flywheel rotational velocity
gradually
g y decreases as
joint cools and gains strength
ƒ Additional forge force is
added at the end of the
cycle
ƒ Ideal process for large parts
z Common in jet engine
manufacturing
[Ref.: AWS Welding Handbook, Vol. 3, 9th Ed.]

2-57
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Continuous Drive Friction Welding (CDFW)

ƒ Motor driven
ƒ Rotational speed is
controlled and held
constant during the heating
stage
ƒ Provides better control of
welding variables vs.
Inertia Welding
ƒ Also referred to as Direct
Drive Friction Welding

[Ref.: AWS Welding Handbook, Vol. 3, 9th Ed.]

2-58
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

ASME Section IX –
IFW and CDFW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
φ ± 10 deg X
φ Cross Section > 10% X

QW-402 φ O.D. > ± 10% X

Joint .12 φ Solid-to-tube X
QW 408
QW-408
Gas .6 φ Environment X
.27 φ Spp. > ± 10% X
.28 φ Load > ± 10% X

QW-410 .29 φ Energy > ± 10% X

Technique .30 φ Upset > ± 10% X

2-59
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Friction Stir Welding

ƒ Rotating tool is moved along top of the joint creating frictional

heat and plasticized material in the stir zone
ƒ Provides the ability to produce solid-state friction welds in a
butt joint configuration between two plates
ƒ Ideal for welding materials which are difficult to weld using
fusion weldinggp processes

ƒ ASME Section IX is currently

working to incorporate
friction stir as a welding .
process Pin

2-60
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Friction Stir Welding

ƒ Friction Stir welds consist of three distinct “zones”:

z Stir zone or nugget
z Heat and deformation affected zone (HDAZ) or thermo-mechanically
affected zone (TMAZ)
z Heat affected zone (HAZ)

2-61
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Linear Friction Welding

ƒ Linear motion between two parts

Force creates frictional heating and solid-
state weld
ƒ Provides for flexibility of part
geometry
Rapid linear motion
ƒ Sometimes referred to as
Translational Friction Welding
ƒ Another variation utilizes orbital
motion

Force

2-62
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Diffusion Welding

ƒ A welding process that creates a solid-state weld through the

application of pressure at elevated temperatures

ƒ Advantages Pressure
z Negligible deformation
z Low heat pprocess – minimal
microstructure degradation Part A

ƒ Disadvantages Part B
z Significant surface preparation
required
z Long weld times
Elevated Temperature
Furnace

2-63
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Diffusion Welding

ƒ Stage 1 – initial asperity

contact
Asperity contact
Deformation, interfacial
boundary formation
ƒ Stage 2 – deformation
and formation of
interfacial boundary
ƒ Stage
g 3–g grain
boundary migration,
elimination of interfacial
boundary, pore
Grain boundary migration, Volume diffusion, further
elimination
pore elimination
ƒ Stage 4 – volume
pore elimination

diffusion, further
elimination of interfacial
boundary and pores

2-64
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Explosion Welding

ƒ A welding process that creates a solid-state weld through

high velocity interaction of the work pieces by a controlled
detonation
Detonator
ƒ Advantages
Explosive
z Minimal heatingg of the p
parts
z Can produce almost any Standoff
dissimilar metal combination distance
Prime
ƒ Disadvantages component
z Not conducive to production
Base
z Limited joint designs
component
Arrangement for Explosion Welding

2-65
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Explosion Welding

ƒ Principals of Explosion
Welding
Detonation
z Explosive is distributed over top
surface of prime component
z Upon detonation, high velocity
collision occurs between prime
Prime and base component
Weld component
z “Jetting” provides for cleaning
Jet action and proper weld
formation

Base component

2-66
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Ultrasonic Welding

ƒ A welding process that produces a solid-state weld through

the application of high frequency vibrations combined with low
pressure

ƒ Advantages:
z Negligible
g g heating
g of p
parts
z Minimal deformation
ƒ Disadvantages
z Limited to lap joints
z At least one component must
be very thin
Typical Ultrasonic Welding Machines

[Source: Internet]

2-67
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Ultrasonic Welding
Clamping
force
ƒ Principals of Ultrasonic
Welding
z A static clamping force is
Mass
applied perpendicular to the
interface between the work
pieces
Wedge Transducer z The contacting sonotrode
oscillates parallel to the
Sonotrode interface
tip z Combined effect of static and
oscillating force produces
Work pieces deformation which promotes
welding

Anvil
Force

2-68
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Solid-State Welding Processes

Solid-State Welding

ƒ Some applicable specifications and recommended practices

z AWS C6.1, “Recommended Practices for Friction Welding”
z AWS C6.2, “Specification for Friction Welding of Metals”
z ASME Section IX currently has requirements for only IFW and CDFW
solid-state welding processes
Š Requirements for Friction Stir Welding are being developed
ƒ Very
Ver limited information in terms of codes
codes, standards
standards, and
specifications
z Solid-state weld development is typically based on applicable fusion
welding codes

2-69
Resistance Welding

Module 2B.3
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Introduction

Resistance Welding Overview

ƒ Fundamentals
z Resistivity and Heat Generation
z Heat Balance
ƒ Common processes
z Spot Welding
z Projection Welding
z Seam Welding
z Flash Welding

ƒ AWS has numerous resistance welding codes for different

applications
z AWS C1.1, “Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding”
z AWS C1.4, “Specification for Resistance Welding of Carbon and Low
Alloy Steels”
z AWS D8.6, “Standard for Automotive Resistance Spot Welding
Electrodes” 2-71
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Introduction

Definition of Resistance Welding

ƒ The electrical resistance of metal and

metal-to-metal contact area to the
localized flow of current produces
heat (Joule heating = I2 × Rt) at the
joint
ƒ This heating, combined with pressure
produces a weld
ƒ Welds may be fusion or solid-state
welds

Spot welding
2-72
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Introduction

Resistance Welding Applications

ƒ Automotive
z Bodies
z Frames
z Components
ƒ Medical
ƒ Tubingg
ƒ Appliances
ƒ Electrical
ƒ Light manufacturing
z Fencing
z Grills
z Chains
[Source: Internet]
z Office products
ƒ “Every metal product is a possible application” – RWMA
Handbook 2-73
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Fundamentals

Resistance Welding Fundamentals –

Resistivity at Joint

Ideal Resistance Welding conditions occur when resistance

#4 is maximized relative to other 6:

Force 7 “resistors” in a Resistance

Welding circuit:

1
C
Current
t
2

Distance
Copper 3
electrodes Work Pieces 4
5
6

Resistance
Force
2-74
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Fundamentals

Resistance Welding Fundamentals –

Effect of Pressure

High Resistance Low Resistance

Surface Asperities

Low Pressure Medium Pressure High Pressure

2-75
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Fundamentals

Resistance Welding Fundamentals –

Effect of Pressure

Resistance highly dependent

Contact Resistance (Log Scale)

on electrode force

ΔR1

Resistance nearly independent

of electrode force
ΔR2

ΔF ΔF
Electrode Force (Linear Scale)

2-76
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Fundamentals

Resistance Welding Fundamentals – Lobe Curves

One method for

generating Lobe
Expulsion
Curves is to use Acceptable
nugget diameter Nuggets
as an indicator of
gget Diameter

weld quality
Minimum Nugget Diameter
Nug

Small Nuggets Time A

Weld Current
Weld Time

Time A Lobe
Smaller Curve Expulsion
“Brittle” Acceptable Level
Nuggets Nuggets

Weld Current

2-77
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Spot Welding

Water
Weld
Nugget
Top Electrode

Bottom Electrode

2-78
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Spot Welding

ƒ Advantages
z Ideal for high speed production of sheet metal assemblies
z Easy to automate
z Self-clamping
z No filler materials required
z Relatively inexpensive
z “Aesthetics” of surface condition

2-79
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Spot Welding

ƒ Disadvantages
z Overlapping joint adds weight
z Need for sufficient joint access
z Hidden weld location – quality control is difficult, highly dependent on
Lobe curves
z Poor mechanical properties due to notches and uneven load
distributions
z Expensive equipment
z Weld repair difficult
z Extreme power line demands

2-80
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Projection Welding

ƒ Applicability
Force
z Parts are too thick for Spot Welding
z A significant (>5:1) size difference
exists between parts
z A significant electrical conductivity
difference exists between parts
ƒ Projection balances the heat
z Concentrates current
z Allows parts to reach the same
temperature across the interface
Projection in part Electrodes

Current

2-81
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Projection Welding

ƒ Advantages
z Ease of obtaining satisfactory heat balance for welding difficult
combinations
z Can weld greater thicknesses and thickness mismatches vs. Spot
Welding
z More uniform results in many applications
z Increased output per machine because several welds are being made
simultaneously
z Longer electrode life
z Welds may be placed more closely together
z Parts are more easily welded in an assembly fixture
z Finish, or surface appearance, is often improved on side without the
projection
z Parts may be projection welded that could not be otherwise resistance
welded
z Often replaces arc welding processes such as GMAW and results in
much faster welding time
2-82
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Projection Welding

ƒ Disadvantages
z Requires an additional operation to form projections
z Requires accurate control of projection height and precise alignment
of the welding dies with multiple welds
z Requires higher capacity equipment than Spot Welding

2-83
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Projection Welding

ƒ Common projection designs

z Button or Bubble
Š Most common
Š Easy to form with punch and die
Š Usually involves forming multiple
individual projections Button or Bubble Embossed Projection Design
z Annular
Š Single “ring” projection centered on the part
ƒ Approaches to producing projections
z Embossing or forming
Š Least expensive
Š Usually results in melting but not always
z Machining
Š Used when welding thicker parts Annular Solid Projection Design
Š Referred to as solid projections
Š Always a solid-state weld
2-84
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Seam Welding

ƒ Lap seam welding – same advantages as spot, but with ability

to create continuous leak-tight joints – automotive gas tanks
are a very common application
ƒ Primary disadvantage is the requirement for straight or
uniformly curved paths and uniform
joint contours

[Ref.: AWS Welding Handbook, Vol. 3, 9th Ed.]

[Source: Internet]
2-85
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

ASME Section IX –
Resistance Welding Process Procedure Variables
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Nonessential
.13 φ Spot, Projection, Seam X

QW-402 .14 φ Overlap, Spacing X

Joints .15 φ Project, Shape, Size X
QW-403 .21 ± Coating, Plating X
Base
Materials .22 ±T X
QW-408
Gas .23 - Gases X

2-86
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

ASME Section IX –
Resistance Welding Process Procedure Variables
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Nonessential
.13 φ RWMA Class X
.14 ± φ Slope X
.15 φ Pressure, Current, Time X
QW-409
Electrical .17 φ Power Supply X
Characteristics .18 Tip Cleaning X
31
.31 φ Cleaning
Cl i M Method
th d X
.32 φ Pressure, Time X
.33 φ Equipment X

QW-410 .34 φ Cooling Medium X

Technique .35 φ Throat X

2-87
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Flash Welding

ƒ Not an arc welding process, but Clamping of parts

a continuous series of high
current density “shorts”
ƒ Flash Welding steps
z Clamp parts
z Apply flashing voltage and initiate Platen movement
platen motion
z Continue flashing motion to
achieve proper heating
Platen movement
z Terminate flashing and apply upset
force to create solid-state weld

Upset force

[Ref.: AWS Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Ed].

2-88
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

Resistance Flash Welding

Flash Welding of Steel Tubes

[Courtesy: EWI]
2-89
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

ASME Section IX –
Flash Welding Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.19 φ Diameter or Thickness X
.20 φ Joint Configuration X
φ Method or Equip. used
.21 to Minimize ID Flash X
QW-402 φ End Preparation
Joint .22 Method X
φ Shielding Gas
QW-408 Composition, Pressure,
Gas .22 or Purge Time X

QW-409 .27 φ > 10% Flashing Time X

Electrical φ > 10% Upset Current
Characteristics .28 Time X

2-90
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Resistance Welding Processes

ASME Section IX –
Flash Welding Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.17 φ Type/Model of Equipment X
φ > 10% Upset Length or
.54 Force X
φ > 10% Distance Between
Clamping Dies or Preparation
.55
55 of Clamping Area X
.56 φ Clamping Force X
QW-410 φ 10% Forward or Reverse
Technique .57 Speed X

2-91
Thermite Welding

Module 2B.4
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Thermite Welding

Thermite Welding

ƒ A welding process that produces

coalescence of metals by heating them
with superheated metal from an
exothermic reaction between a metal
oxide and aluminum
ƒ Very portable, minimal capital
quipment cost
ƒ Does not require external power
source
ƒ Common applications
z Rail
z Reinforcing bar

Thermite Welding of rails

[Ref: “AWS Handbook, Vol. 3, Welding Processes, Part 2, 9th Ed.]

2-93
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Thermite Welding

Thermite Welding

ƒ Welding steel reinforcing bar

z Provides for design of smaller concrete columns and beams
z Relies on a closure disc at the base of the crucible which melts,
allowing the molten steel to flow into the joint
z Can be welded in any
position
z Schematic shows a
version in which bars
are not melted

Thermite sleeve joint for reinforcing bars

[Ref: “AWS Handbook, Vol. 3, Welding Processes, Part 2, 9th Ed.]
2-94
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Thermite Welding

Thermite Welding Safety

ƒ Moisture must be minimized

ƒ Work area should be free of combustible materials and well
ventilated
ƒ Personnel should wear appropriate protection – gloves, face
shields with filter lenses, safety boots, and gloves
ƒ No pockets or cuffs

2-95
Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Module 2B.5

2-96
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Oxyfuel Gas Welding

ƒ A group of welding processes

that achieve the coalescence of
metals by heating them with an
oxyfuel gas flame - may or may
not use a filler metal
ƒ One of the oldest welding
techniques (early 1900's)
ƒ Mostly replaced by arc welding
processes today, but still offers
portability, versatility, and low
equipment cost
ƒ Very slow welding speeds,
cannot be used with reactive
metals

2-97
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Oxyacetylene Welding

ƒ Most widely used OFW process

ƒ Acetylene (C2H2) produces the
heat and oxygen supports
combustion
ƒ Acetylene offers high combustion
intensityy compared
p to other fuel
gases
ƒ Welding equipment can easily be
converted to cutting equipment
with attachment
ƒ Filler metals that match base
metal chemistry are typically used
ƒ Fluxes are used to assist in oxide
removal during welding
2-98
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Oxyfuel Gas Welding

ƒ Flame Adjustment
z Neutral flame - decrease Carburizing flame
acetylene flow until feather
disappears
z Carburizing flame - contains
acetylene "feather"
Š Can be used to increase
carbon content or reduce
melting point of weld metal Neutral flame

z Oxidizing flame - contains a

reduced cone length

Oxidizing flame

2-99
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Oxyfuel Gas Welding

Oxyfuel Gas Welding Safety

ƒ Compressed gases
ƒ Flammable fuel gases…keep away from sources of ignition
ƒ Acetylene can react violently with copper
ƒ Goggles with proper shielding must be worn
ƒ Use proper ventilation

2-100
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Oxyfuel Gas Welding

ASME Section IX –
OFW Process Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.3 φ Size X
.4 φ F-Number X
QW-404
Filler .5 φ A-Number X
Metals .12 φ Classification X
QW 405
QW-405
Positions .1 + Position X
QW-408
Gas .7 φ Fuel Gas Type X
.2 φ Flame Characteristics X

QW-410 .4 φ ← → Technique X
Technique .5 φ Method of Cleaning X

2-101
Introduction to Brazing and Soldering

Module 2C
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Introduction

AWS Definition of Brazing and Soldering

ƒ Joining processes which utilize a filler metal which melts

below the melting temperature of the base metal
z Brazing: filler metal liquidus > 450ºC
z Soldering: filler metal liquidus < 450ºC
ƒ Joint formation
z Filler metal melting
z Joint gap filled by capillary action
z Filler metal solidifies

ƒ ASME Section IX has an entire section dedicated to qualifying

brazing procedures and brazers which is not covered in this
course
z Follows the same methodology as welding procedure and welder
qualifications

2-103
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Introduction

Elements of Brazing and Soldering

ƒ Materials
z Base materials
Š Metals and alloys: ferrous and non-ferrous
Š Ceramics
Š Glasses
Š Composites
z Filler metals
ƒ Brazing and soldering processes
z Heat sources: electrical, chemical (combustion, exothermic reactions)
z Protection from oxidation: fluxes, controlled atmospheres
z Equipment: torches, furnaces, inductors, baths, etc.
Š Brazing: Al, Mg, Ag, Au, Cu, Ni, Co, Ti, Mo, and Nb based alloys
Š Soldering: Sn, Pb, In, Au based, and Zn, Bi, and Cd containing alloys
ƒ Joint design
z Lap joints, butt joints
z Joint clearance (gap)
2-104
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Introduction

Brazing and Soldering

ƒ Advantages
z No melting of base metal
z Able to easily join dissimilar metals and metal-to-non-metal
combinations
z Economical for complex assemblies and large joint designs
z Minimal distortion and residual stress
ƒ Disadvantages
Di d t
z Formation of brittle intermetallics
z May require highly skilled operators
z Difficulties with fit-up and assembly

2-105
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Introduction

Brazing and Soldering – Applications

ƒ Electrical and electronic components

ƒ Automotive
ƒ Aerospace
ƒ Solar panels
ƒ Nuclear systems
ƒ Food
F d processingi equipment
i t
ƒ Pressure vessels
ƒ Jewelry
ƒ Toys

[Source: Internet]
2-106
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Joint Formation

ƒ Filler metal melting, wetting and gap filling, solidification

ƒ Base/filler metal reactions
z During brazing/soldering
z During aging (at service temperature)
Š Dissolution
Š Diffusion
Š Formation of intermetallic compounds
Š Formation of solid solutions

Typical Braze/Solder Joint

[Ref.: “Brazing Handbook, 5th Ed.”, AWS]
2-107
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Wetting

ƒ Surface energy balance

ƒ Assumptions Vapor / Gas
γLV
z No chemical reactions
Liquid γSV
z No gravity θ
ƒ Spreading, if θ ~ 0º Solid
γSL

ƒ Wetting,
Wetting if θ < 90º
90
ƒ No wetting, if θ > 90º
ƒ Brazing and soldering optimum: 10º ≤ θ ≤ 45º
ƒ Effect of oxides and surface active impurities
(γ SV − γ SL )
cosθ =
γ LV
z θ – contact angle
z γ – surface energy

2-108
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Capillary Action

ƒ Factors controlling capillary action

z Wetting (θ, γLV)
z Liquid density
z Liquid viscosity
z Gap distance and geometry
z Surface cleanliness

Capillary Action Principle

2-109
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Fluxes

ƒ Functions
z Remove surface oxides
z Protect from surface oxidation during brazing / soldering
z Reduce surface tension of molten filler metal
ƒ Composition
z Active component
Š Reducing or etching, acids or alkaline metals (F, Cl, Li, B)
z Solvent
Š Water or alcohol
z Wetting agents
Š Organic compounds

2-110
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Brazing Fluxes

Brazing Fluxes: Examples from AWS A5.31 Specification

AWS Form Filler metal Ingredients Temp. Process Base material

Clas. type range, oC
FB1-A Powder BAlSi Fluorides, 560-615 Torch, Furnace Brazeable Al alloys
Chlorides
FB2-A Powder BMg Fluorides, 480-620 General purpose Mg alloys designated
Chlorides with AZ
FB3-C Paste BAg, Borates, 565-925 General purpose
BCuP Flourides, B
FB3-G Slurry BAg, Borates, 565-870 General purpose Brazeable metallic
BCuP Flourides alloys except
containing Al and Mg,
FB3-K Liquid BAg, Borates 760-1205 Torch flux applied carbides
BCuP by fuel gas
RBCuZn

2-111
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Soldering Fluxes
Soldering Fluxes: Examples from ANSI/J-STD 004
Flux Material Activity Level (% Halide) Type ANSI
Designator

Rosin (RO) Low (0%) L0 ROL0

Resin (RE) Low (<0.5%) L1 REL1
Organic (OR) Moderate (0.5-2.0%) M1 ORM1

Inorganic (IN) High (>2.0%) H1 INH1

ISO classification: 122C

Resin–base flux
Soldering Fluxes: Examples from ISO 9454-1 with halogen activator

Flux Type Flux Basis Flux Activation Flux Form

1 Resin 1 Rosin 1 Nonactivated A Liquid
2 Resin 2 Halogen activated
2 Organic 1 Water Soluble 3 Not halogen activated
2 Not Water Soluble B Solid
3 Inorganic 1 Salts 1 With ammonium chloride
2 With ammonium chloride
2 Acids 1 Phosphoric acid C Paste
2 Other acids
3 Alkalis 1 Ammonia and/or amines

2-112
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Brazing and Soldering Filler Metals

ƒ Liquidus temperature
z Lower than base material
z > 450ºC in brazing filler metals
z < 450ºC in soldering filler metals
ƒ Requirements
z Wetting
Š Spreading and adhering to
substrate
z Melting temperature range
Š Clearance filling by capillary action
z Homogeneous composition
Š Avoid liquation
The Tin-Lead Binary Phase Diagram
z Mechanical and physical properties
[Ref: “Soldering Handbook”, 3rd Ed., AWS]
z Interactions with base material
Š Brittle compounds, erosion, etc.
Š Diffusion, chemical reactions
2-113
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Brazing and Soldering Filler Metals

Melting Temperature
4500C (8400F)

Soldering Filler Metals Brazing Filler Metals

[Ref: “Principles of Soldering and Brazing”, ASM International]

2-114
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Brazing Filler Metals

Classes of Brazing Filler Metals from AWS A5.8/A5.8M

Class Alloy Family AWS Des. Materials Joined Application Examples

1 Al-Si BAlSi Aluminum and aluminum to steel and beryllium Car radiators, heat exchangers, aircraft honeycomb structure

2 Cu-X BCu Copper and copper to steel and stainless steel Heat exchangers, automotive parts

3 Cu-Zn RBCuZn

- Cu-Sn None

4 Cu-P BCuP Copper and copper to silver/oxide metal composites Electrical components, heat exchangers

5 Cu-Ag Bag Most metals except aluminum and magnesium Most widely used utility filler metal

6 TM-Si-B BNi Steels, copper, nickel, and cobalt-base alloys Aircraft and automotive parts, heat exchangers, honeycomb

7 (Co,Cr)-Si-B BCo Steels, cobalt-base alloys Aircraft engines, honeycomb marine structures

- (Ni,Pd)-Si-B None Stainless steels, superalloys, and cemented carbide Honeycomb, orthodontics, catalytic convertors

8 Au-Ni BAu Nickel-based alloys, steels Honeycomb structures, turbine parts

- Cu-(Ti,Zr)-Ni None Titanium and zirconium-based alloys Aircraft components, chemical reactors

2-115
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Fundamentals

Soldering Filler Metals

ASTM B32-91: Standard Specification for Solder Metal

ISO/DIS 9453, ISO/CD 12226-1, ISO/CD 12224-1

Compositions Forms
Sn Based: Sn, Sn-Pb; Sn-Pb-Sb; Sn-Pb-Ag; Pb-Ag Bars
SN Based, Pb Free: Sn-Sb; Sn-Sb-Ag-(Cu); Sn-Ag Paste
Zn Containing: Sn-Zn; Zn-Al; etc. Solid Wire
In Based: In; In-Sn; In-Pb; etc. Flux Cored Wire
Bi Containing Foil, Sheet, Ribbon
Au Based Segment or Drop

Cd Containing Cakes or ingots: 3 to 10 lb

Pig: 50 to 100 lb

2-116
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Processes

Brazing and Soldering Processes

Brazing Processes Soldering Processes

Torch Torch
Induction Induction
Furnace Furnace
Dip (Immersion) Dip (Immersion)
Resistance Vapor Phase
Diffusion Resistance
Laser Beam Laser Beam
Electron Beam Hot Gas
Exothermic Ultrasonic
Infrared

2-117
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Processes

Torch Brazing / Soldering

ƒ Low to moderate capital cost

ƒ Flexible component sizes
ƒ Used with flux or self-fluxing alloys
ƒ Manual and mechanized
ƒ Applications
z Carbon steel
z Stainless steel
z Cast iron
z Copper
z Aluminum
z Carbides
ƒ Flame characteristics
[Ref: “Brazing Handbook”, 5th Ed., AWS]

2-118
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Processes

Induction Brazing / Soldering

ƒ Low to moderate capital cost

ƒ Used with flux or atmospheres
ƒ Best for small components
ƒ High speed
ƒ Localized heating
ƒ Thermal
Th l cycle
l control
t l
ƒ Applications
Carbon and stainless steel
z
ρ
z Cast iron d = 3160 , in
z Copper μ⋅ f
z Aluminum
z Titanium μ = 1 above curie temperature or for non-magnetic materials
ρ = electrical resistivity
f = frequency, Hz

2-119
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Processes

Furnace Brazing / Soldering

ƒ High capital and operation cost

ƒ High production through-put
ƒ Used with flux, atmospheres,
or vacuum
ƒ Slow heating
ƒ Pre-placed
Pre placed filler metal
ƒ Generalized heating
ƒ Thermal cycle control
ƒ Applications
Retort Furnace

z Carbon and stainless steel

z Cast iron
z Copper
z Aluminum
z Titanium [Ref: “Soldering Handbook”, 3rd Ed., AWS]

z Ceramics 2-120
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Processes

Immersion (Dip) Soldering

ƒ Drag Soldering
z Surface dragging and wetting
z Capillary action
z Heat transfer
z Surface inclination
z Dragging time 5 – 15 s

ƒ Wave Soldering
z Flux application
z Preheat
z Soldering
z Peel back

[Ref: “Soldering Handbook”, 3rd Ed., AWS]

2-121
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Processes

Other Brazing and Soldering Processes

ƒ Induction
ƒ Infrared
ƒ Resistance
ƒ Laser beam
ƒ Hot gas
ƒ Microwave
Mi
ƒ Ultrasonic

[Ref: “Soldering Handbook”, 3rd Ed., AWS]

2-122
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Joint Design

Design Criteria of Brazed and Soldered Joints

ƒ Base material strength

ƒ Base material/filler metal metallurgical compatibility
ƒ Joint type and geometry
ƒ Joint clearance geometry
ƒ Fixturing of brazed/soldered parts
ƒ Thermal
Th l expansion
i compatibility
tibilit
ƒ Filler metal form and placement
ƒ Manufacturability
ƒ Cost
ƒ Safety

2-123
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Joint Design

Joint Design
L

ƒ Lap Joints
z Best joint efficiency
z Controlled by overlap length
Š Joint efficiency cam be higher than the weaker member
Š L > (3 - 4)t gives the maximum joint efficiency for steel, Cu, Ti, Al
z Best manufacturability
ƒ Other options include butt and scarf joints 2-124
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Joint Design

Shear Strength of Lap Joints

ƒ Desirable condition

b ⋅ L ⋅τ BR ≥ σUTS BM ⋅ b ⋅ t

ƒ Realistic condition
b ⋅ L ⋅τ BR ≤ σ UTS BM ⋅ b ⋅ t

τ BR
- Joint Shear strength

σ BM - Base Metal Tensile Strength

2-125
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Joint Design

Joint Design

ƒ Stresses in brazed and soldered joints

z Avoid stress concentration
z Apply load to base metal not to joints

2-126
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Brazing and Soldering Joint Design

Joint Design

[Ref: M.M. Schwartz, “Brazing”, 1987]

2-127
Introduction to Cutting Processes

Module 2D
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Cutting Processes

Definition of Thermal Cutting Process

ƒ A concentrated heat source melts metal and high speed gas

and/or plasma flow removes the melt to form a cut kerf
ƒ Some thermal cutting processes
z Oxyfuel cutting - OFC
z Air carbon arc cutting or gouging – CAC-A
z Plasma arc cutting - PAC
z Laser beam – LBC

ƒ Waterjet cutting is an alternative cutting technology to the

thermal cutting processes

2-129
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Cutting Processes

Oxyfuel Cutting

ƒ Preheat flames produced by

combustion of a fuel gas with
oxygen
z Acetylene, natural gas, propane, etc.
ƒ Preheat flames increase metal
temperature to allow burning by
an oxygen jet
ƒ Advantages
z Inexpensive
z Portable equipment
ƒ Disadvantages
z Only for oxidizing metals with a low
melting point oxide

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 1,

9th Edition
2-130
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Cutting Processes

Air Carbon Arc Cutting or Gouging

ƒ Electric arc between carbon electrode melts metal, expelled

by pressurized air
ƒ Advantages
z Portable
z Relatively inexpensive
ƒ Disadvantages
g
z Debris
z Possible carbon deposition

2-131
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Cutting Processes

Plasma Arc Cutting

ƒ Transferred arc plasma jet melts and expels metal from kerf
ƒ Advantages
z Works for all metals
z High speed
ƒ Disadvantages
z Relatively
y expensive
p
z Tapered kerf

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 1, 9th Edition

2-132
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Cutting Processes

Laser Beam Cutting

ƒ Focused high power laser beam melts material, expelled by

assist gas flow
z CO2, Nd:YAG, fiber lasers
z Air, oxygen, nitrogen, argon assist gases
ƒ Advantages
z High speed
z Narrow kerf
ƒ Disadvantages
z Expensive

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 1, 9th Edition

2-133
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Cutting Processes

Thermal Cutting Materials Effect

ƒ Material heat-affected zone adjacent to kerf

z In some materials, heat treatment may be required to restore material
properties.
ƒ Rapidly-solidified (recast) layer remains on sides of kerf,
dross (slag) may be deposited at lower edge of kerf
z Dross should be removed prior to welding
z Recast layers may require heat treatment or removal by grinding,
machining, etc.
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential

QW-410 .6 φ Method of Back Gouging x

Technique .64 Use of Thermal Processes X

ƒ ASME Section IX has a weld procedure variable defining

thermal processing of low-alloy quench and tempered steels
2-134
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Cutting Processes

Applicability of Thermal Cutting Processes

Cutting Processes
Material
OFC PAC CAC-A LBC
Carbon steel X X X X

Stainless steel X X X X

Cast iron X X X X

Aluminum X X X

Titanium X X X X

Copper X X X

Refractory materials X X X

2-135
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Cutting Processes

Water Jet Cutting

ƒ High pressure (P=30-60kPSI)

water through a small orifice
(f = 0.1-0.6mm) erodes material
ƒ Abrasive grit usually added to
water for metal cutting
ƒ Advantages
g
z Non-thermal
ƒ Disadvantages
z Slow
z Expensive

Courtesy of the AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 1, 9th Edition

2-136
Welding Process Applications

Module 2E
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

Welding Process Applications

2-138
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

Narrow Groove

ƒ Often used for thick-wall pipe or

nozzle to pipe applications
z Weld prep angles as shallow as 1°
z Typical GTAW joint preparation and
welding setup are shown

10°

3 in.

ƒ Processes used in a narrow

groove
z GTAW
z SAW
z GMAW
2-139
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

Overlay

ƒ Welding is used to deposit weld alloy

cladding layers
ƒ Provide improved properties of
vessel walls, pipes, etc
z Corrosion resistance
z Wear
z Structural integrity
ƒ Process parameters are selected to
maximize deposition rate, minimize Cross section of
dilution of clad metal with base metal tubing with internal
weld cladding
deposited by GTAW

2-140
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes

ASME Section IX –
Overlay Procedure Variables
ƒ ASME Section IX provides welding procedure variables for
overlay welding procedures
z The additional welding procedure variables depend on the welding
process used to deposit the weld overlay and the application of the
overlay (i.e., Hard-Facing or Corrosion-Resistant Overlays)
Š Oxyfuel Welding, SMAW, SAW, GMAW, FCAW, GTAW, PAW, ESW and
Laser Beam Welding g have weld overlay y procedure variables
Š Many of the variables are duplicates of typical procedure qualification
variables
Š The variables are usually related to the dilution of the base material or the
chemistry of the welding material
z Overlay welding procedures require testing to assure the overlay is
suitable for the intended purpose

2-141
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

ASME Section IX –
GTAW Overlay Procedure Variables
Essential Variables
Corrosion-Resistant Nonessential
Paragraph Hard-Facing Overlay Overlay Variables
QW-402
Joint .16 < Finished t < Finished t

QW-403 .20 φ P-No. φ P-No.

Base Metals .23 φ T Qualified φ T Qualified
.3 φ Wire Size
.12 φ Classification
.14 ± Filler Metal ± Filler Metal
φ Filler Metal Product φ Filler Metal Product
QW-404 .23 Form Form
Filler Metals .37 φ A-No.
QW-405
Position .4 + Position + Position
QW-406 Decrease > 100ºF Preheat Decrease > 100ºF Preheat
Preheat .4 > Interpass > Interpass
2-142
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

ASME Section IX –
GTAW Overlay Procedure Variables
Essential Variables
Corrosion-Resistant Nonessential
Paragraph Hard-Facing Overlay Overlay Variables

QW-407 .6 φ PWHT
PWHT .9 φ PWHT

QW-408 .2 φ Single, Mixture, or % φ Single, Mixture, or %

Gas .3
3 φ Flow Rate
.4 φ Current or Polarity φ Current or Polarity

QW-409 .12 φ Tungsten Electrode

Electrical 1st Layer Heat Input > 1st Layer Heat Input >
Characteristics .26 10% 10%

2-143
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

ASME Section IX –
GTAW Overlay Procedure Variables
Essential Variables
Hard-Facing Corrosion-Resistant Nonessential
Paragraph Overlay Overlay Variables
.1 φ Stringer/weave
φ Orifice/Cup or Nozzle
.3 Size
.5 φ Method of Cleaning
.7 φ Oscillation
.15 φ Electrode Spacing
.25 φ Manual or Automatic
.26 ± Peening
φ Multiple to Single φ Multiple to Single
.38 Layer Layer

QW-410 .50 φ No. of Electrodes φ No. of Electrodes

Technique .52 φ Filler Metal Delivery φ Filler Metal Delivery φ Filler Metal Delivery

2-144
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

ASME Section IX –
Overlay Qualification Requirements

2-145
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

ASME Section IX –
Overlay Qualification Requirements

2-146
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

ASME Section IX –
Overlay Qualification Requirements

2-147
Module 2 – Welding and Cutting Processes Welding Process Applications

Orbital Welding

ƒ Specialized equipment used for

pipe and overlay applications
ƒ Can be used with several
processes
z GTAW
z FCAW
z GMAW
z Hybrid
ƒ Can be used in a narrow
groove

2-148
Welding Metallurgy

Module 3
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy

ƒ 3A – Basics of Metallurgy Principles

ƒ 3B – Basics of Welding Metallurgy
ƒ 3C – Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
ƒ 3D – Stainless Steels
ƒ 3E – Nickel-base Alloys
ƒ 3F – Other
Oth N Nonferrous
f All
Alloys
ƒ 3G – Polymers

3-2
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy

Module 3 Learning Objectives

ƒ Describe basic metallurgical principles including

strengthening mechanisms
ƒ Describe the basic concepts of welding metallurgy,
microstructure influences on properties and weldability
ƒ Understanding different types of carbon and low alloy steels,
stainless steels,, nickel alloys
y including
g microstructure
development and weldability issues of each alloy system
ƒ Understanding the effect of preheat, PWHT and temper bead
welding on carbon and low alloy steels
ƒ General understanding aluminum, titanium, and copper alloys
characteristics including welding metallurgy and weldability
issues
ƒ General understanding and properties of polymers and
methods of joining
3-3
Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Module 3A
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Types of Atomic Bonds

ƒ Primary Bonds (strong bonds)

z Ionic (table salt: NaCl)
z Covalent (ceramics and glasses)
z Metallic (metals and alloys)
Š Easy movement of electrons leads to high conductivity
Š Lack of bonding directionality leads to high atomic packing
ƒ Secondary
S d B
Bonds
d ((weak
kbbonds)
d )
z Van der Waals (dipole interactions)
z Hydrogen bonding

3-5
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Metallic Bonding

ƒ Metal stiffness is proportional to the bonding strength

ƒ Metallic bonds behave as though they were attached with a
spring
ƒ Bringing the atoms close
increases the repulsion and + Attractive force
attraction
(Coulomb attraction)
Total
force
Metallic Bonding

Force
Metal ions
+ - + - + - +
Bond
Distance
“Sea” of
- + - + - + -
Length
electrons
+ - + - + - + Repulsive force
-

3-6
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Elastic Modulus

ƒ Elastic behavior of metals ΔF

means that bonds are stretching E ∝
Δr
(but not breaking) + Strong

ƒ Metal stiffness is proportional to Bond

the bonding strength

Force
ƒ The linear behavior of bonds Distance
near the equilibrium bond length Weak
results in the linear elastic - Bond
region of a stress strain curve
ƒ Such behavior is observed
during tensile testing
Stress σ Tensile
E = Test
ε

Strain
3-7
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Crystal Structure

ƒ Atoms arrange themselves into different structures

ƒ Body-centered cubic (BCC) structure
z Iron BCC
z Ferritic steels
ƒ Face-centered cubic (FCC) structure
z Nickel ((and its alloys)
y )
z Aluminum (and its alloys)
ƒ Hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure FCC
z Titanium (room temperature)
z Magnesium
z Zirconium

HCP

3-8
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Defects in Metal Crystals

ƒ Defects within a crystal structure can change the chemical

and physical properties
ƒ Some of the important defects are as follows:
ƒ Point defects (0-Dimensions)
z Vacancies
z Solid Solutions
ƒ Line defects (1-Dimensional)
z Dislocations
ƒ Planar defects (2-Dimensional)
z Grain boundaries
z Surfaces

3-9
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Point Defects

Self-interstitial defects Vacancy defects

ƒ Metals will always contain these two Equilibrium number of

types of defects vacancies

ƒ The number of vacancies is temperature ⎛ QV ⎞

NV = N exp⎜ − ⎟
dependent (important for diffusion) ⎝ kT ⎠
3-10
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Solid Solutions

ƒ Metal alloys contain at least two or more elements

ƒ Even “pure” metals typically contain some impurities
ƒ Two types of metal solutions:
z Substitutional solutions contain a solvent and solute where the solute
occupies lattice sites of the solvent

Ni is the solvent Cu and Ni both have

Cu is the solute the FCC crystal structure.

z Interstitial solutions contain a solute that occupies non-lattice sites

Fe has the BCC structure
Fe is the solvent and C occupies interstitial sites.
C is the solute This is a common arrangement
in steels.
3-11
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Line Defects

ƒ Line defects are known as dislocations

ƒ Movement of dislocations through a material results in plastic
deformation
ƒ Edge and screw dislocations are both found in metals

Edge dislocation Screw dislocation

3-12
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Planar Defects

ƒ Each unique crystal of atoms

has a surface Grain Boundaries

ƒ Metals typically contain

Low
multiple crystals which have
angle
their own orientation
ƒ Each crystal
y is referred to as a
grain
ƒ The region between two
different grains is called a
grain boundary
z Low angle boundaries High
z High angle boundaries angle

3-13
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Phase Diagrams

ƒ A phase is a homogenous system with uniform physical and

chemical properties (i.e., crystal structures)
ƒ Metals and alloys may have different phases
ƒ Composition and temperature are used to predict the phases
(crystal structure) present in an alloy
ƒ Reactions occur at equilibrium (infinite time)
ƒ Common phase diagram types include:
z Complete solid solution (isomorphous)
z Eutectic
z Peritectic
z Eutectoid
ƒ The Lever Rule is used to determine the phase balance and
composition of constituents
ƒ Microstructure evolution during slow (equilibrium) cooling
3-14
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

What is a Phase Diagram?

ƒ Describes structure of materials based on temperature and

composition
ƒ Assumes constant pressure
ƒ Features 1 2 3
z Liquidus
L

ure
z Solidus

Temperatu
z Solvus L+α
L+β
ƒ Phase transformations α β

z Composition 1
α+β
z L→L+α→α→α+β
z Composition 2
z L→L+α→α+β A B
Composition
z Composition 3
z L→α+β

3-15
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Phase Diagrams

Isomorphous Eutectic

Liquid
Liquid
Liquid + Solid
Temperature

Temperature
L+α L+β
α β

Solid
α+β

A Composition B A Composition B

3-16
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Phase Diagrams

Peritectic Eutectoid
L+αÆβ γÆα+β

γ
Liquid
Temperature

Temperature
L+α α+γ γ+β
α α
α+β
L+β
α+β
β

A Composition B A Composition B

3-17
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Microstructure Evolution During Slow Cooling

Microstructure for Three

Eutectic System Different Compositions
L L+α L+α α α+β
1 2 3
Liquid 1
Temperature

L L+α L+α α+β

L+α L+β
α β
2

α+β
L L+α+β α+β

3
A Composition B

3-18
 Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Determining Phase Balance

ƒ The Lever Rule

z Determines the
Liquidus 2 percentage of phases
L
present at a given
temperature
perature

Solidus
L+α z At temperature T1,
L+β Composition
p 2 is a
α β
Temp

mixture of α + β
T1
ƒ Percent α = Y
α+β
Solvus
X Y X+Y
ƒ Percent β = X
X+Y
A Composition
B

3-19
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Some Examples of Phase Diagrams

3-20
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Diffusion

ƒ Diffusion Mechanisms Vacancy Diffusion

z Vacancy diffusion
z Interstitial diffusion

Interstitial Diffusion

Reference: Defects in Crystals. Prof. Helmut Föll,

University of Kiel, Germany.
3-21
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Interdiffusion of Two Metals

Before Heat After Heat

Treatment Treatment

At High At High

Temperature Temperature

3-22
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Fick’s First Law of Diffusion

ƒ Flux is the mass diffusing through a fixed

area per unit of time Fick’s First Law:
ƒ Diffusion flux (J) does not change with dC
time during stead-state diffusion J = −D
dx
J, diffusion flux (g/m2s)
D diff
D, diffusion
i coefficient ( 2/s)
ffi i t (m /)
C, concentration (g/m3)
x, position (m)

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000)

3-23
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion

ƒ Diffusion flux and the composition gradient typically vary with

time
ƒ This results in concentration profiles such as the one shown
ƒ Fick’s second law describes transient diffusion

Fick’s Second Law:

∂C ∂ 2C
=D 2
∂t ∂x
t, time (s)
D, diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
C, concentration (g/m3)
x, position (m)

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 3-24

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Diffusion Coefficients

ƒ Temperature has a
strong influence on
diffusion coefficients
ƒ This temperature
dependence takes on
the following form

⎛ Qd ⎞
D = D0 exp⎜ − ⎟
⎝ RT ⎠

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 3-25

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Strengthening Mechanisms of Metals

ƒ Grain Size Reduction

ƒ Solid Solution Strengthening
z Interstitial
z Substitutional
ƒ Strain Hardening (cold work)
ƒ Precipitation

3-26
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Importance of Grain Size

ƒ Reducing grain size acts as a barrier to dislocation motion

increasing strength and toughness
z The dislocation must change directions when reaching a grain
boundary since adjacent crystals have different crystal orientations
z Slip of atomic planes is not continuous across the boundary

Increasing Grain size →

Yield strength varies with

Yield strength
grain size according to the
Hall-Petch equation
σ Y = σ 0 + kd −1/ 2
σY, yield strength
σo, k, material constants σ0
d, average grain diameter 0 Grain size (d -1/2)

3-27
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Solid-Solution Strengthening

ƒ Intentional alloying with impurity atoms exerts strains on the

lattice surrounding the impurity

Increasing the alloying

content results in an increase
Substitutional Interstitial i yield
in i ld strength
t th
Alloying Alloying

Yield strength

Ductility
Alloy content (wt-%)

3-28
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Strain Hardening

ƒ “Cold work” or “work hardening” is done by plastically

deforming a ductile metal at or near room temperature

Increasing the cold work

results in an increase in yield
strength
Cold work expressed in terms
of area reduction:

⎛ Ainitial − A final ⎞
Yield strength

%CW = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ *100
Ductility

⎝ Ainitial ⎠

Percent cold work

3-29
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Precipitation Hardening

ƒ A metal alloy can be hardened and strengthened by

precipitating small secondary phase particles from a
supersaturated solid solution

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 3-30

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Annealing

ƒ Cold Work
ƒ Recovery
ƒ Recrystallization
ƒ Grain Growth

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000) 3-31

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

What is a Phase Transformation?

ƒ A change in the number and/or character of phases contained

within an alloy
ƒ Three types of transformations
z Diffusional transformations – No change in the number or composition
of the phases present
z Diffusional transformations – Phase composition and number of
phases
h may change
h
z Diffusionless transformations – Metastable phase is produced

3-32
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Metallurgy Principles

Phase Transformations

ƒ Isothermal transformation
diagrams (TTT) describe the
nucleation and growth
behavior at a hold
temperature

γ Æ α + Fe3C

γ
γ
γ
Temperature

α+γ γ + Fe3C
α

α + Fe3C
γ
γ

Fe Composition C

Reference: Callister, W.D. (2000)

3-33
Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Module 3B
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Welding Metallurgy

ƒ Welding metallurgy describes a microcosm of metallurgical

processes occurring in and around a weld that influence the
microstructure, properties, and weldability of the material
ƒ Due to the rapid heating and cooling rates associated with
most welding processes, metallurgical reactions often occur
under transient, non-equilibrium conditions

3-35
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Microstructure and Properties

ƒ The cooling rate and

chemical composition
Chemical Thermal affect the microstructure of
the welded joint
Composition Cycle
ƒ The mechanical properties
of a welded joint depend
on the microstructure
produced by welding
Microstructure

Mechanical
Properties

3-36
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Metallurgical Processes

ƒ Melting and solidification

ƒ Nucleation and growth
ƒ Phase transformations
ƒ Segregation and diffusion
ƒ Precipitation
ƒ Recrystallization
R t lli ti and d grain
i growth
th
ƒ Liquation mechanisms
ƒ Embrittlement
ƒ Thermal expansion, contraction, and residual stress

3-37
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Regions of a Fusion Weld

ƒ The microstructure can

vary from region to
Fusion zone region in a weld
ƒ Microstructure has a
profound effect on weld
properties

Base metal Heat-affected zone

3-38
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

History

ƒ Pre-1976
z Fusion zone
z Heat-affected zone
ƒ Post-1976
z Fusion zone
Š Composite region
Š Unmixed zone
ƒ Heat-affected zone
z Partially melted zone
z “True” heat-affected zone

3-39
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Basics of Welding Metallurgy

Current

Fusion Zone
Heat-Affected
Heat-
Zone

Partially Melted
Unmixed Zone Zone

ƒ Fusion zone ƒ Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)

z Composite zone z Partially-melted zone (PMZ)
z Unmixed zone (UMZ) z True heat-affected zone (T-HAZ)

3-40
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

The Fusion Zone

ƒ Region of the weld that is completely melted and resolidified

ƒ Microstructure dependent on composition and solidification
conditions
ƒ Local variations in composition
ƒ Distinct from other regions of the weld
ƒ May exhibit three regions
z Composite zone
z Transition zone
z Unmixed zone

3-41
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Types of Fusion Zones

ƒ Autogenous
z No filler metal addition
z GTAW on thin sheet, EBW of square butt joint
ƒ Homogeneous
z Addition of filler metal of matching composition
z 4130 filler used to join 4130 Cr-Mo steel
ƒ Heterogeneous
z Addition of filler metal with dissimilar composition to the base material
z 4043 filler used to join 6061 aluminum
z Ni-based alloys for joining stainless steels

3-42
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Dilution

Dilution

ƒ Amount of melted base

metal mixing with filler
ƒ Expressed as percent base
metal dilution of the filler
metal
z 100% is an autogenous weld
z 10-40% common in arc welds
ƒ Significant effect on
Dilution (%) = a + c x 100 microstructure and
a+b+c properties
ƒ Controlled by joint design,
process, and parameters

3-43
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Dilution

Dilution of 308L SS Filler Metal by

304 SS Base Metal
High Dilution Low Dilution

304 304

A a c
C
B
b
304 304

Figure 1 Figure 2

3-44
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Dilution

Dilution of 4043 Filler Metal by 6061 Aluminum

Base Metal

High Dilution Low Dilution

V-Groove without Root Opening V-Groove with Root Opening

C a c b
6061 A B 6061 6061 6061

3-45
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Dilution

Dilution of 4043 Filler Metal by 6061 Aluminum

Base Metal
Material Cu Fe Mg Mn Si
6061 0.25 0.50 1.10 0.12 0.55
4043 0.30 0.80 0.05 0.05 5.20

High Dilution Low Dilution

45% Cu Fe Mg Mn Si 10% Cu Fe Mg Mn Si
Weld Metal 0 278
0.278 0 665
0.665 0 523
0.523 0 082
0.082 3 108
3.108 Weld Metal 0 295
0.295 0 770
0.770 0 155
0.155 0 057
0.057 4 735
4.735

Silicon levels above 4 wt% help prevent weld solidification cracking

3-46
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Weld Pool Shape

ƒ Material properties
z Melting point
z Thermal conductivity
z Surface tension
Š Marangoni effect
ƒ Process parameters
z Heat input
z Travel speed
ƒ Heat flow conditions
z 2-D (full penetration)
z 3-D (partial penetration)

3-47
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Surface Tension Induced Fluid Flow

ƒ Surface tension of liquid a

function of composition and
temperature
z Marongoni effect
ƒ Influence of gradient on weld
pool fluid flow
z Negative gradient promotes
outward flow and shallow
penetration
z Positive gradient promotes
inward (downward) flow and good
penetration
ƒ Strong influence of sulfur and
oxygen

Figure modified from Heiple and Roper

3-48
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Nucleation of Solid during Solidification

ƒ Homogeneous
z Critical radius size, where r* = 2γslTm
ΔHM ΔT
z Liquid undercooling
ƒ Heterogeneous
z Nucleation from existing substrate or particle
z Little or no undercooling required

3-49
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Types of Heterogeneous Nucleation

ƒ Dendrite fragmentation
ƒ Grain detachment
ƒ Nucleant particle formation
ƒ Surface nucleation
ƒ Epitaxial nucleation

Courtesy Kou and Le

3-50
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Epitaxial Nucleation at the Fusion Boundary

ƒ Nucleation from an existing

solid substrate
ƒ Crystallographic orientation
of base metal “seed crystal”
is maintained
ƒ Growth pparallel to cube edge
g
in cubic materials
z 〈100〉 in FCC and BCC
z 〈1010〉 in HCP
z Called “easy growth” directions

3-51
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Modes

ƒ Multiple solidification modes (morphologies) are possible

z Planar
z Cellular
z Cellular dendritic
z Columnar dendritic
z Equiaxed dendritic
ƒ Controlled by
z Temperature gradient in the liquid, GL
z Solidification growth rate, R
z Composition

3-52
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Growth Modes

High GL and Low R

3-53
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Growth Modes

3-54
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Effect of Travel Speed

ƒ Travel speed has significant

effect on weld pool shape
ƒ Low travel speeds
z Elliptical pool shape
z Curved columnar grains
z Gradual change in GL and R
ƒ High travel speeds
z Teardrop pool shape
z Distinct centerline
z R is constant along most of
S-L interface

3-55
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Effect of GL and R

Planar
Temperature Gradient, GL

Cellular

Finer
structure

Cellular
Dendritic
High G·R
Columnar
Dendritic

Low G·R
Equiaxed Dendritic

Solidification Rate, R

3-56
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Effect of GL, R, and Composition

Equiaxed Columnar
Dendritic Dendritic Cellular
Dendritic
Composition

Cellular

Typical Range of
Solidification

Planar

Solidification Parameter, GL/R½

3-57
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Effect of Cooling Rate

Higher Cooling Rate

Dendrite Arm Spacing

Finer
Structure

Castings Welds Splat Cooling

Log Cooling Rate, G ·R, degrees/sec

3-58
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Weld Metal Epitaxial Nucleation

ƒ Nucleation from and

existing solid substrate at
the fusion boundary
ƒ Crystallographic orientation
of HAZ grain is maintained
ƒ “Easyy growth”
g directions
parallel to cube edge in
cubic materials
z 〈100〉 in FCC and BCC
z 〈1010〉 in HCP

3-59
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Competitive Growth

ƒ Random orientation of base

metal grains in
polycrystalline materials
ƒ Growth most favorable
when easy growth direction
is parallel to heat flow
direction
ƒ Grains “compete”
depending on orientation
ƒ Intersection of grains forms
SGBs

From Nelson and Lippold

3-60
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Fusion Zone Boundaries

ƒ Differentiated by
z Composition
z Structure
ƒ Solidification subgrain
boundaries (SSGBs)
z Composition (Case 2)
z Low angle misorientation
ƒ Solidification grain boundaries
(SGBs)
z Composition (Case 3)
z High or low angle misorientation
ƒ Migrated grain boundaries
(MGBs)
z Local variation in composition
z High angle misorientation
3-61
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Subgrain Boundary

ƒ Boundaries between cells

and dendrites
(solidification subgrains)
ƒ Composition dictated by
Case 2 solute
redistribution
ƒ Low misorientation
between adjacent
subgrains - low angle
boundary

50 μm

3-62
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Solidification Grain Boundary

ƒ Boundary between
packets of subgrains
ƒ Results from competitive
SGB growth
ƒ Composition dictated by
Case 3 solute
redistribution
ƒ Large misorientation
across boundary at end of
solidification - high angle
boundary
25 μm ƒ Most likely site for
solidification cracking

3-63
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification

Migrated Grain Boundary

ƒ Crystallographic
component of SGB
ƒ Migrates away from SGB
in the solid state following
solidification or during
reheating
ƒ Large misorientation
across boundary - high
angle boundary
MGB
ƒ Composition varies locally
ƒ Possible boundary
25 μm “sweeping” and
segregation
ƒ Liquation and ductility dip
cracking
3-64
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Fusion Zone Microstructure - Stainless Steels

50 µm 50 µm

Austenitic Stainless Steel Duplex Stainless Steel

3-65
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Microstructure - Ni-Base Alloy

20 μm

3-66
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Filler Metal 82 – Nickel-Base Alloy

50 μm
Arrows indicate migrated grain boundaries
3-67
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Microstructure - Aluminum Alloy

3-68
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fusion Zone

Transition Region

Ferrite +
Austenite

Ferrite

Martensite Band

50μm

Carbon steel base metal with austenitic stainless steel filler metal
3-69
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Unmixed Zone

Unmixed Zone (UMZ)

Fusion Zone
Heat-Affected
Zone
Partially Melted
Unmixed Zone
Zone

ƒ Narrow region adjacent to the fusion boundary

ƒ Completely melted and resolidified base metal
ƒ No mixing with the bulk fusion zone (composite region)

3-70
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Unmixed Zone

Factors Influencing UMZ Formation

ƒ Base metal/filler metal composition

ƒ Physical properties
z Melting point
z Fluid viscosity
z Miscibility
ƒ Welding
gpprocess
z Most prevalent in arc welding processes (GTAW, GMAW)
z Not observed in EBW and LBW
ƒ Process conditions
z Heat input
z Fluid flow

3-71
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Unmixed Zone

Alloy Systems

Low Alloy Steels HY-80

Austenitic Stainless Steels 310/304L, 312/304L

Superaustenitic Stainless Steels AL6XN, 254SMO

Aluminum Alloys 4043/6061, 2319/2195

Nickel-based Alloys Alloys 600 and 625

Dissimilar combinations 308L/625

3-72
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Unmixed Zone

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Weld Former UMZ

Metal

UMZ
100 μm
SEM

From Baeslack and Lippold

3-73
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Partially Melted Zone

Partially Melted Zone (PMZ)

Fusion Zone
Heat-Affected
Zone

Partially Melted
Unmixed Zone Zone

ƒ Region separating the fusion zone from the “true” heat-

affected zone
ƒ Transition from 100% liquid at the fusion boundary to 100%
solid in the HAZ
ƒ Localized melting normally observed at grain boundaries
ƒ Constitutional liquation of certain particles
3-74
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Partially Melted Zone

Grain Boundary Liquation in the PMZ

ƒ Segregation of solute/
impurities to grain
boundaries depresses the
local melting point
ƒ Temperature gradient has a
strong effect on the extent of
melting

Steep Gradient Shallow Gradient

3-75
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

The “True” Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)

Fusion Zone
Heat-Affected
Zone

Partially Melted
Unmixed Zone Zone

ƒ Adjacent to the PMZ

ƒ All metallurgical reactions occur in the solid state
ƒ Strongly dependent on weld thermal cycle and heat flow
conditions

3-76
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Metallurgical Reactions

ƒ Solid-state metallurgical reactions

z Recrystallization
z Grain growth
z Allotropic / phase transformations
z Dissolution / overaging of precipitates
z Formation of precipitates
z Formation of residual stresses
ƒ Degradation of weldment properties is often associated with
the HAZ

3-77
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Effect of Heat Input and Heat Flow

Fusion Zone HAZ

PMZ

• Low HI • High HI
• Effective heat flow • Restricted heat flow

ƒ HAZ width dictated by weld thermal conditions

ƒ HAZ temperature gradient
z Heat input
z Heat flow

3-78
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Effect of Recrystallization on Strength and

Ductility
ƒ Recrystallization promotes
z loss in strength
z Increase in ductility
ƒ Grain growth promotes
some additional softening

From W.D. Callister

3-79
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Annealed vs. Cold Worked HAZs

Annealed HAZ Fusion Zone HAZ

Hardness or Strength

Base Metal
Cold Worked
Base Metal

3-80
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

HAZ Softening

Aluminum Alloy 5356-H3 Nickel-base Alloy 718

from AWS Handbook

3-81
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

HAZ Transformations in Steels

ƒ Function of composition and cooling rate

ƒ Regions that form austenite during heating transform during
cooling
z Ferrite
z Pearlite
z Bainite
z Martensite
z Combinations of phases
ƒ CCT diagrams

3-82
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams

Ferrite Start

Bainite Start

Martensite Start

3-83
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Heat-Affected Zone

Phase Transformations

ƒ Most engineering alloy systems undergo phase

transformations in the HAZ
z Copper alloys, β (BCC) → α (FCC)
z Stainless steels, δ (BCC) → γ (FCC)
ƒ Nature of transformations
z Diffusion-controlled
z Diffusionless, or shear-type
Š Martensitic
Š Massive

3-84
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Regions of a Solid-State Weld

HAZ of Non-Fusion Joining Processes

ƒ Solid-state joining processes have no fusion zone but can

have a HAZ
z Friction welding
z Flash butt welding
z Diffusion welding
z Explosion welding
ƒ Friction and flash butt welding
z Base metal is heated until it is easily deformable
z Two ends of the joint are forged together
z Hot base metal is extruded from the joint to form a flash

3-85
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

ƒ ASME Section IX groups similar materials into P-No.

categories
z Similar composition, weldability and mechanical properties
ƒ In addition to P-No., materials can be further described by
Group No., grade, specification, grade, etc.
z Materials can be specified as P-No.1 Group 1 or P-No.1 Group 2
ƒ P-No. and Group No. are listed in QW/QB 422 of ASME
Section IX

ƒ Typically the base material requirements defined by ASME

Section IX are independent of the welding process

3-86
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

3-87
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

P-No. Description
1 C, C-Mn, and C-Mn-Si steels
3 Low-alloy steels [Mo, Mn-Mo, Si-Mo and Cr-Mo (Cr ≤ ¾% and total
alloy content < 2%)]
4 Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr between ¾% and 2% and total alloy
content < 2 ¾%
5A Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr ≤ 3% and < 85 ksi minimum tensile
strength
5B Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr > 3% and ≤ 85 ksi minimum tensile
strength
5C Cr-Mo low-alloy steels with Cr between 2 ¼ % and 3% and ≥ 85 ksi
minimum tensile strength
6 Martensitic stainless steels
7 Ferritic stainless steels - nonhardneable
8 Austenitic stainless steels
3-88
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

P-No. Description
9A, 9B, 9C Nickel alloy steels with 4.5% Ni
10A – 10K Mn-V and Cr-V steels, 26% Cr-3% Ni-3% Mo, and 29% Cr-4%
Mo-2% Ni steels and duplex stainless steels
11A, 11B Low-alloy quench and tempered steels with > 95 ksi minimum
tensile strength
21 – 25 Aluminum and aluminum-base alloys
31 – 35 Copper and copper-base alloys
41 – 47 Nickel and nickel-base alloys
51 – 53 Titanium and titanium-base alloys
61, 62 Zirconium and zirconium-base alloys

3-89
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX – Base Material Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
QW-402
Joint .3 Φ Backing Composition X
.1 φ P-No. Qualified X
.4 φ Group Number X
.5 φ Group Number X
.11 φ P-No. Qualified X
.12 φ P-No./Melt-in X
.15 φ P-No. Qualified X
φ Base Metal or Stud
.17 Metal P-No. X
.19 φ Base Metal X
QW-403 φ Specification, Type, or
Base Material .24 Grade X

3-90
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Module 3C
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Classification of Steels

Classification by Composition

ƒ Plain carbon ƒ High strength, low alloy (HSLA)

z Low carbon, < 0.2 wt% z Micro-alloyed
z Medium carbon, 0.2-0.6 wt% z Dual-phase
z High carbon, 0.6-1.0 wt% z Control-rolled
z Ultrahigh carbon, 1.25-2.0 wt% z Weathering
ƒ Low alloy, up to 8% alloying z Pearlite-reduced
addition z Acicular ferrite
z Low carbon, quench and ƒ High alloy, > 8% alloy addition
tempered z High Cr, heat-resistant
z Medium carbon, ultrahigh z Stainless
strength
z Cr-Mo heat resistant

3-92
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Classification of Steels

Steel Classification Systems

ƒ AISI/SAE ƒ ASTM

1020 A516
z 1 = carbon steel z C-steel pressure vessel plates
z 0 = plain carbon steel z Graded by tensile strength
z 20 = 20/100 % carbon
ƒ ASME Boiler and Pressure
4340 Vessel Code
4 = molybdenum steel
P1
z
z 3 = Ni-Cr-Mo (1.8% Ni)
z 40 = 40 / 100 % carbon z P groups of similar steel
z Simplified qualification

3-93
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Classification of Steels

Carbon Steels Used in the Nuclear Industry

Designation Composition Mechanical Uses

(wt%) Properties
SA-36 0.2C, 0.15-0.4Si, UTS: 58-80 ksi General structural
0.8-1.2Mn YS: 36 ksi min.
Elong: 20% min.

SA508,, 0.2C,, 0.15-0.40Si,, UTS: 90-115 ksi Quench and tempered

p
Class 3 1.2-1.5Mn, 0.4-1.0Ni, YS: 65 ksi min forgings for pressure
0.45-0.6Mo Elong: 16% min. vessels

SA-533, 0.25C, 0.15-0.40Si, UTS: 100-125 ksi Quench and tempered

Type C 1.15-1.5Mn, 0.4- YS: 83 ksi min. steel plates for pressure
0.7Ni, 0.45-0.6Mo Elong: 16% min. vessels

3-94
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Microstructure of Steels

Different Phases in Steel

ƒ Iron can exhibits 3 separate solid phases between room

temperature and its melting temperature
z Low temperature ferrite (bcc) – alpha ferrite
z Austenite (fcc)
z High temperature ferrite (bcc) – delta ferrite
ƒ When carbon is added to iron to form steel, another phase
known as cementite (Fe3C) can form
ƒ Steels are known as “allotropic” materials because the same
composition can have different phases depending on
temperature

3-95
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

ƒ Iron-rich end of Fe-C

δ + Liquid
0.09%
Liquid
equilibrium phase
1538
(2800)
0.53%
diagram
1495 (2723)
δ ƒ Equilibrium phases
1394
(2541)
0.17%
Liquid z Ferrite (alpha and delta)
γ + Liquid
C [°F]

δ+γ + Fe3C z Austenite

Temperature, °C

1148 (2098) 4.3% z Cementite (Fe3C)

γ
ƒ Invariant reactions
2.11%
z Peritectic (1495°C,
912
(1674)
α+γ γ+ 0.17%C)
Fe3C
Fe3C z Eutectic (1148°C,
770
(1418)
4.3%C)
0.77% 727 (1341)
z Eutectoid (727°C,
α
0.02% α + Fe3C
0.77%C)

0 6.67
Carbon, wt% 3-96
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

ƒ Steels
z C content generally less
than 1.0 wt%
z Hypoeutectoid – less than
0.77% carbon
z Hypereutectoid – between
0.77 and 2.1% C
ƒ Cast irons
z Greater than 2.1% carbon
z High volume fraction
cementite

3-97
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram

3-98
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams

Ferrite Start

Bainite Start

Martensite Start

3-99
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Slow Cooling → Ferrite + Pearlite

ƒ Ferrite is a soft and ductile

phase found in steel
microstructures
z Ferrite can contain
£ 0.025% carbon
ƒ Pearlite is a banded mixture of
f it and
ferrite d cementite
tit (Fe
(F 3C)
z Cementite contains the excess
carbon that the ferrite can’t hold

3-100
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Bainite

ƒ Medium/high cooling rates

ƒ Suppressed proeutectoid
and eutectoid
transformations
ƒ Undercooled austenite
ƒ Short range diffusion of
carbon
ƒ Precipitation of Fe3C and
carbides
ƒ Formation of bainitic ferrite
ƒ Low toughness of upper
bainite

3-101
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Effect of Cooling Rate

Fast Cooling → Martensite

ƒ Martensite is very strong,

hard, and brittle
ƒ Body centered tetragonal
crystal structure (bct)
ƒ High dislocation density
ƒ Metastable structure

3-102
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Martensite

Martensite: Good or Bad?

ƒ GOOD Aspects of Martensite

z High strength and hardness compared to ferrite + pearlite
z Many steels are designed to be quenched to form martensite then
tempered to improve their ductility and toughness
Š 4130
Š 4340

ƒ BAD Aspects of Martensite

z Martensite results in low ductility and toughness
z Increases the possibility of hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)
particularly in highly restrained joints

3-103
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hardness of Steels

Hardness - Effect of Carbon

ƒ Carbon is the most

important alloying element
in steel
ƒ Interstitial element
ƒ Forms carbides with Fe and
other alloying
y g elements ((Cr,,
Mo, V)
ƒ Greatly facilitates
transformation hardening
ƒ Controls the maximum
hardness achievable in the
alloy

3-104
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Hardness versus Hardenability

ƒ Hardenability is the ease with which hardening occurs upon

cooling from the austenite phase field
ƒ Associated with the formation of martensite
ƒ Factors which influence hardenability
z Carbon content
z Alloying
y g additions
z Prior austenite grain size
z Homogeneity of the austenite
z Section thickness

3-105
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hydrogen Cracking

Hydrogen Induced Cracking and Martensite

ƒ Four factors are required for hydrogen cracking

z Susceptible microstructure
z Source of hydrogen
Š Moisture in flux
Š Grease/oil on plates
z Stress
Š Residual
Š Applied
z Temperature between -100 and
200°C (-150 and 390°F)

Hydrogen crack at root of multipass weld

ƒ Eliminate only one factor and HIC goes away!!

3-106
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hydrogen Cracking

Using Preheat to Avoid Hydrogen Cracking

ƒ If the base material is preheated, heat flows more slowly out

of the weld region
z Slower cooling rates avoid martensite formation
ƒ Preheat allows hydrogen to diffuse from the metal

T base Cooling rate ∝ (T - Tbase)3

Cooling rate ∝ (T - Tbase)2

T base
3-107
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hydrogen Cracking

Interaction of Preheat and Composition

CE = %C + %Mn/6 + %(Cr+Mo+V)/5 + %(Si+Ni+Cu)/15

ƒ Carbon equivalent (CE) measures potential to form

martensite, which is generally necessary for hydrogen
cracking
z CE < 0.35 no preheat or PWHT
z 0.35 < CE < 0.55 preheat
z 0.55 < CE preheat and PWHT
ƒ Preheat temperature ↑ as CE ↑ and plate thickness ↑

3-108
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Hydrogen Cracking

Postweld Heat Treatment and Hydrogen Cracking

ƒ Postweld heat treatment (1100-1250°F) tempers any

martensite that may have formed
z Increase in ductility and toughness
z Reduction in strength and hardness
ƒ Residual stress is decreased by postweld heat treatment
ƒ Rule of thumb: hold at temperature
p for 1 hour p
per inch of p
plate
thickness; minimum hold of 30 minutes
ƒ Postweld heat treatment temperatures vary for different steels
ƒ In general, PWHT for tempering must be done below the
lower critical (A1) temperature

3-109
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat and Post Weld Heat Treatment

Preheat and PWHT

Preheat Weld Thermal Cycle PWHT

No/Low Preheat
Medium Preheat
High Preheat
ure
Temperatu

Time
3-110
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Consumables

Welding Consumables for Carbon Steels

ƒ Processes used in the Nuclear Industry for Primary

Fabrication and Repair
z Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
z Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
z Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
z Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

3-111
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Coated Electrodes

AWS Standards Specific to SMAW

ƒ AWS A5.1 - Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for

Shielded Metal Arc Welding
ƒ AWS A5.5 - Specification for Low-Alloy Electrodes for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
ƒ AWS A5.4 - Specification for Corrosion-Resisting Chromium-
and Chromium-Nickel Steels for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
g

3-112
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Coated Electrodes

SMAW Electrode Designation

Welding Position
Digit Position
1 Flat, Horizontal, Vertical, Overhead
2 Flat and Horizontal only
3 Flat only
4 Flat, Horizontal, Vertical Down, Overhead 3-113
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Coated Electrodes

SMAW Electrode Designation

Type of Coating and Current Alloying Content of Weld Metal Deposit

Digit Type of Coating Current Suffix %Mn %Ni %Cr %Mo %V

0 Cellulose sodium DC+ A1 0.50

1 Cellulose potassium AC, DC± B1 0.50 0.50

2 Titania sodium AC, DC- B2 1.25 0.50

3 Titania potassium AC, DC+ B3 2.25 1.00

4 Iron powder titania AC, DC± C1 2.50

5 Low hydrogen sodium DC+ C2 3.25

6 Low hydrogen potassinm AC, DC+ C3 1.00 0.15 0.35

7 Iron powder iron oxide AC, DC± D1/D2 1.25-2.00 0.25-0.45

8 Iron powder low hydrogen AC, DC± G(1) 0.50 0.30 min. 0.20 min. 0.10 min.

Examples
E6010 Cellulosic, all position, DCEP, 60 ksi min UTS
E7018 Low hydrogen, all position, AC or DCEP, 70 ksi min UTS
E7010-A Cellulosic, all position, DCEP, 70 ksi min, carbon/moly

3-114
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Coated Electrodes

Common SMAW Electrode Coating Descriptions

ƒ XX10- High cellulose sodium, DCEP

ƒ XX11- High cellulose potassium, AC or DCEP

ƒ XX12- Rutile sodium AC, DCEP, DCEN

ƒ XX13- Rutile potassium AC, DCEP, DCEN
ƒ XX14-
XX14 Rutile
R til + FFe – powder
d additions
dditi AC
AC, DCEP
DCEP, DCEN

ƒ XX15- Low hydrogen, sodium, DCEP

ƒ XX16- Low hydrogen potassium AC, DCEP
ƒ XX18- Low hydrogen, Fe powder additions AC, DCEP

3-115
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

Types of Continuous Wire Electrodes

3-116
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

AWS Standards Specific to GTAW

and GMAW Electrodes
ƒ AWS A5.18 - Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for
Gas Shielded Arc Welding
ƒ AWS A5.28 - Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes
and Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding
ƒ AWS A5.9 - Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes and
Rods for Gas Shielded Arc Welding g

3-117
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

AWS Classification for Solid Steel Wires

AWS A5.18

ER70S-3 H4
Use as an electrode or rod
Tensile strength in ksi
Solid wire
Chemical composition of electrode (2, 3, 4, 6, 7, G)
Optional diffusible hydrogen designator
(4, 8 or 16 ml/100 g)

Examples
ER70S-6 C-Mn, high Si, 70 ksi min UTS
ER80S-B2 Cr-Mo grade, 80 ksi min UTS
ER100S-2 HSLA grade (Cr, Ni, Mo, Cu), 100 ksi min UTS
3-118
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

AWS Classification for Composite Steel Wires

Examples
E70C-3C 0.12%C-1.75%Mn-0.9%Si-0.5%Ni-0.2%Cr-0.3%Mo-
0.5%Cu, high Si, 70 ksi min UTS, 100% CO2 3-119
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Wire Electrodes

FCAW Electrode Classification

AWS A5.29

E80T5-K2M JH4
Electrode
Tensile strength in ksi x10
Welding position (0 F and H; 1 all)
Fl cored
Flux d electrode
l t d
Electrode polarity and usability
Chemical composition of deposited weld

Shielding gas (M 75-80% Ar, bal. CO2;

without M 100% CO2 or selfshielded)

Toughness requirement (J improved; without J normal)

Optional diffusible hydrogen designator (4, 8 or 16 ml/100 g)

Example
E91T1-D1 90-110 min ksi, all position, CO2 shielded, DCEP,
1.25/2.00 Mn and 0.25/0.55 Mo
3-120
 ASME Requirements
Preheat, PWHT and Temper Bead
Welding
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Preheat Requirements
ƒ NB-4610, Welding Preheat Requirements
z NB-4611, When is Preheat Necessary
Š States preheat temperature is dependent on a number of factors
z Chemical analysis
z Degree of restraint
z Elevated temperature
z Physical properties
z Material thickness
Š Provides suggested preheat temperatures depending on the P-Number of
the material
Š Refers to non-mandatory Appendix D
z Preheat temperature is based on chemistry, thickness and/or strength of the
material
z NB-4612, Preheating Methods
z NB-4613, Interpass Temperature
Š Applicable to quench and tempered materials

3-122
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

Preheat Requirements
ƒ 131, Welding Preheat
z 131.1, Minimum Preheat Requirements
Š Provides minimum preheat temperatures depending on the material P-No.
Š The preheat temperature should be achieved 3 in. or 1.5 times the
material thickness which ever is greater from the weld joint
z 131.2, Different P-Number Materials
Š The minimum preheat temperature shall be the highest of the two
recommended temperatures
z 131.3, Preheat Temperature Verification
Š Specifies how to monitor the preheat temperature
z 131.4, Preheat Temperature
Š Should be 50ºF unless otherwise specified depending on material P-No.
Š Identifies the governing thickness as the thicker of the two nominal base
materials being welded
z 131.6, Interruption of Welding
Š Provides requirements for when welding is interrupted and varies
depending on material being welded
3-123
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat Requirements

Comparison of ASME Preheat Requirements

Material Preheat Recommendations

ASME Section III - NB ASME B31.1

P-No. 1 200ºF for ≤ 0.30%C and >1.5” 175ºF for > 0.30%C and >1”
(Carbon Steel) thick thick
250ºF for > 0.30%C and >1”
thick
50ºF for all other materials 50ºF for all other materials
P-No. 5 400ºF for 60 ksi SMTS or 400ºF for 60 ksi SMTS or
(2.25Cr 1 Mo) specified minimum Cr >6.0% specified minimum Cr >6.0%
and 01.5” thick and 0.5” thick
300ºF for all other materials 300ºF for all other materials

3-124
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ NB-4620, Postweld Heat Treatment
z NB-4621, Heating and Cooling Methods
Š PWHT may be performed by suitable means provided heating and cooling
rates, metal temperature , uniformity and temperature control are
maintained
z NB-4622, PWHT Time and Temperature Requirements
Š NB-4622.1, General PWHT requirements
q
Š NB-4622.2, Time-Temperature Recordings
Š NB-4622.3, Definition of Nominal Thickness Governing PWHT
Š NB-4622.4, Hold Time at Temperature
z Does allow for lower temperatures for longer times with addition testing
requirements
Š NB-4622.5, Requirements for different P-No.
Š NB-4622.7, Exemptions to Mandatory Requirements

3-125
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Requirements

3-126
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ NB-4620, Postweld Heat Treatment
z NB-4622, PWHT Time and Temperature Requirements
Š NB-4622.4, Hold Time at Temperature
z Does allow for lower temperatures for longer times with addition testing
requirements

3-127
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Exemptions
ƒ NB-4620, Postweld Heat Treatment
z NB-4622, PWHT Time and Temperature Requirements
Š NB-4622.7, Exemptions to Mandatory Requirements
z Nonferrous material
z Exempted welds (Table NB-4622.7 (b)-1)
z Welds subjected to temperatures above the PWHT temperature
z Welds connecting nozzles to components or branch to pipe in accordance to
NB 4622 8 repairs
NB-4622.8 i tto vessels
l (i
(i.e., ttemper b
bead
d weld
ld repair)
i)
z Weld repairs to vessels in accordance to NB-4622.9 (i.e., temper bead weld
repair)
z Weld repairs to cladding after final PWHT in accordance to NB-4622.10
z Weld repairs to dissimilar metal welds after final PWHT in accordance to NB-
4622.11 (i.e., temper bead weld repair)

3-128
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Exemptions

3-129
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Exemptions

3-130
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ NB-4620, Postweld Heat Treatment
z NB-4623, PWHT Heating and Cooling Rates
Š Above 800ºF, the heating and cooling rate shall not exceed 400ºF divided
by the maximum material thickness per hour
Š Heating and cooling rates shall be between 400 and 100ºF/hr
Š There shall not be a temperature gradient greater than 250ºF per 15 feet
of weld length
z NB-4624, Methods of PWHT
ƒ NB-4630, PWHT of Welds Other Than Final PWHT
ƒ NB-4650, PWHT after Bending or Forming
ƒ NB-4660, PWHT of Electroslag Welds
z Electroslag welds in ferritic material over 1.5-in. thick shall be given a
grain refining heat treatment

3-131
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ 132, Postweld Heat Treatment
z 132.1, Minimum PWHT Requirements
Š Refers to Table 132
Š Allows for lower temperature and
longer time
z 132.2, Mandatory PWHT
Requirements
q
Š PWHT may be performed by
suitable means provided heating
and cooling rates, metal
temperature , uniformity and
temperature control are
maintained
Š Refers to Table 132 for time and
temperature

3-132
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

PWHT Requirements

3-133
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

PWHT Requirements

3-134
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

ASME B31.1 – Power Piping –

PWHT Requirements
ƒ 132, Postweld Heat Treatment
z 132.3 Exemptions to Mandatory PWHT Requirements
Š Welds in nonferrous materials
Š Welds exempted in Table 132
Š Welds subject to temperatures above the lower critical temperature
provided proper qualification
Š Exemptions
p are based on the actual chemistry
y of the material
z 132.4 Definition of Thickness Governing PWHT
Š Table 132 uses weld thickness (i.e., “nominal thickness”) to determine time
and temperature but use material thickness (i.e., “nominal material
thickness”) for exemptions
z 132.5 PWHT Heating and Cooling Rates
Š Above 600ºF, the heating and cooling rate shall not exceed 600ºF per hour
divided by the ½ the maximum material thickness
Š Heating and cooling rates shall not exceed 600ºF/hr
z More specifics depending on material
z 132.6 and 132.7 describe furnace heating and local heating
requirements
3-135
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy PWHT Requirements

Comparison of ASME PWHT Requirements

ASME P- Hold Material Thickness
Code No. Temperature Up to 0.5 in. – > 2 in. – 5 in. Over 5 in.
0.5 in. 2 in.
Sec. III – 1 1100 ºF – 30 min. 1 hr/in. 2 hr plus 15 5 hr. plus 15
NB 1250 ºF min. each min. each
additional in. additional in.
5A 1250 ºF – 30 min. 1 hr/in. 1 hr/in. 5 hr. plus 15
1400 ºF min each
min.
additional in.
B31.1 1 1100 ºF – 1 hr/in. (15 min. 2 hr. plus 15 min. each
1200 ºF minimum) additional in.
5A 1300 ºF – 1 hr/in. (15 min. 2 hr. plus 15 min. each
1400 ºF minimum) additional in.

3-136
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX –
Preheat and PWHT Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 Decrease > 100ºF X
.2 φ Preheat Maintenance X
.3 Increase > 100ºF (IP) X
QW-406 φ > 10% Amperage,
Preheat .7 Number of Cycles, etc X
.1 φ PWHT X
.2 φ PWHT (T & T Range) X
.4 T Limits X
φ PWHT, PWHT Cycles, or
QW-407 Separate PWHT Time or
PWHT .8 Temperature X

3-137
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Preheat and Post Weld Heat Treatment

Typical ASME Section IX Requirements

ƒ For SMAW process

z Preheat variables
Š Decrease by more than 100ºF requires requalification
z Interpass variables
Š Increase by more than 100ºF requires requalification if toughness is a
requirement
z PWHT variables
Š Change in PWHT temperature schedules requires requalification
z PWHT above upper transformation temperature, PWHT below lower
transformation temperature, etc.
Š Change in PWHT time and temperature ranges requires requalification if
toughness is a requirement
Š For specific ferrous materials (e.g., P-No. 7, 8 and 49), a change in
material thickness greater than 1.1X the thickness of the material qualified
requires requalification

3-138
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

Temper Bead Welding – Background

ƒ Temper bead welding uses the heat from welding of

subsequent beads to temper HAZ of previous deposited
passes
z Tempering reduces HAZ
hardness
ƒ Temper bead welding is
mostt commonly l usedd ffor
repair applications as an
alternative to repairs
using PWHT
z Temper bead welding is
essentially a local PWHT

3-139
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding
ƒ NB-4622.9, Temper Bead Weld Repair
z Limited to P-No. 1 (C. Steel) and P-No.3 (0.5 Mo Steel) materials
using A-No. 1, 2, 10 and 11 filler metals
z Repair shall be no more than 100 in.2 in area and no greater than 1/3
material thickness
z Qualified in accordance with ASME IX with additional requirements
Š Use SMAW welding with low-hydrogen
low hydrogen electrodes and low-hydrogen
low hydrogen
welding practice
Š Preheat temperature shall be a minimum of 350ºF
Š Interpass temperature shall be a maximum of 450ºF
Š The weld are shall be maintained at a temperature of 450 – 550ºF after
welding for 2 hours for P-No. 1 materials and 4 hours for P-No. 3
materials
Š Specific weld bead locations specified and electrode diameter specified
per layer
z Inspection requirements prior to welding, during welding and after the
welding is complete
3-140
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding

3-141
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding

3-142
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding

3-143
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding
ƒ NB-4622.9(f), Welding Procedure Qualification Test Plate
z Qualification plate shall be the same P-No as the material in the field
including same PWHT conditions
z Depth of cavity shall be at least half the depth of the actual repair but
not less than 1 in.
z Test plate assembly shall be at least twice the depth of the cavity
z The test assembly around the groove shall be at least the thickness of
the test assembly but not less than 6 in.

3-144
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section III Division 1 – NB –

Temper Bead Welding

3-145
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX –
Temper Bead Welding Requirements
ƒ Temper bead weld procedure qualification is more restrictive
than typical welding procedures
z Additional variables need to be addressed in addition to the weld
process variables
ƒ QW-290, Temper Bead Welding
z QW-290.1, Basic Qualification and Upgrading Existing WPS
z QW-290.2, Welding Process Restrictions
Š SMAW, GTAW, SAW, GMAW (including FCAW) and PAW is permitted
z QW-290.3, Variables for Temper Bead Welding Qualification
z QW-290.5, Test Coupon Preparation and Testing
Š Includes hardness testing requirements
Š Refers to the code of construction for additional testing

3-146
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX –
Preheat and PWHT Procedure Variables
Hardness Impact Test
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential

QW-402 .23 + Fluid Backing X

Joints .24 + Fluid Backing X
.25 φ P-No. or Group No. X
QW-403
Base .26 > Carbon Equivalent X
Materials .27
27 >T X

QW-404 .51 Storage X

Filler Metals .52 Diffusible Hydrogen X
.8 > Interpass Temperature X
.9 < Preheat Maintenance X

QW-406 .10 Preheat Soak Time X

Preheat .11 Postweld Bake Out X

3-147
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy ASME Section IX Requirements

ASME Section IX –
Preheat and PWHT Procedure Variables
Hardness Impact Test
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
QW-408
Gas .24 Gas Moisture X
QW-409
Gas .29 φ Heat Input Ratio X X
φ Single to Multiply
.10
10 Electrodes X X
.58 - Surface Temper Bead X X
.59 Φ Type of Welding X X
.60 + Thermal Preparation X X
.61 Surface Bead Placement X X
Surface Bead Removal
.62 Method X

QW-410 .63 Bead Overlap X X

Technique .65 ± Grinding X X

3-148
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section IX – Temper Bead Welding

3-149
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section IX – Temper Bead Welding

3-150
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Temper Bead Welding

ASME Section IX – Temper Bead Welding

3-151
Stainless Steels

Module 3D
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

Stainless Steels

ƒ Iron alloyed with greater ƒ Engineering properties

than 12% chromium z Resistance to discoloration
ƒ Chromium-rich oxide forms (stainless)
a continuous layer on the z Corrosion resistance
surface to prevent corrosion z High temperature oxidation
resistance
in ambient conditions
z Wide range of strength and
ƒ Classified by their ductility
microstructure z Generally good fabricability
z Martensitic z Weldability
z Ferritic
z Austenitic
z Duplex (austenite + ferrite)

3-2
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

Classification of Stainless Steels

ƒ Classified by microstructure
ƒ Classifications
z Martensitic (4XX)
z Ferritic (4XX)
z Austenitic (2XX, 3XX)
z Duplex
z Precipitation Hardenable (PH)

3-3
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

Fe-Cr Binary Phase Diagram

Gamma
Loop
Sigma
Phase
Alpha
Prime

3-4
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

Alloying Element Effects

ƒ Austenite formers ƒ Ferrite formers

z Nickel z Aluminum
z Manganese z Titanium
z Carbon z Vanadium
z Nitrogen z Chromium
z Copper z Molybdenum
z Cobalt z Niobium
z Silicon

3-5
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

Equivalency Relationships

Source Year Used for Cr-Equivalent, wt% Ni-equivalent, wt%

All stainless
Schaeffler 1949 Cr + Mo + 1.5 Si + 0.5Nb Ni + 0.5Mn + 30C
steels
Delong et al 1956 Austenitics Cr + Mo + 1.5 Si + 0.5Nb Ni + 0.5Mn + 30C + 30N

Kaltenhauser 1971 Ferritics Cr + 6Si + 8Ti + 4Mo + 2Al 40(C + N) + 2Mn + 4Ni

Cr + 1.21Mo + 0.48Si +0.14Nb Ni + (0.11Mn - 0.0086Mn2 ) +

Hull 1973 Austenitics + 2.27V + 2.20Ti + 0.21Ta + 24.5C + 14.2N + 0.41Co +
2.48Al 0.44Cu
Cr + 1.37 Mo + 1.5Si + 2Nb + Ni + 0.31Mn + 22C + 14.2N +
Hammar/Svennson 1979 Austenitics
3Ti Cu
Austenitics
WRC-1992 1992 Cr + Mo + 0.7Nb Ni + 35C + 20N + 0.25Cu
and duplex
Ferritics and
Balmforth/Lippold 2000 Cr + 2Mo + 10(Al + Ti) Ni + 35C + 20N
martensitics

3-6
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

The Schaeffler Diagram

3-7
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

Use of the Schaeffler Diagram

32
Type 310
0% 5%
Ni Equiv. = %Ni + 30(%C) + 0.5(%M

28
Austenite
10%
24
A+M
20 20%

Type
ype 30
304L A+F 40%
16
80%
12 Type 309L

A508
8 100%
A+M+F
Martensite
4 F M+F
+ Ferrite
M
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Cr Equiv. = %Cr + %Mo + 1.5(%Si) + 0.5(%Nb)

3-8
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

WRC-1992 Diagram
Nieq = Ni + 35 C + 20 N + 0.25Cu

Creq = Cr + Mo + 0.7Nb
3-9
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Stainless Steels

Ferrite Measurement

ƒ Metallographic techniques
z Volume percent ferrite
z Expensive, tedious, inaccurate, generally destructive
ƒ Magnetic instruments
z Ferrite is ferromagnetic
z Magnetic tearing force (MagneGage and Severn Gage)
z FeritScope – Magnetic Inductive Method
z Calibrated using AWS A4.2-98
z Values in ferrite number (FN) not volume percent
z Nondestructive

3-10
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ferrite Number

FeritScope™

ƒ Nondestructive method for ferrite content measurement

ƒ IIW – AWS/ANSI approved
ƒ Magnetic inductive
method

3-11
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ferrite Number

Determining FN and Solidification Mode

0 N + 0.25Cu

FM
Nieq = Ni + 35 C + 20

BM
2
1

Creq = Cr + Mo + 0.7Nb
3-12
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Determining Ferrite Number

Determining Ferrite Number

High Dilution Low Dilution

304 304

308L
308L
A a c
C
B
b
304 304

Figure 1 Figure 2

Notice the difference in dilution percentages due to the size of weld metal area (or
the nugget size). Because a larger amount of filler metal is illustrated in Figure 2
than Figure 1, the percent of dilution is lowered. 3-13
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Determining Ferrite Number

Determining Ferrite Number

High Dilution (50%)

FN = 3

Low Dilution (10%)

FN = 7

Material Cr Equivalence Ni Equivalence

304 18.50 14.90
308L 20.75 12.80

Material C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo N
304 0.06 1.5 0.03 0.01 0.6 18.5 12 - 0.04
308L 0.04 1.5 0.03 0.01 0.6 20 11 0.75 0.02

3-14
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Determining Ferrite Number

Ferrite Number Determination Example

ƒ Determine the FN of each pass in a four pass weld

z A508 Steel to Type 304L S.S. using Type 308L filler metal
z Schematic illustrates the weld Pass Percent Dilution
pass sequence # A508 304L Pass 1 Pass 2 Pass 3
z The tables show the dilution 1 20 20 - - -
level in each pass and the 2 - 15 15 - -
composition of the three 3 15 - 10 15 -
materials 4 5 5 - 15 15
Composition (wt.%)
Cr Ni Mn Si Mo Nb C N S P Cu
A508 0 0.4 1.35 0.4 0.1 0 0.3 0 0.03 0.045 0
304L 18.5 11 2 1 0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.035 0.01
308L Filler 19.5 10.5 1.25 1 0.75 0 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.1

A508 Type 304L

Pass 3 Pass 2 3-15

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Determining Ferrite Number

Ferrite Number Determination Example

ƒ Step 1: Use WRC 1992 diagram to determine Nieq and Creq

for A508, Type 304L, and ER308L
Ni EQ = Ni + 35C + 20 N + 0.25Cu
CrEQ = Cr + Mo + 0.7 Nb

A 508
Ni EQ = 0.4 + 35 × 0.3 + 20 × 0 + 0.25 × 0 = 10 .9
A 508
CrEQ = 0 + 0.1 + 0.7 × 0 = 0.1

304 L
Ni EQ = 11 + 35 × 0.03 + 20 × 0.05 + 0.25 × 0.01 = 13 .1
304 L
CrEQ = 18 .5 + 0 + 0.7 × 0.01 = 18 .5

ER 308 L
Ni EQ = 10 .5 + 35 × 0.04 + 20 × 0.03 + 0.25 × 0.1 = 12 .4
ER 308 L
CrEQ = 19 .5 + 0.75 + 0.7 × 0 = 20 .3

3-16
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Determining Ferrite Number

Ferrite Number Determination Example

ƒ Step 2: Use above Nieq and Creq along with dilution% to

calculate the Nieq and Creq for each pass
Pass1 A508 304L ER308L
NiEQ = 0.2 × NiEQ + 0.2 × NiEQ + 0.6 × NiEQ = 12.2
Pass1 A508 304L ER308L
CrEQ = 0.2 × CrEQ + 0.2 × CrEQ + 0.6 × CrEQ = 15.9

P 2
Pass 304L P 1
Pass ER308L
NiEQ = 0.15× NiEQ + 0.15× NiEQ + 0.7 × NiEQ = 12.5
Pass2 304L Pass1 ER308L
CrEQ = 0.15× CrEQ + 0.15× CrEQ + 0.7 × CrEQ = 19.3

Pass3 A508 Pass1 Pass2 ER308L

NiEQ = 0.15× NiEQ + 0.1× NiEQ + 0.15× NiEQ + 0.6 × NiEQ = 12.2
Pass3 A508 Pass1 Pass2 ER308L
CrEQ = 0.15× CrEQ + 0.1× CrEQ + 0.15× CrEQ + 0.6 × CrEQ = 16.7

Pass4 A508 304L Pass2 Pass3 ER308L

NiEQ = 0.05× NiEQ + 0.05× NiEQ + 0.15× NiEQ + 0.15× NiEQ + 0.6 × NiEQ = 12.4
Pass2 A508 304L Pass2 Pass3 ER308L
CrEQ = 0.05× CrEQ + 0.05× CrEQ + 0.15× CrEQ + 0.15× CrEQ + 0.6 × CrEQ = 18.5

3-17
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Determining Ferrite Number

Ferrite Number Determination Example

ƒ Step 3: Plot on Extended WRC 1992 Diagram to show FN

3-18
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Martensitic Stainless Steels

Alloy Constitution and Standard Alloys

ƒ Composition Range
z Standard alloys, 11.5 - 14 wt% Cr
z Specialty alloys, 14 - 18 wt% Cr
z 0.1 - 0.25 wt% C, 0.6 - 1.2 wt% C for cutlery grades
z Mo, V, W - high temperature strength, improve corrosion resistance
z Martensitic structure with some ferrite and carbides
ƒ Standard Alloys
z 410 “workhorse alloy”
z 410NiMo higher strength version of 410
z 416 (Se) free machining grade
z 420 slightly higher Cr
z 422 contains Mo, V, W
z 440A,B,C higher Cr, higher C
ƒ Service temperatures - up to 1200ºF (650ºC)
3-19
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Martensitic Stainless Steels

Industrial Uses

ƒ Applications
z Power generation
Š Blades and vanes for steam and gas
turbines
Š Main steam nozzles and valve seats
(erosion resistance)
z Wear and corrosion resistance
Š Rolls in pulp and paper, steel mills
Š Cutlery
ƒ Limitations
z Service temperature normally up to
1200°F (650°C)
z Corrosion resistance not as good as
higher Cr stainless steels Steam turbine stage
z Poor weldability in higher carbon alloys

3-20
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Martensitic Stainless Steels

Weldability Issues

ƒ Cracking
z Solidification cracking susceptibility generally low
z Hydrogen-induced cracking, particularly for higher C grades (> 0.20
wt% C)
ƒ Poor mechanical properties as welded
z Low ductility
z Low toughness
ƒ Reheat cracking possible
z Postweld aging promotes carbide precipitation along prior austenite
GBs

3-21
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ferritic Stainless Steels

Composition Range

ƒ Based on Fe-Cr system

ƒ Composition range
z 9-30 wt% chromium
z 0-3 wt% nickel
z 1 -2 wt% manganese
z 0.3-0.6 wt% silicon
z 0.02-0.1 wt% carbon
z additions of Ti, Nb, Al, and Mo
ƒ Microstructure – ferrite, martensite, and carbides

3-22
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ferritic Stainless Steels

Standard Alloys

ƒ First Generation – steels with “free’ carbon

z 405, 11.5-14.5Cr, 0.08C max, contains Al
z 430, 16-18Cr, 0.12C max. “workhorse” alloy
z 442, 18-23Cr, 0.2C max
ƒ Second Generation – steels with strong carbide formers
z 409, 10.5-11.75Cr, 0.03-0.08C max, contains Ti and Nb
z 436, 16-18Cr, 0.12C max, contains Mo and Nb
z 439, 17-19Cr, 0.03C max, contains Ti
z 468, 18-20Cr, 0.03C max, contain Ti and Nb
ƒ Third Generation – steels with very low C and high Cr
z 444, 17.5-19.5Cr, 0.025C max, contains Ti
z 29-4, 28-30Cr, 0.01C max, 0.02N max, contains Mo
z Many specialty grades – “superferritics”

3-23
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ferritic Stainless Steels

Industrial Uses

ƒ Applications
z Dependent on chromium content
z Automotive exhaust systems
Š 409, 439, 468
z Automotive decorative
Š 430, 434, 439
z Piping and vessels for Cl
Cl-containing
containing
environments
Š High-Cr alloys
z Food handling
High Frequency Welding
Š 430 AISI 409, 439 and 468
ƒ Limitations
z Service temperature up to 420ºC (750°F) 30 – 60 m/min
(100 – 200 ft/min)
z Toughness and ductility limitations
z Corrosion resistance in lower Cr alloys

3-24
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ferritic Stainless Steels

Welding Considerations

ƒ Preheat
z Dependent on alloy type and thickness (low and medium Cr)
z Control residual stresses and martensite formation
z May promote grain growth
z When employed 150 - 260ºC (300 - 500ºF)
ƒ PWHT
z 730 - 845ºC (1350 - 1550ºF )
z Tempers residual martensite
z Dissolves carbides and nitrides
z Reduces residual stresses
ƒ Filler metals
z Matching 409, 430, 439, 446, or specialty austenitic 308, 309, 310
z Ni-based - InconelTM , HastelloyTM types (high Cr alloys)

3-25
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ferritic Stainless Steels

Weldability Issues

ƒ Cracking
z Weld solidification and liquation cracking
z Hydrogen-induced cracking
z IGSCC in service
ƒ High temperature embrittlement (grain growth)
ƒ Intermediate temperature
p embrittlement
z S-phase formation
z “885°F embrittlement”
ƒ Carbide precipitation
z Formation of Cr-rich carbides
z \Localized loss of corrosion resistance

3-26
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Alloy Constitution and Standard Alloys

ƒ Based on Fe-Cr-Ni system

ƒ Composition range (wt%)
z 16 - 25 chromium
z 8 - 20 nickel
z 1 -2 manganese
z 0.5 - 3 silicon
z 0.02 - 0.08 carbon (< 0.04 designated “L” grades)
z 0-2 molybdenum
z 0 - 0.15 nitrogen
z 0-2 Ti and Nb
ƒ Microstructure – austenite with some ferrite

3-27
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Alloy Constitution and Standard Alloys

ƒ 201-205 Low Cr. Ni partially replaced by Mn-N

ƒ 301-302 Low Cr grades
ƒ 303 Free machining grade, contains high sulfur
ƒ 304 “Workhorse grade”
ƒ 304LLow carbon to avoid carbide precipitation
ƒ 316 – 317 Contains
C t i M Mo (l
(localized
li d corrosion
i resistance)
i t )
ƒ 321 Stabilized grade, contains Ti
ƒ 347 Stabilized grade, contains Nb and Ta
ƒ 348 Stabilized grade, contains Nb and Ta (Nuclear)
ƒ 310 Fully austenitic - high Cr, high Ni
(High temperature applications)
ƒ 384 High Ni – Reduce cold work hardening

3-28
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Industrial Applications

ƒ Structural
z Piping systems
z Pressure containment
ƒ Corrosion protection
z Cladding on structural and pressure vessel steels
z High temperature applications up to 1800°F (980°C)
ƒ Architectural/Decorative
z Gateway Arch in St. Louis
z Air Force Memorial in Arlington, VA
ƒ Kitchen/Sanitary
z Sinks, racks, etc.
z Commercial kitchen equipment
z Medical products – pacemakers, needles

3-29
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Welding Considerations

ƒ Preheat
z Preheat generally not required
z Interpass 350°F (177°C) maximum
ƒ PWHT
z None required in thinner sections
z Stress relief, 1200°F (650°C)
Š must consider carbide and sigma precipitation
z Solution anneal, 1800-2000°F (980-1095°C)
ƒ Filler metals
z Matching or near-matching
z 308, 309 for solidification cracking control
z Ni-base for corrosion or transition

3-30
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Weldability Issues

ƒ Solidification cracking
ƒ Liquation cracking
z Heat-affected zone
z Weld metal (multipass welds)
ƒ Reheat (stress relief) cracking
ƒ Ductility
Ductility-dip
dip cracking
ƒ Cu-contamination cracking
ƒ Corrosion
z Intergranular attack (“sensitization”)
z Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC)
z Transgranular SCC (TGSCC)
ƒ Intermediate temperature embrittlement
ƒ Lack of penetration (fluidity problems)
3-31
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Weld Solidification Cracking

A ƒ Influence of solidification mode

z Primary austenite most susceptible
z Primary ferrite has very high
resistance
ƒ Impurity content
z Sulfur, phosphorus, boron
z Strong partitioning during solidification
z Eutectic films and boundary wetting
FA ƒ Restraint
z Large contraction stresses with A and
AF solidification
z Effect of thick sections

3-32
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Weld Solidification Cracking vs. Composition

Austenitic Stainless
Steels

A AF FA F
eptibility
Cracking Susce

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Creq/Nieq – WRC 1992

3-33
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Preventing Weld Solidification Cracking

ƒ Control solidification behavior

z Selection of base and filler metals
z Filler metal dilution
z Use of predictive diagrams
ƒ Reduce impurity levels
z Low levels of S, P, and B
z Critical for primary austenite solidification (A and AF)
ƒ Minimize restraint
z Fixturing
z Welding procedures

3-34
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

20 N + 0.25Cu Controlling FN and Solidification Mode

BM
Nieq = Ni + 35 C + 2

FM

Creq = Cr + Mo + 0.7Nb
3-35
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

“Sensitization” of Austenitic Stainless Steels

ƒ 800°-1600°F (425°- 870°C)

ƒ Cr23C6 particles form at the grain
boundaries; Cr drops < 12%
18% Cr ƒ Grain boundary corrosion
ƒ Stabilized or low-C grades
z Maximum 0.1%carbon
0 1%carbon for standard
grades (304)
z Maximum 0.04% carbon for L grades
< 12% Cr (304L)
z Ti or Nb additions form stable MC
carbides
18% Cr

3-36
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Example of Intergranular Attack

Weld Metal

Top View Cross

Section

Grain boundary attack in Type 304

3-37
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Ferritic SS
Duplex SS
Austenitic SS
Superaustenitic SS
ƒ “Copson curve” for SCC
resistance vs. Ni-content
ƒ Cl-containing environments
ƒ High residual stresses in and
around welds
ƒ Stress concentrations
ƒ Minimum at 8-12 wt% Ni

3-38
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Austenitic Stainless Steels

Transgranular SCC in Type 316 Tubesheet

Carbon Steel
309L Filler
Metal

3-39
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Duplex Stainless Steels

Alloy Constitution and Standard Alloys

ƒ Composition Range ƒ 22 Cr Alloys

z Chromium 20 - 30 wt% z 2304 Fe - 23Cr - 4Ni -
z Nickel 4 - 10 wt% 0.1N
z Manganese 1 - 2 wt% z 2205 Fe - 22Cr - 5.5Ni –
z Silicon 1 wt% max 3Mo - 0.15N
z Carbon 0.08 wt% max ƒ 25 Cr Alloys
y
z Nitrogen 0.25 wt% max z Ferralium 255
z Molybdenum 2 - 5 wt% z Uranus 52N
z Copper 0 - 2 wt% ƒ “Superduplex” Alloys
z Tungsten 0 - 3 wt% z SAF 2507
ƒ Balanced ferrite + austenite z Zeron 100
microstructure z Uranus 52N+
z Sumitomo DP-3W

3-40
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Duplex Stainless Steels

Industrial Uses

ƒ Applications
z Pipelines, particularly for “sour”
service
z Umbilical systems – Offshore
Oil production
z Chemical plants
z Pulp and paper mills
ƒ Advantages
z Higher strength and corrosion
resistance than austenitics
z Lower CTE and higher thermal Undersea collection lines for oil and gas
conductivity
ƒ Limitations
z Restricted to 300°C (570°F) maximum service temperature
z Weld process control is critical to avoid loss of corrosion resistance
and properties
3-41
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Duplex Stainless Steels

Welding Considerations

ƒ Small heat input window to control ferrite-to-austenite

transformation FN 100
ƒ Preheat
z None required
ƒ PWHT
z Not recommended due to p
possible
embrittlement
ƒ Filler metals FN 70
z Matching (with Ni-”boost”)
z Austenitic or nickel-base (dissimilar joints)

3-42
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Duplex Stainless Steels

Weldability Issues

ƒ Solidification and HAZ/WM liquation cracking

z Low to medium susceptibility
z Dependent on impurity content
ƒ Hydrogen-induced cracking
z May occur if FN > 90
z Low hydrogen practice recommended
ƒ Control of ferrite / austenite balance in HAZ
z For FN > 90
Š Lower toughness and ductility
Š Reduced corrosion resistance
z Austenite provides ductility and high toughness
ƒ Intermediate temperature embrittlement

3-43
Nickel-Base Alloys

Module 3E
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloys

Characteristics of Nickel Alloys

ƒ Excellent corrosion resistance

ƒ Medium to high strength
z Strengthened by solid solution and precipitation
z Good strength at temperatures above 1200ºF (650ºC)
ƒ Austenitic microstructure
ƒ May be difficult to fabricate
ƒ Very expensive

3-45
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloys

Classes of Ni-Base Alloys

ƒ Commercially pure Ni (Low alloy) –

Chemical
z Alloy 200 (99Ni)
ƒ Ni-Cu Alloys – Chemical, marine
z Alloy 400 and K500
ƒ Ni-Cr,, Ni-Cr-Fe
z Alloys 600, 718, and C22
ƒ Fe-Ni-Cr – Piping, heat exchangers,
nuclear, oil production
z Alloys 800 and 925
ƒ Controlled expansion alloys –
Turbines, precision equipment
z Alloy 902
ƒ Ni-Fe (Low expansion) – Electronic
z Invar or Alloy 36
3-46
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloys

Classes of Ni-Base Alloys

ƒ Solid-Solution Strengthened Alloys (Cr, Mo, Fe, W)

z Alloy 600 (15.5Cr, 8Fe)
z Alloy 625 (21.5Cr, 2.5Fe, 9Mo, 3.5Nb)
z Alloy 690 (27Cr, 9Fe)
z Hastelloy X (22Cr, 18.5Fe, 9Mo, 2Al, 0.6W)
z Haynes 230 (22Cr, 2Fe, 2Mo, 14W)
ƒ Precipitation-Hardened Alloys (“Superalloys”)
z Alloy 718 (19Cr, 18.5Fe, 3Mo, 5Nb, 0.9Ti, 0.5Al)
z Inconel 713C (12.5Cr, 4.2Mo, 2Nb, 0.8Ti, 6Al)
z Waspaloy (19.5Cr, 2Fe, 4Mo, 13.5Co, 3Ti, 1.4Al)
z Inconel 939 (23Cr, 19Co, 4Ti, 2Al, 1.5Ta, 1Nb, 0.15C)

3-47
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloys

Commercial Uses

ƒ Heat treatment equipment

ƒ Heating elements
ƒ Turbine engines
ƒ Chemical plants
ƒ Pulp and paper industry
ƒ High
Hi h ttemperature
t waste
t iincinerators
i t
ƒ Transition joints between carbon steel and stainless steel
ƒ Cladding over steel for corrosion protection

3-48
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloys

Alloy Selection Criteria

ƒ Strength
z PH alloys can have reasonable strength to temperatures approaching
1800oF (980oC)
z Room temperature strength may exceed 200 ksi
ƒ Ductility
z Generally good over wide range of temperatures
z May be a ductility dip in some alloys at elevated temperature
ƒ Fracture Toughness
z No transition
z Excellent at cryogenic temperature
ƒ Corrosion Resistance
ƒ Cost

3-49
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloys

Strength vs. Temperature

3-50
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloys

Corrosion Resistance Effect of Mo

3-51
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Physical Metallurgy

Microstructure and Constitution

ƒ Single phase, FCC structure

ƒ High levels of chromium for corrosion resistance
ƒ Strengthened by
z Solid solution (Cr, Mo, Fe, W)
z Precipitation strengthening (Ti, Al, Nb))
ƒ Carbide formers (Ti
(Ti, Nb
Nb, Cr
Cr, Mo)
ƒ Embrittling phases
z Laves - (Ni, Fe, Co)2 (Nb, Ti, Mo)
z Sigma (σ) - FeCr, FeCrMo
z Mu (μ) – Co7W6, (FeCo)7(MoW)6
ƒ Very complex systems

3-52
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloys

Effect of Alloys Elements on Superalloys

Effect Elements
Solid-solution strengtheners Co, Cr, Fe, Mo, W, Ta, Re
Carbide form: MC W, Ta, Ti, Mo, Nb, Hf
Carbide form: M7C3 Cr
Carbide form: M23C6 Cr, Mo, W
Carbide form: M6C Mo, W, Nb
Forms ' Ni3(Al,Ti)
(Al Ti) Al,, Ti

Raises solvus temperature of ' Co

Hardening precipitates and/or intermetallics Al, Ti, Nb
Oxidation resistance Al, Cr, Y, La, Ce
Improve hot corrosion resistance La, Th
Sulfidation resistance Cr, Co, Si
Improves creep properties B, Ta
Increases rupture strength B
Grain-boundary refiners B, C, Zr, Hf
Retard ' coarsening Re

3-53
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Physical Metallurgy

Strengthening Precipitates

ƒ Solution heat treatment and aging

ƒ Exhibit C-curve precipitation behavior
ƒ Volume fraction may be very high in some alloys
ƒ Precipitate types
z Gamma-prime (g’) - Ni3(Ti,Al), FCC (Ordered), spherical or cubic
z Eta (η) - Ni3Ti,
Ni3Ti HCP,
HCP cellular or acicular
z Gamma-double prime (g”) - Ni3Nb, BCT (Ordered), disk-shaped
z Delta (δ) – Ni3Nb, Orthorhombic (Ordered), acicular or cellular

3-54
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nickel-Base Alloy Weldability

Weldability Issues

ƒ Weld solidification cracking

ƒ HAZ and WM liquation cracking
ƒ Strain-age cracking
ƒ Ductility-dip cracking
ƒ Joint efficiency
ƒ WM S Segregation
ti (hi
(high
hMMo)) – Effect
Eff t on corrosion
i
ƒ Sensitization (May happen but is not serious)
ƒ Porosity (May happen but is not serious)

3-55
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification Cracking

Effect of Composition

ƒ Austenitic solidification and microstructure

z segregation
z limited solid diffusion
z liquid film wetting
ƒ Most alloying elements partition to the liquid (k<1)
z Ti, Nb, Al, and B
z formation of low melting eutectic constituents (e.g. Laves)
z suppression of solidification temperature by 200-300ºC
ƒ Impurity levels (S, P) normally low
ƒ Effect of boron

3-56
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification Cracking

Weld Solidification Crack

ƒ Form along solidification

grain boundaries
ƒ Presence of liquid films
ƒ Wetting of austenite-
austenite boundaries
ƒ High inherent restraint

Filler Metal 52 deposited on 304 stainless steel

3-57
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Solidification Cracking

Avoiding Solidification Cracking

ƒ Most alloys are inherently susceptible

ƒ Minimize restraint
z Joint design
z Base metal in solution-annealed condition
z Increase number of fill passes (multipass welds)
ƒ Use crack resistant filler metals
z E/ER NiCrMo-3 Alloy 625
z E/ER NiCrMo-4 Hastelloy C-276
z E/ER Ni-1 Nickel 141

3-58
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy HAZ Liquation Cracking

Characteristics

ƒ Segregation mechanism
z Impurity or alloy segregation at grain boundaries
z Wetting of austenite grain boundaries
ƒ Penetration mechanism in alloys with Nb additions
z Nb added to form g” strengthening precipitate
z NbC undergoes constitutional liquation
z “Penetration” of liquid along mobile grain boundaries
ƒ Adjacent to the fusion boundary in the HAZ
z Dependent on weld thermal cycle
z Discrete liquation temperature range

3-59
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy HAZ Liquation Cracking

HAZ Liquation Crack in Alloy 718

ƒ Constitutional liquation of NbC

ƒ Mobile grain boundaries
ƒ Liquid penetration along grain boundaries

Alloy 718
3-60
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy HAZ Liquation Cracking

How to Control

ƒ Reduce HAZ grain size

z Use fine grained base metal
z Minimize weld heat input
ƒ Reduce impurity levels (S, P, and B)
ƒ Minimize restraint
z Weld in solution-annealed condition
z Adjust process and/or procedures
ƒ “Buttering” of substrate
z Eliminates susceptible microstructure
z Not cost effective

3-61
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Strain-Age Cracking

Characteristics

ƒ Cracking occurs in the

solid-state along HAZ grain
boundaries
ƒ Normally during PWHT
ƒ Alloys that harden rapidly
duringg aging
g g are most
susceptible

from ASM Handbook, Vol. 6

3-62
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Strain-Age Cracking

Mechanism

ƒ Precipitates are
solutionized and grain
growth occurs in the HAZ
during welding
ƒ During reheating
z Intragranular precipitation
z Relief of residual stresses
z Localization of strain at
the grain boundaries

from ASM Handbook, Vol.6

3-63
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Strain-Age Cracking

Effect of Ti and Al

ent Aluminum 7 wrought

IN 713C cast
6 René
Mar-M-247 IN 100
108
5 Astroloy
Udimet 700 Susceptible
4
Udimet 500
Weight perce

René 80
3
Udimet 710
René 41
2
IN 939
Resistant
1 Waspaloy
IN 718 IN X-750
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
Weight percent Titanium

Adapted from Shira and Prager, WRC Bulletin

3-64
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Strain-Age Cracking

Preventing Cracking

ƒ Select resistant material

(low Ti + Al)
ƒ Heat rapidly during
PWHT to avoid “nose” of
precipitation curve
ƒ Heat and hold below
nose of curve to reduce
residual stress
ƒ Design issues

from ASM Handbook, Vol. 6

3-65
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ductility-Dip Cracking

Characteristics

ƒ Occurs in the solid-state at Ts > T > 0.5Ts

ƒ Grain boundary phenomenon
ƒ Weld metal or HAZ
ƒ Fully austenitic materials
z Stainless steels
z Ni-base alloys
z Copper alloys
ƒ High purity (low S + P)

3-66
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ductility-Dip Cracking

Ductility versus Temperature

Ductility

Ductility Dip

TLiquidus TSolidus 0.5Tm Temperature

3-67
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ductility-Dip Cracking

Ductility Dip Cracking In Alloy 52 Weld Metal

100 μm

3-68
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ductility-Dip Cracking

Mechanism

ƒ Rapid grain growth

z Single phase austenite
z No boundary pinning
ƒ Grain boundary strain localization
ƒ Intergranular cracking with little ductility
ƒ Fracture behavior
z Smooth IG at high temperature
z Ductile IG at lower temperatures

3-69
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ductility-Dip Cracking

Nature of the Grain Boundaries

Pinning

FM-52 Straight GBs FM-82 Tortuous GBs

3-70
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ductility-Dip Cracking

Grain Boundary Strain Localization

Micro strains measured

on the SEM

FM-82 DDC
3-71
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ductility-Dip Cracking

Prevention

ƒ Select resistant materials

z Fine grain size or grain growth inhibitors
z Two phase microstructure (weld metal eutectic)
ƒ Minimize restraint
z Multipass weld techniques
z Weld design
ƒ Mechanism is still not fully understood

3-72
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joint Efficiency

Controlling Joint Efficiency

ƒ Weld metal and HAZ are effectively solution annealed after

welding
ƒ Significant softening in precipitation-strengthened alloys
ƒ Strength recovery
z Full SHT and age
z Postweld age
g
ƒ Use of HED processes
z Minimize extent of HAZ softening
z Optimize aging response

3-73
Ni-based Overlays on Stainless Steel
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

PWSCC and Mitigation Techniques

ƒ MRP-139, Rev. 1 - Primary System Piping Butt Weld

Inspection and Evaluation Guideline, December 2008
ƒ MRP-169, Rev. 1 – Technical Basis for Preemptive Weld
Overlays for Alloy 82/182 Butt Welds in PWRs, June 2008
ƒ MRP-220 – Review of Stress Corrosion Cracking of Alloys
182 and 82 in PWR Primaryy Water Service,, October 2007
ƒ MRP-237, Rev. 1 – Resistance of Alloys 690, 52 and 152 to
Primary Water Stress Corrosion Cracking, August 2008

3-75
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Nickel Weld Metals and Base Metals used in PWRs

MRP-220, Table 1-1

3-76
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Incidents of PWSCC

ƒ More than 300 cracks welds detected since 1994

ƒ Wolf Creek (Autumn 2006)
z Pressurizer nozzle
z 5 circumferential indications
z 8 to 166 degrees around circumference
z Up to 31% through wall
ƒ Farley 2 (Spring 2007)
z Pressurizer nozzle
ƒ Tsuraga 2 and Mihama 2 (Autumn 2007)
z Steam generator nozzle to safe end welds
z Axial and circumferential welds
ƒ Davis Besse (2007)
z Near through wall crack opened during PWOL

Source: MRP-220
3-77
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Locations of PWSCC in PWR Primary Circuit

MRP-139, Figure 2-1`

3-78
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

PWSCC as Function of Composition

Danger of
PWSCC

From Etien et al., Corrosion 2008, Paper 08597

3-79
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

PWSCC as Function of Composition

MRP-237, Figure 2-30 (from GE-GRC)

3-80
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

The Antidote – SWOL or PWOL

MRP-169, Figure 4-2

3-81
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Summary of Weld Overlay Design Types

MRP-169, Table 4-1

3-82
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Example – Pressurizer Nozzle

MRP-169, Figure 8-2

3-83
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Stress Analysis

MRP-169, Figures 8-9 and 8-10

3-84
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Then – A Problem

Safe-end
Weld

Ni-base
Overlay

3-85
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Use of Stainless Steel Buffer Layers

ƒ Solidification cracking of overlays applied to some

stainless steels
ƒ Root cause – high sulfur levels of the stainless steel
ƒ Solution – add stainless steel buffer layer

IN52M Overlay Type 308L

Buffer Layer

SA-509, Class 2 Cast Pipe, Type 316

Type 316

Type 316 Cladding FM82 Weld Type 308L

and Butter

3-86
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Use of Stainless Steel Buffer Layers

ƒ You are overlaying Type 304 S.S. pipe with Inconel Filler
Metal 52 (ERNiCrFe-7), shown in the Figure below. When
depositing the layer of IN52 you encounter solidification
cracking. Why does this occur?
z The table gives the composition of the base and filler metal

Compositions (wt.%)
Cr Ni Mn Si Mo Nb C N S P Cu Ti
304 18.8 12 1.2 0.5 0.2 0 0.08 0.06 0.01 0
ERNiCrFe-7 30 43 1 1 0.5 0.1 0.04 0 0.01 0.02 0.3 1
3-87
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Use of Stainless Steel Buffer Layers

Compositions (wt.%)
Cr Ni Mn Si Mo Nb C N S P Cu Ti
304 18.8 12 1.2 0.5 0.2 0 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.045 0.01 0
ER308L 19.5 10.5 1.25 1 0.75 0 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.1 0
ERNiCrFe-7 30 43 1 1 0.5 0.1 0.04 0 0.01 0.02 0.3 1

Ni 304
EQ
= 12 + 35 × 0 .08 + 20 × 0.06 + 0 .25 × 0.01 = 16
Cr EQ304 = 18 .8 + 0.2 + 0 .7 × 0 = 20

ER 308 L
Ni EQ = 10 .5 + 35 × 0.04 + 20 × 0.03 + 0.25 × 0.1 = 12 .5
ER 308 L
CrEQ = 19 .5 + 1.25 + 0 .7 × 0 = 20 .75

3-88
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Case Study: Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

Ferrite is generated even with high dilution

providing resistance to solidification cracking
3-89
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Ni-Base Overlays on Stainless Steel

But – There May Still be a Problem

60

Dilution of ERNiCrFe-7A
by Type 304L
50

IN52M
40

on (Fe)
30

% Iro
Transition
Zone
20

Type 308L
Buffer Layer Fe - Straight

10 Fe - pulsed
Fe - straight w/oscillation
Weld Cracks

0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
PR

Power Ratio = I×V

(WFS/TS) × Awire

3-90
Other Nonferrous Alloys

Module 3F
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nonferrous Alloys

Nonferrous Alloys

ƒ Selection of nonferrous alloys based on performance

advantages over steel
z Strength/weight or “specific” strength
z Corrosion resistance
z Conductivity
ƒ More expensive than steel on per pound basis
ƒ Greater concern for fabricability
ƒ Alloy specific weldability issues

3-92
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nonferrous Alloys

Classes of Nonferrous Alloys

ƒ Aluminum alloys ƒ Nickel alloys

ƒ Cobalt alloys ƒ Silicon alloys
ƒ Copper alloys ƒ Tin alloys
ƒ Lead alloys ƒ Titanium alloys
ƒ Magnesium alloys ƒ Tungsten alloys
ƒ Molybdenum
M l bd alloys
ll ƒ Zinc
Zi alloys
ll
ƒ Precious metals

3-93
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nonferrous Alloys

Alloy Selection

ƒ Aluminum alloys ƒ Nickel alloys

z Low density z Corrosion resistance
z Moderate strength z Moderate to high strength
z Corrosion resistance z Elevated temperature properties
z Conductivity ƒ Copper alloys
ƒ Titanium alloys z Electrical/thermal conductivity
z Specific strength z Corrosion resistance
z Corrosion resistance
z Damage tolerance

3-94
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Nonferrous Alloys

Weldability Issues

ƒ Solidification and liquation cracking

ƒ Porosity
ƒ Postweld heat treatment cracking
ƒ Joint efficiency (strength)
ƒ Weldment properties

3-95
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys

Aluminum Alloys

ƒ Low density
ƒ Electrical conductivity (2 times Cu on weight basis)
ƒ Thermal conductivity (50-60% of Cu)
ƒ Strengthened by cold work and/or precipitation
ƒ Good fabricability
z Machinability
z Formability
z Weldability

3-96
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys

Classes of Aluminum Alloys

Type of Tensile
Strengthening
alloy strength range
Series method
composition MPa ksi
1xxx Al Cold work 70-175 10-25
2xxx Al-Cu-Mg (1-2.5% Cu) Heat treat 170-310 25-45
2xxx Al-Cu-Mg-Si (3-6% Cu) Heat treat 380-520 55-75
3xxx Al-Mn-Mg Cold work 140-280 20-40
4xxx Al-Si Cold work (some HT) 105-350 15-50
5xxx Al-Mg (1-2.5% Mg) Cold work 140-280 20-40
5xxx Al-Mg-Mn (3-6% Mg) Cold work 280-380 40-55
6xxx Al-Mg-Si Heat treat 150-380 22-55
7xxx Al-Zn-Mg Heat treat 380-520 55-75
7xxx Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Heat treat 520-620 75-90
8xxx Al-Li-Cu-Mg Heat treat 280-560 40-80

3-97
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys

Commercial Uses

ƒ 1XXX Foil, electrical applications

ƒ 2XXX Structural aerospace and marine applications
ƒ 3XXX Can stock, cooking utensils, siding, sheet metal
ƒ 4XXX Welding filler metals
ƒ 5XXX Tanks, pressure vessels, automotive
ƒ 6XXX G
General l structural,
t t l automotive
t ti
ƒ 7XXX Commercial aircraft skin and support structure
ƒ 8XXX Aerospace

3-98
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys

Weldability Issues

ƒ Weld solidification cracking

ƒ Liquation cracking
ƒ Porosity
ƒ Weld metal and HAZ property degradation
ƒ Stress corrosion cracking and pitting

3-99
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys

Softening in the Heat-Affected Zone

ƒ Welding eliminates work hardened structure

ƒ Welding dissolves or overages precipitates in HAZ

3-100
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys

Reducing Hydrogen Porosity

ƒ Most aluminum welds contain some level of porosity

z Hydrogen is less soluble in solid aluminum than in liquid
ƒ Reducing porosity
z Plate surface should be properly cleaned and dried
z Electromagnetic stirring

3-101
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys

Why Not Weld 6061 with 6061?

6 Solidification Cracking Resistance

5356
5 • poor
% Mg in weld

4 fair
3 good
2
6061
1
• 4043
0 •
0 1 2 3 4 5
% Si in weld

3-102
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys

Filler Metal Selection Chart

from ASM Handbook, 10th Edition, Volume 6 3-103

Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Titanium Alloys

Titanium Alloys

ƒ Low density
ƒ High strength-to-weight ratio
ƒ Low coefficient of thermal expansion
ƒ Good corrosion resistance
ƒ Use range up to 1000ºF (540ºC)
ƒ Biocompatible
Bi tibl
ƒ Relatively high cost

3-104
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Titanium Alloys

Classes of Titanium Alloys

ƒ Titanium alloys are classified by their microstructure

z Commecially pure (CP) grades
z Alpha and Near-Alpha Alloys
z Alpha-Beta Alloys
z Metastable Beta Alloys

3-105
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Titanium Alloys

Commercial Uses

ƒ Corrosion Applications
z Piping and tubing
z Heat exchangers
z Tanks and pressure vessels
z Waste storage
z Medical - joint replacement and implants
ƒ Specific Strength Applications
z Aerospace
Š Airplane “skin”
Š Structural support
Š Engines
z Sporting goods (golf clubs, bicycle frames)

3-106
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Titanium Alloys

Weldability Issues

ƒ Solidification segregation
ƒ Beta grain size
ƒ Weld solidification cracking
ƒ Contamination cracking
ƒ Ductility-dip cracking
ƒ Hydrogen
H d embrittlement
b ittl t
ƒ Porosity

3-107
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Characteristics

ƒ High thermal and electrical conductivity

ƒ Low to moderate strength
ƒ High ductility and toughness
ƒ Good corrosion resistance
ƒ Good fabricability
ƒ Architectural
A hit t l distinction
di ti ti

3-108
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Classes of Alloys

ƒ Pure coppers Oxygen Free, Electrolytic

ƒ Deoxidized Contain P (reduces porosity)
ƒ Beryllium copper 1.5-2.0 wt% BE, age hardenable
ƒ Low-Zn brass Red brass (15% Zn)
ƒ High-Zn brass Cartridge brass (30% Zn)
ƒ Tin
Ti brass
b N
Naval lb
brass (39Z
(39Zn-1Sn)
1S )
ƒ Nickel silver 20Zn-15Ni (silver luster)
ƒ Phosphor bronzes 1-10Zn, 0.2P
ƒ Al-bronzes 6-10 Al, Ni, Fe
ƒ Si-bronzes 1.5-3 Si
ƒ Copper-nickel 70Cu-30Ni (cupronickel)

3-109
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Alloying Additions

ƒ Aluminum Up to 15%, improves oxidation resistance

ƒ Nickel Provides solid solution strength
ƒ Silicon Deoxidation and solid-solution strength
ƒ Tin Strength and corrosion resistance
ƒ Zinc Strength, corrosion resistance and luster
ƒ Beryllium
B lli P i it ti strengthener
Precipitation t th

ƒ Pb, Se, S, and Te may be added to improve machinability

3-110
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Applications

ƒ Piping and tubing

z Good resistance to pitting and stress corrosion cracking in marine
environments
z Easily fabricated by welding or brazing
ƒ Heat exchangers
ƒ Storage casks - nuclear fuel
ƒ Architectural - roofing
ƒ Other - caskets, golf clubs

3-111
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Physical Metallurgy

ƒ Single phase (FCC) or dual phase (FCC + BCC)

ƒ Most alloying elements have high solubility in FCC phase
ƒ Strengthened by
z Solid-solution
z Cold work
z Precipitation
p ((Be-bearing
g alloys)
y )

3-112
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Cold Work Hardening

3-113
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Weldability Issues

ƒ Joint efficiency
z Most alloys strengthened by cold work
z Recrystallization and grain growth in HAZ
ƒ Porosity
z Alloys containing Zn, Cd, and (P can induce and control)
z Selection of appropriate filler metal (P and Si)
ƒ Solidification cracking
z Alloys containing Sn and Ni
z Wider solidification temperature range
z Beware of free-machining grades
ƒ Ductility dip cracking - 70Cu-30Ni
ƒ Toxic Fumes
z Alloys containing Be and Zn

3-114
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Welding Considerations

ƒ Mechanical or chemical cleaning if porosity is a problem

ƒ Filler metals
z Matching grades available for most alloys
z Color match for architectural use
ƒ Weld penetration
z Most alloys
y have highg thermal conductivity y
z Preheat required if thickness > 0.25 in. (~ 6 mm)

3-115
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Preheat Requirements

AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 3

3-116
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Copper Alloys

Effect of Shielding Gas and Preheat

GTAW
300 amps, DCSP
8 ipm/ (3.4 mm/sec)

AWS Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 3 3-117

Polymers

Module 3G
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Polymers

What is a Polymer?

ƒ From Greek, Poly = many, Meros = parts

Polymers are large molecules made up of many (poly)
repeating units (meros or mers)
ƒ Plastics – commercial synthetic polymers

(Poly)ethylene

H H H H H H H H
H2O2
C=C C=C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
mer
3-119
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Polymers

Classification of Polymers

POLYMER

THERMOSET THERMOPLASTIC

AMORPHOUS SEMI-CRYSTALLINE
SEMI CRYSTALLINE

Thermoset
Amorphous Semi-crystalline

3-120
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Polymers

Thermoplastics

ƒ Amorphous polymers have no crystalline regions, chains are

randomly oriented – like wet spaghetti
ƒ Semi-crystalline polymers have crystalline regions where
molecules fold on themselves forming orderly structure

ΔV S i
Semi-crystalline
t lli
Amorphous

Tg Tm Temp
Crystalline Structure HDPE

3-121
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Polymers

Polymer Types

ƒ A variety of groups are attached to polymer backbones

(e.g. Vinyl, Vinylidene compounds)

VINYL COMPOUNDS VINYLIDENE COMPOUNDS

-R COMP. R’ R” COMP.
-H ETHYLENE -CH3 -CH3 ISOBUTYLENE
- Cl VINYL CHLORIDE -Cl - Cl VINYLIDENE CHLORIDE
- OH VINYL ALCOHOL -CH3 -COOCH3 METHYL METHACRYLATE
- CONH2 ACRYLAMIDE -F -F VINYLIDENE FLUORIDE
- COOCH3 METHYL ACRYLATE
- STYRENE

3-122
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Polymers

Viscoelasticity

ƒ When stressed, thermoplastics exhibit both elastic and

viscous behavior
z Elastic – Spring-like
z Viscous - Dashpot

A B

ELASTIC

STRESS
VISCOELASTIC
STRESS

(HOOKEAN)

SPRING
4 ELEMENT MODEL
0 0
STRAIN STRAIN

3-123
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Joining of Polymers

ƒ Mechanical connections
z Press fits
z Snap fits
z Rivets, bolts Staking
z Staking
z Swaging
ƒ Adhesive bonding
ƒ Joining
z Currently there is no requirements
incorporated into ASME Section IX
that covers joining of polymers
Snap-fit
z ASME B31.1, Nonmandatory
Appendix III covers joining
qualifications

3-124
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Welding Steps

ƒ Surface Preparation
z Clean and/or square the surfaces for welding
ƒ Surface Heating
z Heat to soften or melt the polymer at the weld interface
ƒ Pressing
z Apply
pp y p
pressure to deform surface asperities
p and to achieve intimate
contact
ƒ Intermolecular Diffusion
z Diffusion of polymer chains across interface and chain entanglement
provides strength to the joint
ƒ Cooling

3-125
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Plastic Welding Methods

Plastic Welding
Processes

External Internal
Heating Heating

Heated Tool Mechanical Electromagnetic

Hot Gas Ultrasonic Radio Frequency

Extrusion Vibration Infrared and Laser

Implant Induction Spin Microwave

Implant
Resistance

3-126
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Hot Tool (Plate) Welding

2 molten pool

1 1
Pressure

Hot Plate

Ph = Pressure

I II III IV Time

I. Heating with Pressure

II. Heating without Pressure
weld bead (flash)
III. Change-Over
IV. Welding/Forging

3-127
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Hot Tool (Plate) Welding

ƒ Advantages
z Provide strong joints
z Reliable
z Used on difficult to join
plastics
ƒ Limitations
z Slow
z Limited temperature range

3-128
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Hot Gas Welding

ƒ Hot gas softens/melts filler rod and base material

ƒ Filler rod is fed and pushed
into the joint
ƒ Different welding tips can be
used for tacking and welding
ƒ Well suited for large parts
and for prototyping

3-129
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Implant Induction Welding

ƒ Gasket - composite of ferromagnetic material and polymer

ƒ Induction heating of gasket to melt polymer in gasket and
parts
ƒ Gasket remains embedded at the weld

3-130
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Ultrasonic Welding

ƒ Use low amplitude high frequency vibration.

ƒ Energy director heats due to intermolecular friction
ƒ Molten energy director flows sideways melting the part
surfaces and welding the parts
ƒ Ultrasonic energy can also be used for staking, swaging,
insertion etc.
insertion, etc

Energy Director
3-131
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Vibration Welding

ƒ Frictional heating followed by viscous heating once melt

forms
ƒ Linear or orbital motion can be used

Linear

Instrument Panel Assembly

Orbital
3-132
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Radio Frequency (Dielectric) Welding/Sealing

ƒ Dipolar (dielectric) heating - polar molecules

ƒ Works very well with PVC as well as other polymers with
polar groups
ƒ Very rapid heating with
typical cycle times of a
few seconds

-
H Cl
H + H
C C
+
O
- H H
Medical Bag

Blister Pack
3-133
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Infrared/Laser Welding

ƒ Surface Heating

3-134
Module 3 – Welding Metallurgy Joining of Polymers

Through Transmission IR/Laser Welding

3-135
Welding Design

Module 4
Module 4 – Welding Design

Module 4 – Welding Design

ƒ 4A – Heat Flow
ƒ 4B – Residual Stress and Distortion
ƒ 4C – Fracture and Fatigue
ƒ 4D – Joint Design
ƒ 4E – Welding Symbols
ƒ 4F – Mechanical
M h i lT Testing
ti

4-2
Module 4 – Welding Design

Module 4 Learning Objectives

ƒ Basic understanding of heat flow, heat flow with moving heat

sources, estimation of cooling rates and HAZ
ƒ Basic understanding of residual stress and distortion
principles and mitigation methods
ƒ Understanding of weld design, weld joints and welding
symbols
y
ƒ Basic understanding and purpose of different types of
destructive tests

4-3
Heat Flow

Module 4A
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow

ƒ Conduction
ƒ Radiation
ƒ Convection θ air
q& rad q& conv. θ1

q& cond .

θo

4-5
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conduction

Fourier’s Law of Conduction

Heat flow

⎛q⎞ dθ
q& x = ⎜ ⎟ = −λ Temp.
gradient
⎝ A ⎠x dx

Heat
flux Thermal
conductivity

4-6
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction

θo θ∞

x dx

Heat generation per unit

volume

Q&
q& x A q& x+ dx A
ρC p
Cross sectional Area
A
dx
4-7
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conservation of Energy

ƒ Internal energy = energy in – energy out

Specific heat
Density

∂θ &
ρC p Adx = QAdx + q& x A − q& x + dx A
∂t

Internal Energy change = Internal heat generation + heat in – heat out

4-8
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conservation of Energy

But using Taylor series expansion,

∂q& x
q& x + dx = q& x + dx
∂x

∂θ & ∂q& x
∴ ρC p Adx = QAdx + q& x A − q& x A − dxA
∂t ∂x

∂θ & ∂q& x
∴ ρC p = Q−
∂t ∂x

4-9
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conservation of Energy

Using Fourier’s law of conduction

∂qq& x ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞
= ⎜⎜ − λ ⎟⎟
∂x ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠

Thus,

∂θ & ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞
ρC p = Q + ⎜λ ⎟
∂t ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠

4-10
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction

To make problem manageable, assume

no internal heat generation

∂θ ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞
ρC p = ⎜λ ⎟
∂t ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠
λ is constant, not dependent on x or temperature

∂θ ∂ 2θ
ρ Cp =λ
∂t ∂x 2

∂θ λ ⎛ ∂ 2θ ⎞ ∂ 2θ ⎛ m2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟=k 2 κ=thermal ⎜ ⎟
∂t ρ C p ⎝ ∂x 2 ⎠ ∂x diffusivity ⎝ sec ⎠
4-11
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Conservation of Energy (Con’t)

L
t = 0, θ = θ1 θ = θ0
t = 0, θ = θ 0
x
θ1
t t = ∞ − steady state

θ2
0
x
L 4-12
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction
Steady State without Internal Heat Generation

0 0
∂ θ & 1 ∂θ
2
=Q+ General Solution
∂x 2
κ ∂t
∂θ
Giving, = c1
∂x
∂ 2θ
=0
2
∂x θ = c1 x + c2

4-13
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Concept of Thermal Resistance

θ1 q&
⎯⎯→ θ1 − θ 2
R thermal =
q&
θ2

V1 − V2
R electrical =
⎯
⎯→ i
i
V1 V2
4-14
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Concept of Thermal Resistance

∂θ θ 2 − θ1 θ 1 −θ2
but q& = −λ A = −λ A =λ A
∂x L L

θ1 − θ 2 L
R thermal = =
θ1 − θ 2 λA
λA
L

4-15
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Composite Walls

→ x
θ1

θ2
θ3

L1 L2

R1 R2
θ1 θ2 θ3
4-16
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

ƒ Consider an extrusion process

die
x
v

dx

ρCVθ x ρC ρCVθ x + dx
q& x q& x + dx
Q&

dx
x x+dx
4-17
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

Applying conservation of energy to the control volume

∂θ
ρC Adx = Q& Adx + q& x A − q& x + dx A + ρCVθ x A − ρCVθ x + dx A
∂t
Using Taylor series expansion and simplifying

∂θ & ∂q& x ∂θ
ρC =Q− − ρCV
∂t ∂x ∂x
Using Fourier’s Law of Conduction

∂θ & ∂ 2θ ∂θ
ρC = Q + λ 2 − ρCV
∂t ∂x ∂x

4-18
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

In this case if you look at some location x with respect

to time, the temperature at that location will remain
constant (assuming we are past the transients from
starting the process). Therefore, we can model this as
a Quasi-Steady problem.

0
∂θ & ∂ 2θ ∂θ
ρC = Q + λ 2 − ρCV
∂t ∂x ∂x

& ∂ 2
θ ∂θ
0 = Q + λ 2 − ρCV
∂x ∂x

4-19
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

If the cross section of the rod is small, we can assume

that the temperature is constant at every cross section.
In that case we can consider the heat loss due to
convection as a negative internal heat generation rate.

Consider some cross section of area A and perimeter P

P
A

hP
QAdx = − hPdx(θ − θ ∞ ) ⇒ Q = −
& & (θ − θ ∞ )
A

4-20
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

∂ 2θ ∂θ hP
Therefore,
λ 2 − ρCV − (θ − θ ∞ ) = 0
∂x ∂x A
∂θ ' ∂θ ∂ 2θ ' ∂ 2θ
Let
θ ' = (θ − θ ∞ ), = , and 2
= 2
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Giving, ∂ 2θ ' V ∂θ ' hP
− − θ '= 0
∂x 2
κ ∂x λA
Solving,

⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ hP ⎞⎟ ⎟
2 2
⎜ ⎜ V ⎛ ⎞
V hP ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ V V
θ ' ( x) = C1 exp⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ + x ⎟ + C2 exp⎜ + ⎜ ⎟ + x⎟
⎜
⎜ 2κ ⎟
⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎠ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ 2κ ⎟
⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎠ ⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎝⎝ ⎠

4-21
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

Applying the boundary conditions.

As x→∞ then θ '= 0

0 ∞
⎛⎛ ⎞ ⎛⎛ ⎞
⎛ V ⎞ hP ⎞⎟ ⎟ ⎛ V ⎞ hP ⎟⎞ ⎟
2 2
⎜ ⎜ V ⎜ ⎜ V
θ ' ( x = ∞) = C1 exp⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ + ∞ ⎟ + C2 exp⎜ + ⎜ ⎟ + ∞⎟
⎜
⎜ 2κ ⎟
⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎠ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ 2κ ⎟
⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎠ ⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎝⎝ ⎠

Since the second term goes to infinity than C2 = 0

4-22
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

1-D Conduction with Mass Movement

At x=0 then θ ' = (θ die − θ ∞ ) = θ 'die

1
⎛⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎞
V ⎛ ⎞
V hP
θ ' ( x = 0) = θ 'die = C1 exp⎜⎜ ⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎟0 ⎟
⎜ ⎜ 2κ ⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠
Therefore, C1 = θ 'die giving,

⎛⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎞
V ⎛ ⎞
V hP
θ ' ( x) = θ 'die exp⎜⎜ ⎜ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎟x ⎟
⎜ ⎜ 2κ ⎝ 2κ ⎠ λA ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝⎝ ⎠ ⎠
4-23
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

„ Consider a very large and very thin plate – thickness (h)

dy
y y d
dw
x w V
1 2 3 4

4-24
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

θ −θo quasi - steady

3 4 5 6 7

final
ttransient
i t
2
1

time
Moving with the welding arc in quasi-steady region, the temperature is
constant with respect to time. Form a new moving coordinate system:

w = x − Vt
4-25
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

q& y + dy

( ρC Vθ )
p w
dy h ( ρC Vθ )
p w + dw
dy h

q& w dy ρ C p Q&
q& w+ dw

dw

q& y
4-26
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Balance heat flow in y direction,

∂q&
( q& y − q& y +dy ) dw h = − ∂y dy dw h
Balance heat flow in w direction,

( q&w − q&w+ dw ) dy h + ⎡⎣( ρ C pV θ )w+ dw − ( ρ C pV θ )w ⎤⎦ dy h =

∂q& ∂
−
∂w
dw dy h +
∂w
( ρ C pV θ ) dw dy h

4-27
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Conservation of energy for control volume

∂θ ∂q& ∂q& ∂
ρC p
∂t
&
dydwh = Q − dydwh −
∂y ∂w
dwdyh +
∂w
( ρ C pV θ ) dwdyh

Using Fourier’s Law of Conduction

∂θ & ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂θ ⎞ ∂
ρC p
∂t
=Q+ ⎜λ ⎟ + ⎜λ
∂w ⎝ ∂w ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y
⎟+ ( ρ C p vθ w )
⎠ ∂w

Conduction Convection

4-28
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Assuming constant properties and constant heat source

velocity.

∂θ & ∂ 2
θ ∂ 2
θ ∂θ
ρC p =Q+λ 2
+λ 2
+ ρ C pV
∂t ∂w ∂y ∂w
For quasi-steady,

∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ V ∂θ
2
+ 2 =−
∂w ∂y k ∂w

4-29
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

3-D Solution for Semi-infinite Plate

Assuming constant properties and constant heat source

velocity.

∂θ & ∂ 2
θ ∂ 2
θ ∂ 2
θ ∂θ
ρC p =Q+λ 2
+λ 2
+λ 2
+ ρ C pV
∂t ∂w ∂y ∂z ∂w
For quasi-steady,

∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ ∂ 2θ V ∂θ
2
+ 2 + 2 =−
∂w ∂y ∂z k ∂w

4-30
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

3-D Solution for Semi-infinite Plate

4-31
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

3-D Solution for Semi-infinite Plate

4-32
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

3-D Solution for Semi-infinite Plate

4-33
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

2-D Solution for Thin Plate

4-34
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

2-D Solution for Thin Plate

4-35
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Cooling Rate Equation

4-36
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Cooling Rate Equation

4-37
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Cooling Rate Equation

4-38
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Peak Temperature Equations

At the peak temperature the slope of the temperature

time curve must be zero.

θ −θo
∂θ
at peak =0
∂t

t
4-39
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Heat Flow with Moving Coordinate System

Peak Temperature Equations

We previously derived ∂θ
∂t
∂θ P V
− ( w+ r ) ⎡ w V ⎛ w ⎞⎤
= −V e 2κ ⎢ − r 2 − 2κ ⎜ 1 + r ⎟ ⎥ = 0
∂t 2π λ r ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
w V ⎛ w⎞
Therefore, − 2− ⎜1 + ⎟ = 0
r 2κ ⎝ r⎠
Find relationship between w and r when the point
of interest reaches the peak temperature and then
use thick plate solution to find peak temp.

V
P − ( w+ r )
θ peak − θ o = e 2κ
2π λ r
4-40
Module 4 – Welding Design Heat Flow

Peak Temperature Equations

ƒ We force the eq. to fit experimental results by specifying a

known temperature θr at known location rr . Then,
e⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜℘c pπ ⎛⎜ r − rr ⎞⎟ ⎟
2
1 2⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ 1
= +
θ p −θo η a EI θr −θo
V

ƒ For example, at fusion boundary θm is the known peak

temperature and r=d/2 where (d) is the weld bead with is
known location. Then,
⎛ ⎛ 2 ⎞⎞
e⎜ ⎜ y2 − d ⎟⎟
℘c pπ
2 ⎜⎜ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟⎟
1 ⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ 1
= +
θ p −θo η a EI θm −θo
V

4-41
Residual Stress and Distortion

Module 4B
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Linear Elastic Material

6 stress strain Equations

σ 1
[
ε x = σ x −ν ⋅ (σ y + σ z )
E
]
E - modulus
1
[
ε y = σ y −ν ⋅ (σ x + σ z )
E
]
1
[
ε z = σ z −ν ⋅ (σ x + σ y )
E
]
τ xy
σ xy =
ε G
σx τ yz
Hook’s Law Uniaxial Loadingε x = σ yz =
E G
τ zx
σx σx σ zx =
Poisson’s ratioε y = −ν ε z = −ν G
E E

4-43
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Typical Material (Metal)

σ yield stress

Use linear elastic

perfectly plastic model

ε
4-44
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Thermal Strains

ε θx = ε θy = ε θz = α Δθ = α (θ − θ o )
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
θ θ θ
γ xy = γ yz = γ zx = 0

total strain=elastic strain + thermal strain

εt = ε e +εθ

4-45
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Linear Elastic Perfectly Plastic Material

θ
ε = ε +ε +ε
t e p

elastic plastic thermal

4-46
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Example

ƒ Steel Bar between two rigid walls

y
E = 20 × 106 psi
x Fy = 50 × 103 psi
−6 1
α = 3.8 × 10 o
Heating - Elastic Range F
σx
ε =0=
t
x + α Δθ
E
psi
∴ σ x = −α E Δθ = −114 o Δθ
F
4-47
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Simple Distortion Example (Transverse Shrinkage)

ƒ Restraint and Temp. Distribution

heating Δθ Heating
k Δl σ x
εx = = + α Δθ + ε p
l E
l σx
σ x A = −k Δl → Δl = − A
k
at heating (thermal stress)
σx ⎛σx p⎞
∴ − A=⎜ + α Δθ + ε ⎟
kl ⎝ E ⎠

∴ σx = −
(
E k l α Δθ + ε p )
Δl E A+ k l

4-48
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Small Δθ

No plastic strain
ε =0
p

Then,

EKl (α ⋅ Δθ )
σx = −
EA + Kl
At the end of cooling there will be no
residual stress and no distortion.

4-49
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Large Δθ – at end of heating

Assume εp =0
EKl (α ⋅ Δθ )
Calculate σx = −
EA + Kl
If σ x > Fy then, εp ≠0 and σ x = − Fy
⎛ A 1⎞
ε = Fy ⎜ + ⎟ − α ⋅ Δθ
p

⎝ Kl E ⎠

4-50
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Large Δθ – at end of Cooling

Assume no additional plastic deformation

occurs during cooling.

Calculate σx =
( )
EKl ε p
EA + Kl
If σ x < Fy then, no plastic deformation occurred

during cooling, and σ xres =

( )
EKl ε p
EA + Kl
If σ x > Fy then, plastic deformation occurred

⎛ A 1⎞
during cooling, and σ x = Fy ε = − Fy ⎜ + ⎟
p

⎝ Kl E ⎠ 4-51
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Three Bar Analogy

ƒ Suppose we have 3-bar which have the same cross section

area A and same material properties.

heating
σm
σs σs

s m s

4-52
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Three Bar Analogy

ƒ Jig or fixture used (restraint) during heating

z Small heating

σm
s m s ∴ ε tm = + α Δθ + ε mp , ε mp = 0
E
∴ σ m = −α Δθ ⋅ E comp. spring case

εp =0
ε tx = 0
4-53
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Significance of Residual Stress and Distortion

ƒ Residual Stress
z Degraded Structural Performance
z Reduced Service Life
z Dimensional Instability

ƒ Distortion
z Dimensional Tolerance and Fit-up Problems
z Reduced Strength
z Reduced Structural Stability
z Inadequate Appearance

4-54
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Welding Processes and Their Consequences

ƒ During Welding
z Localized Heat Source (heating, melting solidification, and cooling)
z Non-uniform Temperature Distribution (thermal/mechanical mismatch)
z Fast Cooling Rate (phases with volume expansion)
z Weld Shrinkage (shrinkage strains created in weld & surrounding
metal)
z R t i t (internal
Restraints (i t l rigidity
i idit and/or
d/ external
t l constraints
t i t preventing
ti
shrinkage)
z Initial Stress Condition (influence thermal strain and residual stress)
z Properties of Parent Material (temperature dependent yield stress and
Modulus of elasticity)
After Welding
• Residual Stresses
• Distortion

4-55
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Residual Stresses & Distortion Flowchart

4-56
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Factors Influencing Residual Stresses & Distortion

ƒ Physical Material Properties

z Coefficient of thermal expansion, [α (1/°K)]
Š As α increases distortion increases
z Thermal conductivity, λ (W/(m·°K))
Š As λ increases distortion decreases
ƒ Mechanical Material Properties
z Yield stress, Fy (ksi), modulus of elasticity, E(ksi)
ƒ Welding Process Variables
z Heat input, travel speed, welding sequence
ƒ Jigs and Fixtures or other Clamping Devices
ƒ Geometrical Properties
z Moment of inertia, weld cross sectional area, weight of weld metal,
plate thickness, joint geometries, weld length

4-57
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Comparison of Material Properties

Mechanical Properties Thermal Properties

Properties
Fult Fy e E CTE 20 °C rCp l Tm Tliq
[MPa] [MPa] [%] [GPa] [mm/m°C] [J/m3/°C]x1 [W/m-K] [°C] [°C]
Materials 06

NICKEL BASE
INCONEL 718 1375 1100 25 207 13 3.56 11.4 1298 1336

TITANIUM
TI-6AL-4V 1170 1100 10 114 8.6 2.33 6.7 1660 1660

ALUMINUM
2014 185 95 18 72.4 23 2.46 192 507 638

STAINLESS
STEEL 304 505 215 70 197 17.3 4.00 16.2 1427 1455

4-58
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Non-Linear Distribution of Temperature and

Resulting Residual Stress

DT = 0 Stress = 0
x

A A 1. Section A-A
B O B
Y Tension
g
Melted region
C C
Plastic deformation Compression
occurs 2. Section B-B

D D
3. Section C-C
DT = 0 Residual stresses

4. Section D-D
Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991
4-59
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Residual Stresses in Butt Joint

Y (A) Distribution of σx Along YY
Compression

Tension
X
σx

σy
curve 2
Reaction Tension
stress
curve 1
Compression

Reference: Welding
Handbook, Volume 1,
AWS, 1991

(B) Distribution of σy Along XX

4-60
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Fundamental Types of Weld Distortion

(a) Transverse Shrinkage (d) Longitudinal Shrinkage

(b) Angular Change (e) Longitudinal Bending

(c) Rotation Distortion (f) Buckling Distortion

Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-61
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Compatibility

4-62
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Compatibility

2-D Elastic Compatibility

∂ εx 2
∂ 2ε y ∂ 2γ xy
R= 2
+ 2 − =0
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y

2-D Inelastic Compatibility

⎡ ∂ 2ε ′x ∂ 2ε ′y ∂ 2γ ′xy ⎤ ⎡ ∂ 2ε ′x′ ∂ 2ε ′y′ ∂ 2γ ′xy′ ⎤

R′ + R′′ = ⎢ 2 + 2 − ⎥+⎢ 2 + 2 − ⎥=0
⎢⎣ ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ⎥⎦

Elastic Inelastic
(thermal & plastic)
4-63
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Rotational Distortion in Butt Joints

Unwelded Portion of
the Joint Closes

Back Weld to Maintain Joint Opening

Unwelded Portion of
the Joint Opens

In-Plane Distortion Due to Cutting

Reference: Masubuchi, K. Analytical Investigation of Residual Stresses and
Distortions Due to Welding. Welding Journal 39 (12): 525s-537s (1960) 4-64
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Longitudinal and Transverse Weld Shrinkage

in Butt Joints

4-65
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Effect of Groove Detail and Joint Thickness

on Transverse Shrinkage

0.15
Transverse Shrrinkage (in.)

0.10

0.05

0
1/4 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2

Area of Weld (in.2) Plate Thickness (in.)

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-66
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Effect of Weight of Weld Metal on Transverse

Shrinkage

Increases of Transverse Shrinkage During Multipass Welding of A Butt Joint

Reference: K. Masubuchi, Analysis of Welded Structure, Pergamon Press

4-67
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Transverse Shrinkage Causing Angular Distortion

Non-uniform Transverse Weld Shrinkage in

Butt Joints

Transverse Weld Shrinkage in Fillet Welded Tee-Joints

4-68
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Moment of Inertia Effect on Angular

Distortion in Butt Joint

Balancingg the Multi-pass

p
Weld Decreases Angular
Distortion of Butt Joints

4-69
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Moment of Inertia Effect on Angular Distortion in

Tee-Joint

Throat CG of welds
Moment arm

Neutral
axis (a) Fillet Weld T
T- Joint

Throat
CG of welds
Moment arm

Neutral axis (b) Deeper Penetration Weld

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-70
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Angular Change in Fillet Welds – Unrestrained

Angular Change of Unrestrained Fillet Weld

(A) Steel (B) Aluminum

Determination of the Angular Change of Unrestrained Steel and Aluminum Fillet

Welds by Plate Thickness and Fillet Weight per Unit Length of Weld
Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991
4-71
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Angular Distortion in Fillet Welded Framing

Structures

φo

(A) Free Joint (Unrestrained)

φ δ

L
x

(B) Restrained Joint

Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-72
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Angular Distortion

L
Angular Pipe Bending

Longitudinal Bending

4-73
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Effect of Fillet Weld Size on Longitudinal

Deflection

Effect of Fillet Weld Size on

Longitudinal Deflection in T-
Section Beams

Reference: Welding Handbook Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-74
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Distortion Comparison Between Steel and

Aluminum Weldments

Transverse Shrinkage of Butt Joint

Aluminum > Steel

Longitudinal Bending Distortion

Aluminum < Steel

4-75
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Distortion Comparison Between Steel and

Aluminum Weldments

Angular Change of a Fillet Weld Al < St

Reference: Welding Handbook,Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-76
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Reduce the Amount of Welding Decrease Weld

Deposit

Reduce bevel 30 °
angle and use larger
root opening

1/32” to 1/16”

U preparation
Double-V preparation

Example: Edge Preparation and Fitup

4-77
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Reduce the Amount of Welding

Using Intermittent Welding Technique

Decreasing Length of Weld by Using

Intermittent Welding Technique

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-78
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Reduce the Amount of Welding Decrease Leg Size

Decrease Leg Size of Weld Decrease Shrinkage Force

and the Tendency to Distortion

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-79
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Minimize Welding Time

Variance of Welding
(a) 170 amp 25 volt 3 in/min Thick Plate
Technique. In Each Case,
Surface Isotherm of 300°F is
Shown Surrounding Welding
Source
(b) 170 amp 25 volt 6 in/min Thick Plate

(c) 340 amp 30 volt 6 in/min Thick Plate Solid Curve

310 amp 35 volt 8 in/min Thick Plate Dashed Curve (Same size weld)

(d) 170 amp 25 volt 22 in/min Sheet (t=0.1345 in) Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976
4-80
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Presetting the Joints

Before After
Welding Welding

The net effect of weld shrinkage pulls the member or

connection back into proper alignment.
Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976
4-81
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Examples of Presetting the Joints

(d)
(a) (b)

(c)

(a) (b) Girder, (c) Plate, (d) Fixing of Groove Gap by Wedge
in Single Pass Gas Welding
Pre-welding Position Traced in Solid Lines
Post-welding Position in Broken Lines
Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992
4-82
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Preheat the Joint

Effect of Preheat and

Welding Variables on
Angular Change of Steel
Fillet Welded T-Joints

Reference: Kihara, H., Watanabe, M., Masubuchi, K., and Satoh, K., “Researches on Welding
stress and shrinkage distortion in Japan”, 60th Anniversary Series of the Society of Naval
Architects of Japan, Vol. 4, 1959
4-83
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Prestrain the Joint

(a) Elastic Prestraining

(b) Plastic Prebending

Reference: Kumose, T., Yoshida, T., and Onoue, H, Prediction of angular distortion
caused by one-pass fillet welding, The Welding Journal, 33, 945-956 (1954)
4-84
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Example of Elastic Prestraining

Apparatus for Welding T-Joints Submitted to

Elastic Prestrain by Bolting Down Both Free Ends

Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 1, AWS, 1991

4-85
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Examples of Plastic Prestraining

(b)

(a)
( )
(c)

(d) (e)

(a) Roof Shaping of Girder Chords

(b) Plane End Section of Cylindrical Shell
(c) Outward Bulging of Spherical Shell with Block Flange
(d) Outward Bulging of Pipe with Circumferential Weld
(e) Inward Drawing of Pipe at Plane End

Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992

4-86
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Use as Few Weld Passes as Possible

Figure (a)
Poor

Good Figure (b)

Minimum Number of Passes

4-87
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Place Welds Near the Neutral Axis

4-88
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence

Welds are Symmetrical about Neutral Axis
y y
No. 4 No. 1 No.1 No.1

3/16” to 3/8”
mild steel
channel x x x

No. 2 No. 3 No.2

y y
(a) (b) (c)

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-89
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence

Welds are Symmetrical about Neutral Axis

No.4 No.1 No.4 No.1 No.1

No.2 No.3 No.3

(d) (e) (f)

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-90
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence

Long and Thin Box Sections

(a) During Welding, Top Expands

- Center Bows Up
Temperature
Distribution - Cross (Turn the Members
Section Quickly to Protect the
Weld from Cooling)

(b) Shortly after Welding -

Still Bowed up Slightly

(c) After Cooled - End Very

Slightly Bowed up due to
Contraction of Top

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-91
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Place Welds Near the Neutral Axis –

Three -Member Column

9”
1-3/4”

Neutral 0 682”
0.682 Neutral 0 556”
0.556
2-1/2”
2-1/2
axis axis

5/8” CG of welds CG of welds

(a) (b)

Reference: Design of Weldments, Omer W. Blodgett, 1976

4-92
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence – Multi-Layer Welding

4
1
2
3

An Example of a Double V-Groove Butt Joint. Suitable Welding

Sequence in Multi-layer Welding can Reduce Angular Distortion

4-93
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence – Multi-Layer Welding

(a) (b) (c)

Reduction of Angular Distortion by Alternating Weld Pass

Deposition in Double-V Groove

Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992 4-94

Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence – Backstep Welding

Direction of D
each bead B
segment
3 D
2
1
C

A Direction
of Welding
C

4-95
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Plan the Welding Sequence – Backstep Welding

Reduction of Transverse Shrinkage as well as Groove Gap

Distortion by Back-Step Welding: Tack Weld Sequence (a), Back-
Step Welding Sequence in First Layer (b) and Cover Pass (c)

Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992

4-96
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Distortion Control by Welding Sequence –

Welding Sequences

Unwelded Spaces Filled After

Deposition of Intermittent Blocks

(A) Backstep Sequence (B) Block Sequence

(C) Built-up Sequence (D) Cascade Sequence

Reference: K. Masubuchi, Analysis of Welded Structure, Pergamon Press

4-97
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening
ƒ Line heating
ƒ Pine-needle heating
ƒ Heating in cross section
ƒ Spot heating
ƒ Triangular heating
ƒ Red-hot
R dh th heating
ti

Reference: Analysis of Welded Structures, Koichi Masubuchi

4-98
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening

Line Heating Pine-needle Heating Heating in Cross

Directions

Reference: Analysis of Welded Structures, Koichi Masubuchi

4-99
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening

.........
.........
.........
Spot Heating Triangular Heating Red-hot Heating

Reference: Analysis of Welded Structures, Koichi Masubuchi

4-100
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening

(a) Spot Shape (b) Strip Shaped (c) Wedge Shaped

Application of Flame Straightening

Reference: D. Radaj, Heat Effects of Welding, Springer-Verlag, 1992

4-101
Module 4 – Welding Design Residual Stress and Distortion

Methods of Removing Distortion –

Flame (Thermal) Straightening

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Flame Straightening by Means of Heat Strips and Heat Wedges in

Different Arrangement on Bending-Distorted Girders

Reference: Vinokurov, V. A., Welding stresses and distortion, Wetherby:British Library 1977
4-102
Fracture and Fatigue

Module 4C
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

For a perfect solid, the tensile strength

σ T can be related to Young' s modulus
for the material E.

E E
σT = to
10 20

For glass, this would be σ T = 10 6 psi

while actually it is 5 ×103 to 105 psi
4-104
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Brittle Fracture

ƒ Griffith – glassy materials contain crack like defects which act

as stress raisers.

2 Eγ s
σc =
πc

2c γ s = surface energy
of fracture

σc
4-105
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Brittle Fracture

For long sharp cracks

c c
SCF ≅ 1 + 2 ≅2
a a
E
For σ T = , one gets
10
E a
σc ≅ → gives similar results to Griffith' s Criterion
20 c
Back calculating crack lengths in glasses,
one gets lengths of order 25 to 2500
atomic distances or 100 - 10,000 A o

4-106
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

ƒ Mode I

σ 22 ∞

x2
θ
r
x1
plastic
zone R p 2c

σ 22 ∞ 4-107
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

σ∞

y
KI = σ ∞ π c x

2c

For r=0 stresses are infinite!

Is this realistic?
σ∞
4-108
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

y
x

y z
x

Mode II Mode III

4-109
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Stress Intensity Factors

Stress intensity factor is used to find the stress distribution

and magnitude near the crack tip. It is a function of:

σ = applied stress

c = half crack length (full crack length for edge cracks)

w= characteristic dimension for the part

⎛c⎞
K (σ , c, w) = f ⎜ ⎟σ π c
⎝ w⎠
Determined analytically or experimentally as well as by
finite element analysis.

4-110
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fracture Toughness (Kc)

ƒ Kc is a material property which indicates the stress intensity

factor above which crack extension will occur
ƒ KIC (the plane strain value of Kc) is a linear elastic facture
mechanics parameter which can be used for brittle fracture
z For real materials, some plastic deformation will occur near the crack
tip.

σ
Linear elastic

Fy
Real material

rp x
4-111
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fracture Toughness

For plane stress, the size of the plastic zone is found from

KI ⎛ θ ⎞ ⎡⎛ θ ⎞⎛ θ ⎞⎤
Fy = cos⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜1 + sin ⎟⎜ sin ⎟⎥
( 2π rp )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
where for θ=00
2
Fy =
KI 1 ⎛⎜ K I ⎞⎟
( 2π rp ) rp =
2π ⎜ F y ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
For plane strain, 1 ⎛⎜ K I ⎞⎟
rp =
6π ⎜ F y ⎟
⎝ ⎠

For LEFM the size of the plastic zone must be small

4-112
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue

ƒ Fatigue failure resulting from cyclic deformation with large

plastic strain amplitude is called low cycle fatigue
z Failure usually occurs in ten to several hundred cycles

ƒ Fracture resulting from many thousands of stress cycles

below the elastic limit are called high
g cycle
y fatigue
g

ƒ Phases for Fatigue Failure

z Crack initiation – stress concentrations at grain boundaries or flaws
z Crack propagation – The crack propagates on every cycle of loading
z Fracture – crack long enough for fracture to occur when maximum
stress is reached

4-113
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

S-N Curve

Ferrous σ am N = C
Stress amplitude

Non-ferrous Fatigue Limit

Log N

4-114
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Nonzero Mean Stress

σ
Stress ratio R = min Tension-compression R = −1
σ
max
Stress
σ max
σa
σ mean
σa
σ min
Time
4-115
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Goodman Diagram

σa σa σm
10 3 cycles + =1
σ a σ ult
o

10 4 cycles
constant life lines

10 5 cycles

10 6 cycles

Mean
Stress
σ ult σm
4-116
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Goodman Diagram

σ max constant life lines

10 3 cycles σ uultt
10 4 cycles
10 5 cycles
10 6 cycles

σ min
4-117
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue With Varying Stress Amplitude –

Miner’s Rule

Miner’s Rule – each cycle uses a fraction of the fatigue life.

k
ni
∑
i =1 N i
=1
For fully reversible tension-compression loading from S-N curve one gets,

k
ni m
∑
i =1 C
σi =1

4-118
Module 4 – Welding Design Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue of Welded Joints

ƒ The presence of welded member usually results in drastic

reduction in fatigue life or stress
ƒ Causes: Stress Concentrations – generally a weld introduces
stress concentrations

Steel

R=0

10 5 10 6 10 7 108
4-119
Joint Design

Module 4D
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Common Design Requirements

ƒ Proper Weld Design to Meet Following Requirements

z Strength against rupture (excessive yielding)
z Toughness against fracture, especially under dynamic or impact
loading (brittle fracture)
z Ductility (ability to stretch) to prevent welding-induced cracking or
cracks due to excessive deformation
z Fatigue resistance against cyclic loading

4-121
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Essential and Related Design Factors

ƒ Proper Weld Design to Meet Following Requirements

z Materials
Š Base Metal (e.g. ASTM A36)
Š Filler Metal (e.g. AWS A5.1)
z Joints/Welds
z Welding Process(es)/Procedure Qualification
Š Joint Thickness
Š Pipe Outside Diameter
Š Welding Position
z Welder Qualification (per qualified procedure)
z Workmanship (including distortion control, heat treatment)
z Inspection

4-122
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Aspects of Weld Design

ƒ Structural Connection Design Elements

ƒ Types of Joints and Welds (AWS A3.0 - Standard Terms and
Definitions)
ƒ Welding/NDE Symbols (AWS A2.4 – Standard Symbols for
Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination)
ƒ Design for Strength
ƒ Design for Fracture Resistance
ƒ Design for Fatigue Resistance
ƒ Effect of Residual Stress and Distortion

4-123
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Structural Connection Design Elements

ƒ Connection Types ƒ Basic Weld Types

z Nontubular (i.e., plate) z Groove (CJP, PJP)
z Tubular Š Further classifications see AWS
A2.4 and A3.0
ƒ Basic Joint Types
z Fillet
z Butt Joint
z Plug and Slot
z Tee Joint (including skewed-T)
z Continuous vs
vs. Intermittent
z Lap Joint
z Others for Thin Joints: Spot,
z Corner Joint Seam
z Edge Joint
ƒ Welding Positions
z Flat (1-G or 1-F)
z Horizontal (2-G or 2-F)
z Vertical (3-G or 3-F)
z Overhead (4-G or 4-F)
z Combination (5-G, 6-G, 6-GR)

4-124
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Basic Joint Types

ƒ Butt joint
z Continuity of section
ƒ Tee joint
z Flanges or stiffeners
ƒ Lap joint
z No jjoint p
preparation
p
ƒ Corner joint
ƒ Edge joint
z Two or more parallel, or nearly
parallel members

4-125
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Joint Type Examples

Weld Face
Reinforcement

Butt Lap

Edge
Tee

Corner

4-126
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Basic Joint Type Extension – Flanged Joints

Flange T-Joint

Flange Butt Joints

Flange Edge Joints

Flange Corner Joint

Flange Lap Joints

4-127
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Butt Joint Extension – Spliced Joints

Single-Spliced Butt Joint Splice Member

Joint Member

Double-Spliced Butt Joint

Joint Member

Splice
Member
Joint Filler
4-128
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Edge Shapes of Members

Square
Double-J

Single-Bevel Flanged Edge

Double-Bevel Round Edge

Round
Single-J
Edge

4-129
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Joint Design Variables

ƒ Root Opening
ƒ Groove Radius
ƒ Included Angle
ƒ Root Face (Land)
ƒ Dihedral Angle

4-130
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Basic Types of Weld

Double-U
Fillet Groove

Single-Bevel
Square Groove Groove

Double-Bevel
D bl B l
Single-V
Groove
Groove

Double-V Single-J
Groove Groove

Double-J
Single-U
Groove
Groove

4-131
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Basic Types of Weld

4-132
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Examples

Single-Square-Groove Weld Single-Bevel-Groove Weld

Single-V-Groove Weld Single-V-Groove Weld

(with Backing)
4-133
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Examples

Single Groove Weld

Single-Groove Single U Groove Weld
Single-U-Groove

Single-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld Single-Flare-V-Groove Weld

4-134
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Examples

D bl S
Double-Square-Groove
G Weld
W ld Double-Bevel-Groove Weld

Double-V-Groove Weld
Double-J-Groove Weld

4-135
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Examples

Double-U-Groove Weld

Double-Flare-V-Groove Weld

Double-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld
4-136
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Flare and Edge Welds

Square-Groove Weld and

Flare-V-Groove
a e G oo e Welde d in a
Flanged Butt Joint

Edge Weld in a
Flanged Butt Joint

Edge Weld with Melt-through in

a Flanged Butt Joint

4-137
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Fillet Weld Examples

Double Fillet Weld Single Fillet Weld

4-138
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Weld Quantities Comparison

(a) (b) (c)

Area = 0.56t2 Area = 0.25t2 Area = 0.50t2

t t t
S=0
0.75t
75t

S
Double-Fillet Weld Double-Bevel- Single-Bevel-
Groove Weld Groove Weld

4-139
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Estimated Relative Costs

20
Cost
Relative C

10

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Plate Thickness, in.
4-140
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Plug/Slot Weld vs. Fillet Weld in Hole

Plug Welds Fillet Welds

Slot Welds

4-141
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Weld Joint Nomenclature

1 6

2 2
5 1 3
5
3
4
4

1 - groove angle 1 - throat

2 - bevel angle 2 - weld face
3 - root face (land) 3 - depth of fusion
4 - root opening (root gap) 4 - root
5 - groove face 5 - fillet leg length
6 - weld toe
4-142
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Nomenclature

Weld Face
Face
Reinforcement

Weld Toe
Root
Reinforcement

Root Surface
Weld Root

4-143
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Groove Weld Nomenclature

Groove Weld Made

Before Welding Other Side
Face
Reinforcement

Face
F
Reinforcement
Back Weld
Groove Weld Made
After Welding Other Side
Weld Root

Backing Weld
4-144
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Fillet Weld: Convex and Concave

Convexity
Actual Throat
Leg & Size

Effective
Leg & Size
Throat

Leg
Size
Concavity

Theoretical Throat Actual Throat

Size Leg
Effective throat

Theoretical Throat

4-145
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Effective Weld Throat for Design Calculations

Convexity Concavity

4-146
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Welding Technique

Stringer Bead

Weave Bead

4-147
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Weld Beads vs. Weld Layers

Weld Beads

Layers
Weld Beads

Layers
4-148
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

ASME Section IX –
Joint Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Groove Design X X X
.2 ± Backing X X
.4 - Backing
.5 + Backing
.6
6 > Fit-up Gap X X
.10 φ Root Spacing X

QW-402 .11 ± Retainers X X

Joints .18 φ Lap Joint Configuration X

4-149
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

ASME Section IX –
Base Material Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.2 Maximum T Qualified X
.3 φ Penetration X
.6 T Limits X
.8 φ T Qualified X
Q
QW-403
03 .9
9 t pass > 1/2-in
1/2-in. X
Base
Materials .10 T Limits (S. Cir. Arc) X

4-150
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

ASME Section IX –
Technique Procedure Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Stringer/weave X
.7 φ Oscillation X
.9 φ Multiply to Single Pass/Side X X
.21 1 vs. 2 Sided Welding X

QW-410
QW 410 26
.26 ± Peening X
Technique .37 φ Single to Multiple Passes

4-151
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Welding Sequence

Backstep

Block
(Unwelded spaces
filled after welding of
intermittent blocks)

Cascade

4-152
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Special Purpose Welds

Staggered
Intermittent
Fillet Weld

Boxing
(End Return)

Chain
Intermittent
Fillet Weld

4-153
Module 4 – Welding Design Joint Design

Welding Position

F - Fillet weld
1F
1G G - Groove weld
1G

1 - flat
2F
2G
2G 2 - horizontal
3 - vertical
3F 4 - overhead
3G
5G 6G

4G 4F

4-154
Welding Symbols

Module 4E
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Standard Location of Elements

ƒ Key Elements
z Arrow
z Reference Line
z Tail
z Weld Symbols
z Supplementary
z Symbols
z Other Details
ƒ Only the REFERENCE
LINE and ARROW are
required
ƒ Reference line are
always horizontal
ƒ Symbol without L-P denotes continuous welds
4-156
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Symbol Dimensions?

ƒ Tolerances, if required, are to be placed in tail

ƒ Welding Symbols are usually drawn without dimension units
such as inches or millimeters
ƒ But, Welding Symbols to be used for publications or those
requiring high precision should be dimensioned and have the
dimensional tolerances noted within the tail.

4-157
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Weld Symbols

NOTE:

(1) The reference line is

shown dashed for
illustrative purposes.

(2) Symbols with a

perpendicular leg shall have
the perpendicular leg drawn
h left
on the l f side
id off the
h
symbol (fillet, bevel-, J-, or
flare-bevel-groove)

Source: AWS A2.4:2007

4-158
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Supplementary Symbols

ƒ Significance of arrow
z Arrow side below reference line
z Other side above reference line

4-159
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Arrow and Other Side Convention – Examples

Below reference line

Weld Cross Section Symbol Above reference line

Both sides of
reference line

Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section Symbol

4-160
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Break in Arrow of Welding Symbol – Examples

Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section Symbol

4-161
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Combined Weld Symbols

Combined Weld Symbols

Multiple Arrow Lines

4-162
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Combined Weld Symbols – Examples

Weld Cross Section S b l

Symbol
Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section Symbol

Weld Cross Section

4-163
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Specification of Extent of Welding Use Multiple

Arrows

Welds Symbols

Welds Symbols
4-164
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Supplementary Information

Hidden Members of the

Supplementary Data Same as a Visible Member
2 ANGLES
PROCESS
DATA
(CO STD)

TYPICAL
BOTH
ANGLES

Omission of Tail When No References are Required

4-165
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Field Weld and All-Around Symbol

ƒ Flag indicated field weld

ƒ Circle indicates that the is to continue along the entire joint
length (i.e., weld all around)

4-166
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Specification of Extent of Welding Using

Weld All-Around Symbol

SYMBOL

WELDS

SYMBOL

WELDS
4-167
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Extent of Welding Denoted by Symbols

Using Weld All-Around Symbol

Weld in Several Planes

Weld Around a Shaft

4-168
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Location and Extent of Fillet Welds

WELDS
Size
Length and
Pitch
SYMBOLS

Welds Approximately Welds Definitely Located

Located
4-169
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Length and Pitch of Intermittent Welds

Chain
Intermittent
Welds
WELDS SYMBOL

Staggered
Intermittent
Welds

WELDS SYMBOL

4-170
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Dimensions of Plug and Slot Weld

Partially Filled
Plug Weld

Partially Filled
Slot Weld

4-171
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Melt-Through Symbol

4-172
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Melt-Through with Flange Welds

Edge-Flange

Corner-Flange

4-173
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Application of “Typical” Welding Symbols Using

Tail

4-174
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Specification of Extent of Welding Using Tail of

the Welding Symbol

4-175
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Specification of Completed Weld Using the

Welding Symbol
ƒ The weld tail can specify the final contour of the weld as well
as any addition processing steps require to achieve the
contour

Weld Contours and Finishing of Welds

C – Chipping
G – Grinding
Weld Contours H – Hammering
Flush M – Machining
Flat
R – Rolling
Convex
Concave U - Unspecified

4-176
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Supplementary Information

ƒ The weld tail can also include supplementary information

important the welder/supervisor
z Welding procedure
z Additional/specific welding dimensions or tolerances

Tail of the Welding Symbol

Details of Special
Welding Process Spec. Types of Welds

References

Weld Dimension
Designated Typical Situations Tolerance

4-177
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Flush and Convex Contour Symbols

Arrow side flush contour symbol

Other side flush contour symbol

Both sides convex contour symbol

4-178
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Standard Location of NDE Elements

4-179
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Standard Location of NDE Elements

ƒ The NDE Key elements are similar to the welding key

elements
z Reference Line Examination Method Letter
z Arrow Designations
z Examination Method Letter
Designations Acoustic emission AET
z Extent and Number of Electromagnetic ET
Examinations Leak LT
z Supplementary Symbols Magnetic practical MT
z Tail (specifications, codes Neutron radiographic NRT
or other references) Penetrant PT
Proof PRT
Radiographic RT
Ultrasonic UT
Visual VT

4-180
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Combined Welding and NDE Symbols

ƒ Welding and NDE symbols can be combined on the same

reference line, or on separate multiple reference lines
ƒ Combining welding and NDE symbols on multiple reference
lines often clarifies the exact sequence of operations required

UT

4-181
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

NDE Locations
RT PT
MT VT

UT MT
VT MT

LT+PRT
ET RT
UT
PT
AET UT+RT
NDE Combinations
Welding & NDE Symbols

Field Examination

Examine-All-Around 4-182
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Examples of NDE Symbols

Number of
Examination

MT symbol, both sides for 6 inch length

RT symbol, with
angle of radiation Specifications, Codes,
incidence and References

Length to be Examined

Partial Examination

4-183
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Examples of NDE Symbols

Area of Revolution
Plane Areas

Acoustic Emission

Area of Revolution

4-184
Welding Symbol Applications
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Complete Joint Penetration with Optional Joint

Geometry

4-186
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Groove Weld Size & Depth of Bevel Not Specified

4-187
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Specification of Groove Weld Size (E) Only

Double-V-groove weld with root opening

4-188
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Groove Weld Size without Depth of Bevel

Specified

4-189
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Specification of Groove Weld Size (E) and

Depth of Bevel (S)

4-190
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Combined Groove and Fillet Welds

4-191
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Root Opening of Groove Welds

4-192
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Groove Angle of Groove Welds

Groove angle is placed just outside the weld symbol

4-193
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Groove Angle of Groove Welds

4-194
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Back or Backing Weld Symbol

Back Weld Symbol

Backing Weld Symbol

4-195
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Single-V-Groove Weld with Backing

4-196
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Application of the Consumable Insert Symbol

Joint with Welding Symbol

Joint Geometry with Insert in Place Joint with Root Pass Combined
4-197
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Groove Welds with Back Gouging

4-198
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Groove Welds with Back Gouging

4-199
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Groove Welds with Back Gouging

4-200
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Skewed T-Joint

4-201
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Size of Fillet Welds

4-202
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Length of Fillet Welds

4-203
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Staggered Intermittent Fillet Welds

4-204
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Chain Intermittent Fillet Welds

4-205
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Applications of Stud Weld Symbols

4-206
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Applications of Surfacing Weld Symbols

4-207
Module 4 – Welding Design Welding Symbols

Applications of Surfacing Weld Symbols

Multiple Layers

4-208
Mechanical Testing

Module 4F
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Mechanical Testing

ƒ There are several different sources for mechanical testing

methods
z AWS B4.0M:2000 “Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of
Welds”
z Several ASTM standards
ƒ There are several different sources for acceptance criteria
iincluding
l di construction
t ti d documents
t and
d qualification
lifi ti
documents
z ASME Section IX “Welding and Brazing Qualification”
z AWS D1.1 “Structural Welding Code Steel”
z API 1104 “Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities”

4-210
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Mechanical Testing

ƒ Testing Methods covered in this module

z Hardness Testing
z Tension Test
z Bend Test
z Fillet Weld Break Test
z Fracture Toughness Test

4-211
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Hardness Testing

ƒ Hardness is shorthand for strength

ƒ Can characterize change in properties across a weld Knoop
ƒ Several standard techniques
z Rockwell (ASTM E-18) Brinell
z Brinell (ASTM E 10)
z Vickers ((ASTM
S E92,
9 , E384)
38 )
z Knoop (ASTM E384)
ƒ Differences
z Indentation load sequence Vickers
z Indenter shape
Rockwell
z Property measured o
120 angle &
0.2mm radius
Š Indentation depth
Š Indentation area
z Calculation of Hardness Value
ƒ Scales related to each other
4-212
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Macrohardness Test

Rockwell Test
Brinell Test
4-213
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Microhardness Test

Vickers

Knoop

4-214
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Hardness Tests, Indenters, and Shapes of

Indention

Brinell Indentor

Rockwell Indentor
4-215
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Comparison of Hardness Tests

Microhardness testing often used to characterize

changes in strength across a weld and Heat Affected Zone
4-216
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Hardness Relationship to Mechanical Properties

ƒ Hardness can be used to estimate material strength

z Estimated tensile strength of steel
Š 510 * HB, HB<175
Š 490 * HB, HB>175
z Estimated yield
strength of steel
Š 0
0.33
33* hardness
Š (Vickers * 10/3 =
Tensile yield)

HB = Brinell Hardness

4-217
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Hardness Scale Conversion

Rockwell C Brinell Vickers Tensile ksi

60 654 697

55 560 595 288

50 481 513 245

45 421 446 212

40 390 412 191

35 327 345 163

30 286 302 142

25 253 266 125

4-218
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Tension Test

ƒ Summary of Method
z Tension testing of welded joints is done by means of a calibrated
testing machine and devices
z The test sample is pulled in tension until the sample fails
ƒ Significance
z Tension test provides information on properties of welded joints: load
b i capacities;
bearing iti joint
j i t design;
d i and
ddductility
tilit

4-219
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Tension Test – Summary of Method

Initial Gauge Length

Test coupon in the loading grips

Load Elongation
Stress = Strain =
Initial ..Cross − Sectional .. Area Initial ..Gauge ..Length
4-220
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Stress-Strain Curve

Parallel to the
original slope line

Area beneath the entire stress-

strain curve up to fracture point
is called “TOUGHNESS”

0.2% offset Ductility

“Modulus of Resilience”
4-221
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Tension Test Apparatus

Modern Loading System - Conventional Loading System –

Computer Controlled for Tensile Strength Only

4-222
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Tensile Test - Specimens

ƒ All Weld Metal Tensile Test

z Determine weld metal ultimate tensile
strength, yield strength, elongation and
reduction in area
ƒ Reduced Section Tension Test (RST) Gauge Length

z Determine ultimate tensile strength only

ƒ Specimens
S i shall
h ll be
b tensile
t il ttested
t d iin
the as-welded condition unless the
procedure qualification requires a
PWHT

4-223
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Tensile Test - Procedure

ƒ Welding Procedure Qualification

z Tension test specimen shall be ruptured under tensile load
z Tensile strength shall be computed by dividing the ultimate total load
by the least cross-sectional area of the specimen as calculated from
actual measurements made before the load is applied
Round Tension Specimen
Maximum .. Load
Ultimate Tensile Strength UTS =
⎛ πD 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
Load .. @ ..Offset
Yield Strength at Specified Offset YS =
⎛ πD 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
Final ..GaugeL .. Length − Original ..Gauge .. Length
Percent Elongation εf =
Original ..Gauge .. Length

Reduced Section Tension Specimen

Maximum .. Load
Ultimate Tensile Strength UTS =
Original ..Cross − Section .. Area

4-224
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.1, Reduced Section – Plate

4-225
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.2, Reduced Section – Pipe

z For pipe diameters greater than 3 in.

4-226
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.2, Reduced Section – Pipe

z For pipe diameters less than or equal to 3 in.

4-227
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.3, Turned Specimen

4-228
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-150 Tension Test

ƒ QW-151.4, Full-Section Specimens for Pipe

z For pipe diameters less than or equal to 3 in.

4-229
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Tensile Test – Acceptance Criterion

ƒ Reduced Section Tension per AWS D1.1

z 4.8.3.5 Acceptance Criteria for Reduced-Section Tension Test
Š The tensile strength shall be no less than the minimum of the specified
tensile range of the base metal used
ƒ Reduced Section Tension per ASME Section IX
z QW-153 Acceptance Criteria – Tension Test
Š To pass the tension test the specimen shall have a tensile strength that is
z not less than the minimum specified tensile strength of the base metal, or
z not less than the minimum specified tensile strength of the weaker of the two
materials if different strength materials are welded, or
z not less than the minimum specified tensile strength of the weld metal when a
weld metal having lower room temperature strength than the base metal is
allowed, or
z if specimen breaks in base metal outside the weld or fusion line, the test shall
be accepted, provided the strength is not more than 5% below the minimum
specified tensile strength of the base metal

4-230
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Guided Bend Test

ƒ Summary of Method
z The specimens are guided in the bending process by a test fixture that
employs a mandrel with wraparound roller or end supports with
plunger
z The maximum strain on the tension surface is controlled by the
thickness of the specimen and the radius of the mandrel or plunger
ƒ Significance
z The ductility of a welded joint

4-231
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Bend Test Apparatus

Guided Bend

4-232
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Guided Bend Test Specimens

Side Bend Root Bend Face

Bend

Face Bend Root

Side Bend Bend

Transverse Bend Test Specimens Longitudinal Bend Test Specimens

4-233
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Guided Bend Test Procedure

ƒ Specimens shall be bent in jigs

ƒ The weld and HAZ shall be within the curved portion of the
specimen if not the specimen shall be discarded
ƒ Unless otherwise specified, the specimen shall be tested at
ambient temperature and deformation shall occur in a time
period between 15 seconds and 2 minutes
p
ƒ Appropriate surface of the specimen, according to its type,
shall be bent such that it is placed in tension
ƒ Specimen shall be bent around the correct size mandrel
(plunger) until the specimen is forced into the die until a 1/8”
wire cannot be inserted between the specimen and die, or the
specimen is bottom ejected if the roller type jig is used
ƒ When specimens wider than 1-1/2” are tested, mandrel must
be at least 1/4” wider than specimen
4-234
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-161.1, Transverse Side Bend

4-235
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-161.2 and 161.3, Transverse Face or Root Bend

4-236
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-161.6 and 161.7, Longitudinal Face or Root Bend

z Used to test materials with markedly different bending properties
Š Largely different properties between different base materials
Š Largely different properties between the weld metal and base material

4-237
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-162.1, Bend Test Jigs

4-238
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ QW-162.1, Bend Test Jigs

4-239
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-160 Guided Bend Test

ƒ The dimensions of the bend test jig depend on the material

that is being bent

4-240
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Guided Bend Test – Acceptance Criterion

ƒ Bend Test per AWS D1.1

z 4.8.3.3 Acceptance Criteria for Bend Test
Š No discontinuities greater than 1/8” in any direction
Š The sum of all discontinuities greater than 1/32” but less than 1/8” should
not exceed 3/8”
Š No corner cracks greater than 1/4” with no visible evidence of slag or other
fusion discontinuity
ƒ Bend Test per ASME Section IX
z QW-163 Acceptance Criteria – Bend Test
Š No discontinuities greater than 1/8” in any direction
Š Corner cracks shall not be considered unless there is evidence of weld
defect
Corner Crack
Discontinuity

4-241
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fillet Weld Break Test

ƒ Summary of Method
z One leg of a T-joint is bent upon the other so as to place the root of
the weld in tension.
z The load is maintained until the legs of
the joint come into contact with each other
or the joint fractures
ƒ Significance
z To determine the soundness of
fillet welded joints

4-242
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fillet Weld Break Test Procedure

ƒ A force as shown or other forces causing the root of the weld

to be in tension shall be applied to the specimen
ƒ The load shall be increased until the specimen fractures or
bends flat upon itself
ƒ If the specimen fractures, the fracture surfaces shall be
examined visuallyy to the criteria of the applicable
pp standard

4-243
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-180 Fillet Weld Test

4-244
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

ASME Section IX – QW-180 Fillet Weld Test

4-245
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fillet Weld Break Test – Acceptance Criteria

ƒ Fillet Weld Break Test per AWS D1.1

z 4.30.4.1 Acceptance Criteria for Fillet Weld Break Test
Š Reasonably uniform appearance and free of overlap, cracks and undercut
within acceptable limits of visual inspection
Š The broken specimen shall be flat upon itself or the fracture surface shall
show complete root fusion with no inclusion or porosity larger than 3/32” in
greatest dimension
Š The sum of the greatest dimensions of all inclusions and porosity shall not
exceed 3/8” in the 6” long specimen.
ƒ Fillet Weld Break Test per ASME Section IX
z QW-182 Fracture Test
Š The fracture surface shall show no evidence of cracks or incomplete root
fusion
Š The sum of inclusions and porosity shall not exceed 3/8” or 10% of the
section

4-246
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Tests – Summary of Methods

ƒ Charpy V-notch - Impact on V-notched specimen

ƒ Dynamic Tear - Three point bending of U-notched specimen
loaded at high strain rate by strike
ƒ Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness - Plane-strain critical
fracture toughness value obtained at slow loading rates on
compact
p tension specimen
p with maximum constraint ((thick
specimen with deep crack) resulting in brittle fracture with
little or no deformation
ƒ Drop-Weight Nil Ductility Transition Temperature – Drop
weight impact on flat notched specimen with maximum
fracture stress at material’s yield stress

4-247
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test – Significance

ƒ Provides a measure of resistance to crack initiation or

propagation or both
ƒ The same welding process, procedure, and weld cooling
rates must be used for the test sample and the structure
ƒ Fracture toughness of steels is sensitive to service
temperature
p
Shear Lip
Chevron
Markings
Shear Lip

Shear
Deformation
Chevron
Markings

Photograph of Typical
Shear Rupture Dimples Brittle Fracture Surface

4-248
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Apparatus

CMOD

Clip Gage
Crack Tip

Charpy V-Notch Test (right: placement of specimen in anvil) Compact Tension Test

Three-Point
w
Bending Test a
4W
Clip Gage

Four-Point Bending Test

4-249
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Specimens

Dynamic Tear
Test Specimen

Charpy V-Notch Impact

Specimen
4-250
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Specimens

Crack Driving Force: Stress

Intensity Factor, KI

K I = σ πa • correction.. factor

Drop Weight Nil-Ductility

Temperature Test Specimen
Compact Tension Fracture
Toughness Test Specimen
4-251
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Apparatus

3O~5O

Drop-Weight Nil Ductility Transition Temperature

Test

4-252
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Procedure

Orientation of Weld Metal Fracture Toughness Specimen

in a Double-Groove Weld Thick Section Weldment

4-253
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Acceptance Criteria

y (ft-lb)
Charpy Energy

High
Low
temperature
Test Temperature temperature

Charpy V-Notch Test Results

4-254
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Acceptance Criteria

Dynamic Tear Test Results

4-255
Module 4 – Welding Design Mechanical Testing

Fracture Toughness Test Acceptance Criteria

Fracture Toughness KIC – ASTM A572 Steel

Compact Tension Test Results

4-256
Weldability

Module 5
Module 5 – Weldability

Module 5 – Weldability

 5A – Weld Defect Types

 5A.1 – Solidification and Liquation Cracking
 5A.2 – Solid-State Cracking
 5A.3 – Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
 5A.4 – Fatigue and Fracture

 5B – Corrosion

 5C – Fractography

 5D – Case Studies

5-2
Module 5 – Weldability

Module 5 Learning Objectives

 Definition of metallurgical and geometric defects in welds

 Basic understanding of different forms of weld cracking
 Differentiating different types of cracking
 Basic fatigue and fracture principles
 Different forms of corrosion
 Corrosion cracking associated with welds
 Basic aspects of failure analysis

5-3
Weld Defect Types

Module 5A
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Types of Weld Defects

 Fabrication-related
 Associated with primary fabrication or repair
 Can be controlled by combination of metallurgical and welding
process factors
 Use of appropriate inspection techniques is critical
 Service-related
 Occur upon exposure to service environment
 Generally mechanically or environmentally induced
 May result from remnant weld defects or metallurgical phenomena
associated with the weld thermal cycle
 Inspection and design issues are important to control defect formation
and monitor propagation

5-5
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Fabrication-Related Defects

 Process control
 Lack-of-fusion (LOF)
 Weld undercut
 Excessive overbead or drop through
 Lack of penetration (LOP) or incomplete penetration
 Slag inclusions
 Porosity, voids
 Craters, melt-through, spatter, arc-strikes, underfill
 Sugaring
 Oxidation of root pass
 Cracks
 Other
 Metallurgical anomalies (e.g., local softening or embrittlement)
 Geometric defects (design or fitup); e.g., distortion

5-6
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Lack of Fusion

 Inability to wet the surfaces of the weld joint area completely

leaving behind voids
 Reduced load-carrying capacity
 Detection
 Radiography and ultrasonic inspection
 Common Causes
 Improper process parameters
 Liquid metal too “cold” to fuse to the base
material
 Improper welder technique
 No weaving
 Poor access
 Bad joint design
 Material composition
 Viscous flow

5-7
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Weld Undercut

 Not efficient tie up of weld metal and base metal region

 Leads to premature fatigue failure
 Detection
 Visual and dye penetrant inspection
 Common Causes
 Improper welding technique
 Concave weld profile
 Improper weave technique Undercut Intrusion
 Improper process parameters
 Excessive current

5-8
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Over-Bead or Drop-Through

 Over-bead (A) happens during A

capping pass
 Drop-through (B) happens during
root pass
 Detection
 Nondestructive
 X-ray, visual and dye penetrant inspection
 Destructive
 Optical metallographic methods
 Causes
 Inadequate welder skill
 Procedure restrictions
 Joint geometry restrictions

5-9
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Incomplete Penetration

 Weld pool does not penetrate the whole plate thickness

 Detection
 Nondestructive
 Visual, dye penetrant inspection, radiography and ultrasonic inspection
 Destructive
 Optical metallographic methods
 Causes
 Inadequate welder skill
 Procedure restrictions Shallow Penetration
 Joint geometry restrictions
 Material chemistry changes

Deep Penetration

5-10
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Entrapped Slag Inclusions

 This occurs in flux-shielded processes (e.g. SMAW, SAW,

and FCAW)
 Detection
 Radiography and ultrasonic
inspection
 Causes
 Improper welding technique
 Incomplete removal of the slag
from previous bead
 Poor joint access
 Inefficient partitioning of inclusions Ref: Mitra and Eager, 1999

from molten metal

Liquid
Solid
5-11
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Porosity

 Gas Porosity
 Molten metals always dissolve more gases than solids so during
molten metal solidifies the inability to outgas leads to gas porosity
 Shrinkage porosity
 Liquid to solid transition in metals leads to shrinkage creating voids
and the inability to fill the voids leads to shrinkage porosity
 Detection
 Visual, dye penetrant inspection,
radiography and ultrasonic inspection
 Causes
 Improper welding technique
 Improper process parameters
 Shielding gas, welding conditions, etc.
 Material composition

5-12
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Porosity

 Materials – Process interactions are complex during welding

 For similar processing conditions, the change in filler
composition leads to a dramatic difference in porosity

Laser Surface Alloying for hard and corrosion resistance coatings

5-13
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Oxidation (Sugaring)

 Oxidation at high temperatures removal elements like Cr from

the alloy which may lead to preferential corrosion and/or
creep failure
 Detection
 Visual
 Causes
 Improper welding technique
 Incomplete shielding of the root pass
 Poor joint access

Courtesy: CAPSTONE Project by F. Augestine, J.

Hurst and J. Rule, OSU, 2009

5-14
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Local Hardening/Softening

 Thermal cycles and material composition may change the

local mechanical properties
 Multi-pass pipeline hardness distributions
 Blue: soft
 Red: hard
 Detection
 Destructive hardness testing
 Causes
 Material composition
 Process parameters

5-15
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Dimensional Defects: Distortion

 Distortion happens due to localized plastic flow and resulting

imbalance of internal stresses
 Main factors are geometry and processing conditions with
secondary factors including material microstructure
 This topic is beyond the scope of the present module

Reference: Masubuchi, 1980 5-16

Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Fabrication-Related Defects - Cracks

 “Hot” cracking
 Weld solidification
 HAZ liquation
 Weld metal liquation
 “Warm” cracking
 Ductility dip
 Reheat/PWHT
 Strain-age
 Liquid metal embrittlement (LME)
 “Cold” cracking
 Hydrogen-induced cracking
 Delayed cracking

 This module will discuss these defects in more detail

5-17
Module 5 – Weldability Weld Defects

Service-Related Damage Mechanisms

 Hydrogen-induced
 Environmentally-induced (e.g., corrosion)
 Fatigue
 Stress-rupture
 Creep and creep-fatigue
 Corrosion-fatigue
 Mechanical overload

 This module will discuss these defects briefly due to the wide
variety and complexity of different service conditions

5-18
Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Module 5A.1
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Fabrication-Related Defects - Metallurgical

 “Hot” cracking
 Weld solidification
 HAZ liquation
 Weld metal liquation

5-20
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Weld Solidification Cracking

 Two essential elements

 Susceptible microstructure
 Large solidification temperature range
 Liquid films present along solidification grain boundaries
 Restraint
 Shrinkage resulting from solidification
 Thermal contraction
 Imposed (external) forces

5-21
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Solidification Cracking Temperature Range

TL TS Temperature

Ductility BTR
or Strain
Strain
Rate A

Strain
Rate B

Strain
Rate C

SCTR-A
SCTR-B
5-22
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Relative and Maximum Potency Factors

for Iron-Based Binary Systems

Demonstration of Phase Diagram

5-23
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Factors Influencing Weld Solidification Cracking

Circular Patch Test
 Composition
 Alloying elements
 Impurity elements
 Nature of grain boundary liquid films
 Volume fraction
 Wetting characteristics
 Weld pool geometry
 Weld bead geometry
 Restraint Restraints usually accentuate
the solidification cracking, as
a result, such geometries are
used for evaluating cracking
resistance of alloys

5-24
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Composition

 Alloying elements
 Effect on solidification behavior (e.g. austenite versus ferrite
solidification in steels)
 Partitioning during solidification may promote eutectic formation (e.g.
Al- and Ni-base alloys)
 Impurity elements
 Partitioning of impurities (e.g., S, P, and B in steels) significantly
depresses terminal solidification temperature
 These elements often enhance the wetting characteristics of the
terminal liquid at the SGB

5-25
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Grain Boundary Liquid Films

 Cracking is associated with

liquid films along grain 1200
boundaries. 1

TEMPERATURE_CELSIUS
1000 2
 The nature of these liquid
films is controlled by: 800
LIQUID
 Volume fraction of liquid 600
 Grain boundary area
 Wetting characteristics 400

200

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
MOLE_FRACTION CU

5-26
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Percent Eutectic Liquid versus Cracking

Susceptibility

1 2 3
Cracking Susceptibility
Curve in Eutectic System
Cracking Susceptibility

Fraction Eutectic
Fraction Eutectic

Composition

5-27
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Weld Pool Geometry Also Affects Solidification

Cracking

Teardrop Shape

Elliptical Shape

5-28
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Weld Bead Geometry

Large, Concave Small, Convex

5-29
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Restraint

 Intrinsic
 Base metal and weld metal strength
 Material thickness
 Joint design
 Extrinsic
 Fixturing
 Applied stress

5-30
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Identifying Weld Solidification Cracks

 Where?
 Along solidification grain boundaries,
occasionally along solidification
sub-grain boundaries
 When?
 During final stages of solidification
 How?
 Metallography
 Fractography - exhibit distinct dendritic
fracture morphology

5-31
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Preventing Weld Solidification Cracks

 Composition
 Solidification control (BCC vs. FCC)
 Impurity content
 Liquid film formation
 Process control
 Heat input
 Bead shape
 Restraint
 Intrinsic
These plots show the
 Extrinsic stress required to induce
solidification cracking in
IN939 alloys as a function
of raw material source, Zr
and B concentrations; Very
Purity Raw Material
Reduces the Cracking
Tendency
5-32
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Fabrication-Related Defects - Metallurgical

 “Hot” cracking
 Weld solidification
 HAZ liquation
 Weld metal liquation
 HAZ liquation requires the presence of a liquid, or liquid film
 Associated with grain boundaries
 Two types
 HAZ/PMZ liquation cracking
 Weld Metal (WM) liquation cracking

5-33
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Liquation Mechanisms

 Penetration mechanism
 Localized melting
 Grain boundary migration
 “Penetration” of boundary by liquid
 Segregation mechanism
 Segregation of impurity and solute to grain boundaries
 Gibbsian segregation
 Grain boundary “sweeping”
 “Pipeline” diffusion

5-34
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Penetration Mechanism

 Three elements are required

 Local liquation phenomenon
 Segregation melting (BM or WM)
 Constituent melting (e.g. eutectic)
 Constitutional liquation
 Grain boundary motion and intersection
 Penetration and wetting of grain boundary

5-35
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Penetration Mechanism

5-36
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Localized Melting in the PMZ

 Incipient melting
 Grain boundaries are high
energy sites
 Melting at temperatures a
few degrees below bulk
solidus
 Solute/impurity banding
 Local, periodic variations in
composition
 Residual from thermo-
mechanical processing
 Constitutional liquation

Courtesy: S. Kou, Welding Metallurgy Book, Wiley Interscience 5-37

Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

The Constitutional Liquation Mechanism

 Proposed by Savage, et al in the 1960’s

 Reaction between a constituent particle and the matrix
 Local melting at the
particle/matrix interface

 Note: The particle does not

melt, but rather reacts with the
matrix prior to the onset of
liquation

5-38
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Constitutional Liquation

Liquid
Solidus
AxBy + L
e f g
T3
α α+L
Temperature

c d
Te
T2
b

Solvus α + AxBy

a
T1

A C0 CA AxBy
Composition, %B
5-39
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Constitutional Liquation Mechanism

T1 T2

Reaction
AxBy Zone AxBy

C0

5-40
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Constitutional Liquation Mechanism

Te T3
Reaction Zone

Melted
Melted region
AxBy AxBy
region
d g
f
c
e
C0

5-41
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Constitutional Liquation of NbC

5 µm

Alloy 907
5-42
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

PMZ Grain Boundary Wetting

20 µm 5 µm

Alloy 907

5-43
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Constitutional Liquation

Alloy System Susceptible Alloys Constituent

Alloy 718 NbC
Ni-base Waspaloy TiC
Hastelloy X TiC

Type 347 NbC

Stainless Steels A-286 TiC
Alloy 800 TiC

Structural Steels HY-130 TiS

5-44
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Segregation Mechanism

 This mechanism is used to explain HAZ liquation in alloys that

do not undergo liquation in discrete locations. It requires:
 Diffusion of solute and/or impurity elements to grain boundaries
 Segregation-induced melting of the grain boundary
 Grain boundary wetting

5-45
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Effect of Segregation on Grain Boundary Melting

 Segregation of
solute/impurities to
grain boundaries
depresses the local
melting point
 Temperature gradient
has a strong effect on
the extent of melting

5-46
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Grain Boundary “Sweeping”

 Thermally-induced grain
boundary motion in HAZ
 High affinity of some
elements for grain
boundaries
 Impurities – S, P, B
 Solutes – Ti, Si
 Elements “swept up” and
move with boundary

5-47
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Pipeline Diffusion

 Solute segregation in
fusion zone along
solidification grain
boundaries (SGBs)
 Grain boundary
“pipeline” due to
epitaxy
 Rapid grain boundary
diffusion

5-48
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Weld Metal Liquation Cracking

 Often referred to in literature as “microfissuring”

 Restricted to reheated weld metal (multipass welds)
 Not associated with constitutional liquation
 Locations
 Solidification grain boundaries (SGBs) due to segregation during initial
solidification (Case 3)
 Migrated grain boundaries (MGBs) due to a segregation or
penetration mechanism
 Most often observed in single phase, austenitic weld metal

5-49
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Weld Metal Liquation Cracking

Molten Pool

Weld
Solidification
Cracks

Fusion Boundary

Weld Metal
Liquation Cracks

5-50
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Variables which Influence HAZ/WM Liquation

Cracking
 Microstructure
 Grain size
 Phases and constituents
 Heat treatment
 Composition
 Alloying elements (Ti, Nb, etc.)
 Impurities
 Welding conditions
 Heat input
 Filler metal

5-51
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Effect of Grain Size on HAZ Liquation Cracking

 Grain boundary liquid

films
High  Less liquid film
Cracking Susceptibility

Impurity coverage with finer

grain size
Low  Liquid film strength
Impurity
 Strain localization

Average Grain Diameter

Grain Boundary Area
5-52
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Susceptible Alloy Systems

 Generally fully austenitic (FCC) microstructure

 Austenitic stainless steels
 Types 347 and 321
 Type 310
 Nickel-base alloys
 High-strength steels

5-53
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Identifying HAZ/PMZ Liquation Cracks

 Where?
 Grain boundaries
 Close proximity to fusion boundary
 May be continuous across fusion boundary
 When?
 On-cooling in region subject to liquation
 How?
 Always intergranular
 Fracture surface may be decorated with liquid films

5-54
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Identifying WM Liquation Cracks

 Where?
 Reheated weld metal
 Solidification grain boundaries and/or migrated grain boundaries
 When?
 On-heating or on-cooling in regions heated above liquation
temperature
 How?
 Always intergranular
 Smooth or dendritic fracture surface

5-55
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Preventing Liquation Cracking

 Microstructure control
 Minimize grain size
 Introduce second phases (ferrite)
 Control boundary mis-orientation
 Composition
 Reduce impurities
 Avoid local melting and constitutional liquation
 Restraint
 Weld in solution annealed condition
 Multi-bead techniques
 Design and fixturing

5-56
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

How Do We Evaluate Weldability

Under Controlled Conditions?
 Some laboratory tests for evaluating weldability:
 Varestraint Cracking Test (Linear and Spot)
 SigmaJig®
 Gleeble Thermomechanical Simulation
 Due to the limited scope, we will see how we do the SigmaJig
test with a case study
 However, the general framework is same, temperature, stress
and evaluate the material sensitivity

5-57
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

SigmaJig® Test

 Perform welding (similar

conditions) with different
applied stress on similar
thickness sample
 Identify the critical stress at
which you initiate cracking
 If the stress to induce
cracking is higher, then the
alloys are resistant to weld
solidification cracking
Courtesy: ORNL

5-58
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

An Example of Weld Crack Monitoring

 Let us see the crack dynamics

5-59
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Sub-Solidus Crack Formation in a Stressed

Weldment was Observed

Welding
Direction

 Weld cracks in M738 (~IN738) was transverse in nature

 The cracking is attributed to the presence of low-melting
eutectics and the presence of longitudinal stress
5-60
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Let Us See the Real-Time Movie of Cracking

 What is the significance of this test for nuclear/energy

construction applications?

5-61
Module 5 – Weldability Solidification and Liquation Cracking

Threshold Cracking Stress in IN939 Linked to

Minor Element Concentrations (B, Zr & S)

 The above results lead to tightly controlled IN939 alloy

composition for better weldability
 E. P. George, S. S. Babu, S. A. David, and B. B. Seth, Proceedings of
the BALTICA V conference in Helsinki, 2001)
5-62
Solid-State Cracking

Module 5A.2
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Fabrication-Related Defects - Metallurgical

 “Warm” cracking
 Ductility dip
 Reheat/PWHT
 Strain-age
 Liquid metal embrittlement (LME) (Cu contamination)

5-64
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Ductility-Dip Cracking

 Severe loss in ductility below

the solidus temperature
 May occur on-heating or on-
cooling
 Observed in both weld metal
and base metal HAZ
 Always intergranular
 Austenitic (FCC)
microstructure

5-65
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Ductility-Dip Cracking

 Susceptible materials
 Austenitic stainless steels
 Fully austenitic base metals and filler metals
 High purity grades
 Ni-base alloys
 Solid-solution strengthened
 Multipass weld metals
 Characteristics
 Along solidification grain boundaries
and migrated grain boundaries in the
weld metal
 Associated with boundary mobility
and large grain size

5-66
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Reheat Cracking

 Low alloy steels and some stainless steels are susceptible

 Occurs during PWHT and stress relieving
 Associated with austenite or prior austenite grain boundaries
 May occur during cladding of structural steels

5-67
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Conditions for Reheat Cracking

 During welding
 In low alloy steels, transformation to austenite
 Dissolution of alloy carbides
 Segregation of impurity elements
 During reheating
 Reprecipitation of alloy carbides
 Relaxation of stresses

5-68
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Susceptible Materials

 Low alloy steels with secondary carbide formers

 A508, A517, A533
 Cr-Mo or Cr-Mo-V steels
 Austenitic stainless steels (Type 347)
 Other alloys with strong precipitation reactions
Alloying Elements (from
Haure and Bocquet)
G = 10C + Cr + 3.3Mo +
8.1V
for G<2, steel is resistant
Impurity Elements (from
Brear and King)
I = 0.2Cu + 0.44S + 1.0P +
1.8As + 1.9Sn + 2.7Sb

5-69
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Mechanism for Reheat Cracking

 On-heating transformation to
austenite
 Alloy carbides dissolve
 Austenite grain growth
 Segregation of impurities
to grain boundaries
(optional)
 Upon reheating to PWHT
temperature
 Strong intragranular precipitation response
 Stress relaxation occurs simultaneously
 Strain localization at prior austenite grain boundaries
 Failure at, or near, grain boundaries

5-70
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Mechanism for Reheat Cracking

Transformation to austenite, grain Re-precipitation of strengthening precipitates,

growth, impurity segregation relaxation of residual stresses, cracking along prior
austenite grain boundaries

Weld thermal cycle PWHT cycle

A3
Temperature

Time

5-71
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Identifying Reheat Cracking

 Metallography
 Occurs in true HAZ in close proximity to the
fusion boundary
 Peak temperatures above A3
 Intergranular along prior austenite grain
boundaries
 Fractography
 Smooth IG fracture at low PWHT temperatures
or with high impurity levels
 Ductile IG fracture at higher PWHT temperature
(>500 ºC) or with low impurity levels

Courtesy: S. Kou, Welding Metallurgy

5-72
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Preventing Reheat Cracking

 Select steels that do not contain secondary carbide formers

(Cr, Mo, V)
 Reduce impurities, particularly S, P, Cu, As, Sb, Sn
 Reduce residual stress levels and subsequent stress
relaxation during PWHT
 Eliminate stress concentrations near the fusion boundary
(grinding, peening)
 Control weld heat input
 Use “buttering” technique

5-73
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Reheat Cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steels

 Occurs in alloys containing secondary carbide formers (Nb,

Ti)
 Observed in Type 347 WM and BM HAZ
 Associated with precipitation of NbC during heating to stress
relief temperature or during service
 Ductile IG fracture mode
 Susceptibility reduced by “step” heat treatment

5-74
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

C-curve Cracking Susceptibility in Type 347

From W. Lin and J.C. Lippold

5-75
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Strain-Age Cracking

 Associated with Ni-base superalloys (gamma-prime

strengthened) and precipitation-strengthened steels
 Occurs during PWHT or during welding
 Cracking along austenite or prior austenite grain boundaries
 Three factors combine to promote cracking
 Intragranular strengthening
 Impurity segregation
 Grain boundary embrittlement

5-76
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Mechanism for Strain-Age Cracking

 Strengthening precipitates are solutionized in the HAZ during

welding
 Liquation occurs along PMZ grain boundaries (optional)
 During PWHT, rapid reprecipitation of strengthening
precipitates intragranularly
 Potential embrittlement of grain boundaries
 Strain accumulation at grain boundaries
 Relaxation of residual stress
 Thermal contraction stress
 Local stress due to precipitation
 Intergranular fracture

5-77
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Mechanism

 Precipitates are
solutionized and grain
growth occurs in the HAZ
during welding
 During reheating
 Intragranular precipitation
 Relief of residual stresses
 Localization of strain at the
grain boundaries

From ASM Handbook, Vol.6

5-78
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Effect of Ti and Al

7 wrought
Weight percent Aluminum

IN 713C cast
6 René
Mar-M-247 IN 100
108
5 Astroloy
Udimet 700
Susceptible
4
Udimet 500
René 80
3
Udimet 710
René 41
2
IN 939
Resistant
1 Waspaloy
IN 718 IN X-750
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
Weight percent Titanium

5-79
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Effect of Precipitation

 Select resistant material

(low Ti + Al)
 Heat rapidly during PWHT
to avoid “nose” of
precipitation curve
 Heat and hold below nose
of curve to reduce
residual stress
 Design issues

From ASM Handbook, Vol. 6 5-80

Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Identifying Strain-Age Cracking

 Metallography
 Close proximity to the fusion boundary
 Intergranular
 Fractography
 Smooth or ductile intergranular
 Possible presence of liquid films in PMZ

5-81
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Preventing Strain-Age Cracking

 Select alloys with sluggish precipitation reactions

 Alloy 718
 Minimize residual stresses
 Avoid/minimize PMZ formation
 Alter PWHT thermal cycle for heating to solutionizing
temperature
 Heat rapidly to avoid nose of precipitation curve
 Use intermediate hold at temperature below the nose to relieve
residual stress

5-82
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Copper Contamination Cracking

 Austenitic steels or ferritic THERMO-CALC (2009.04.01:17.18) :CU FE

DATABASE:TCBIN
steels that are austenitic P=1E5, N=1;
above 1000ºC 1600
LIQUID
 Occurs in HAZ remote 1400

TEMPERATURE_CELSIUS
from fusion boundary 1200 LIQUID+FCC_A1
 Liquid Cu penetration
1000
along austenite grain FCC_A1+FCC_A1#2
boundaries 800
 No heat-to-heat variation 600
in susceptibility BCC_A2+FCC_A1#2
400

200

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
MOLE_FRACTION CU
5-83
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Mechanism for Copper Contamination Cracking

 Copper abraded onto surface of workpiece

 Heating above melting point of copper (1083ºC) or copper
alloy
 Liquid copper penetrates the grain boundary via a liquid metal
embrittlement (LME) mechanism
 Grain boundary embrittlement and cracking with threshold
level of restraint

5-84
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Identifying Copper Contamination Cracking

 Metallography
 Intergranular failure in HAZ remote from the fusion boundary
 Presence of copper along grain boundary in as-polished condition
 Fractography
 Smooth intergranular fracture
 Cu can be detected using SEM/EDS

5-85
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Preventing Copper Contamination Cracking

 Eliminate source of copper

 Fixturing, shielding gas delivery systems, or other sources that allow
Cu to be abraded onto the material prior to welding
 Cu added as an alloying element is not a potential source
 Alternate materials
 Alloys that are ferritic at elevated temperatures (e.g., ferritic stainless
steels)
 Ni-base austenitic alloys

5-86
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

How Do We Test These Weldability in Controlled

Conditions?
 Some laboratory tests for evaluating weldability
 Varestraint Cracking Test (Linear and Spot)
 SigmaJig®
 Strain-to-Fracture Test
 Gleeble Thermomechanical Simulation
 Due to the limited scope, we will see how we do the Gleeble
thermomechanical simulation
 However, the general framework is same, temperature, stress
and evaluate the material sensitivity

5-87
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Thermomechanical Simulation

 On heating & on cooling tests

are used to evaluate the
solid-state cracking tendency
 Ductility dip cracking

5-88
Module 5 – Weldability Solid-State Cracking

Typical Results

 This data is from CMSX4 nickel base superalloy

5-89
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Module 5A.3
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

 Occurs in a wide range of materials if sufficient hydrogen is

present
 Most common in structural steels and other alloys that are
primarily ferritic at ambient temperature
 Associated with the diffusion and accumulation of hydrogen in
the microstructure
 May occur immediately following welding or after an
incubation, or delay, time
 A “unified” mechanism still does not exist

5-91
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Conditions for Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

 Threshold level of hydrogen

 Susceptible microstructure
 Tensile restraint
 Ambient or near ambient
temperature

 If one of these conditions can be

eliminated, hydrogen cracking in
welds will be avoided

5-92
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Hydrogen in Welds

 “Threshold” amount is difficult to define

 Sources of hydrogen
 Base and/or filler metal
 Moisture in fluxes and
coatings (SMAW)
 Organic contamination
(oil, grease, paint, etc.)
 Shielding gas
 Condensation (dew point)
 Measurement
 Diffusible
 Total
 Hydrogen “trapping”

5-93
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Effect of Microstructure

 Microstructure control very effective in eliminating HIC

 Wide range of microstructures possible as function of
 Composition
 Cooling rate from above A3
 PWHT

A hard martensitic microstructure in steel

5-94
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT)

Diagram for a Plain Carbon Steel
 Softer microstructure

5-95
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT)

Diagram for a Low Alloy Steel
 Harder microstructure

5-96
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Relative Susceptibility of Microstructures to HIC

Microstructure Susceptibility
Twinned martensite Highest
Martensite
Bainite + Martensite
Bainite
Tempered Martensite
Pearlite
Acicular ferrite
Austenite Lowest

5-97
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Restraint

 Induces high tensile stress

 Difficult to quantify
 Combination of applied and residual
 Effect of stress concentrations
 Cracks
 Geometric
 Slag inclusions

5-98
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Temperature

 Above 150ºC
Hydrogen-free hydrogen is very
samples mobile
 Below -100ºC mobility
Notch Tensile Strength

is low
 Hydrogen trapping
effects
Hydrogen-bearing
samples

-100 0 100 200

Temperature, oC

adapted from Threadgill

5-99
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Identifying Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

 Metallography
 Weld metal or HAZ
 May be intergranular or transgranular
 Initiation at stress concentration
 Associated with transformed region of weldment
 Fractography
 Intergranular fracture normally flat or micro-ductility
 Transgranular
 Cleavage or quasi-cleavage
 Ductile dimples

5-100
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

Preventing Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

 Hydrogen  Restraint
 Low H practice  Avoid stress concentrations
 Cleaning prior to welding  Reduce residual stress
 Shielding gas  Control weld contour
 Preheat/interpass control  “Peening” of weld toes
 Microstructure  Temperature
 Avoid martensitic structures  Preheat/interpass control
 Acicular ferrite has best combination  Cooling rate control
of strength and resistance to HIC  Hydrogen diffusion
 Minimize impurity segregation  Microstructure

5-101
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

AWS Method

From AWS D1.1-2000, Appendix XI

CE = C + (Mn + Si)/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15

5-102
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

AWS Hardness Control Method

5-103
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

AWS Hardness Control Method – Cooling Rate

From AWS D1.1-2000, Annex XI 5-104

Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

AWS Hardness Control Method – Cooling Rate

From AWS D1.1-2000, Annex XI 5-105

Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

AWS Method – Determining Susceptibility Index

5-106
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

AWS Method – Selection of Preheat Temperature

5-107
Module 5 – Weldability Hydrogen-Induced Cracking

By Controlling the Diffusible Hydrogen

Concentration
 AWS Classification such as E7018-H4R
 “H4” means electrode will deposit diffusible hydrogen average not to
exceed 4 mL of hydrogen per 100g of deposited weld metal
 “R” means electrode is resistant to hydrogen pick-up
 Increased exposure limits
 Relevant: ASME Section II-Part C, SFA-5.1

5-108
Fatigue and Fracture

Module 5A.4
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Fracture and Fatigue of Weldments

 Welds are often associated with structural failure

 Catastrophic, brittle fracture
 Overload
 Fatigue
 Presence of brittle microstructures
 Low toughness
 Low ductility
 Stress concentration
 Defects
 Stress risers
 Residual stress effects

5-110
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

What Causes Brittle Fracture?

 Three factors contribute to brittle fracture

 Material toughness
 Crack, or flaw, size
 Stress level

5-111
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Material Toughness

Austenitic stainless steels

Low and medium

strength steels
Fracture Energy

High strength steels

and Ti-alloys

High strength
Al-alloys

Temperature
5-112
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Fracture Toughness

σ 2a σ

Increasing
material toughness
Stress, σ

KC of tougher steel
σf

σ0 KC

a0 af
Flaw Size, 2a
Adapted from Barsom and Rolfe 5-113
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Application of Fracture Mechanics to Engineering

Materials
σ σ σ σ

σ σ σ σ
High strength High strength More ductile Ductile material
material in material in material in plane with spread of
plane strain plane stress stress or plane plasticity
strain

Linear elastic behavior - LEFM

Elastic-plastic behavior - EPFM

Sketch adapted from Barsom and Rolfe 5-114

Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue Cracking

 Repetitive, or cyclic, application of load

 Three stages
 Initiation
 Propagation
 Failure
 Effect of stress intensity

5-115
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

S-N Curve

Poor fatigue Good fatigue

Stress Range

resistance resistance

Fatigue
limit

Number of Cycles

5-116
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Initiation versus Propagation

Propagation
Component
Stress Range

Total Life
Initiation
Component

Number of Cycles, log scale

5-117
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

S-N Curve for Welded Joint

From ASM Handbook, Volume 19 5-118

Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Effect of Fluctuating Stress on Crack Growth

∆σ1 > ∆σ2 > ∆σ3

Fatigue Crack Length

∆σ1 ∆σ2 ∆σ3

Number of Cycles

5-119
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Effect of Material on Crack Growth Rate

 Three regions
 Steady state crack growth rate
defined by Paris Law
da/dN = C(∆K)m
 Increasing crack growth rate with
stress intensity
 Little effect of material type in steady
state crack growth region
 Initiation and final failure regions
more influenced by material type,
strength, and environment

From ASM Handbook, Volume 19 5-120

Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Effect of Microstructure on Crack Growth Rate

 Little effect of microstructure on

steady state crack growth
 Base metal, weld metal, and
HAZ fall within scatter band for
mild steels and matching weld
metals
 Similar behavior observed in
other alloy systems

From Barsom and Rolfe 5-121

Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Identifying Fatigue Cracks

 Initiation at flaws or stress concentration points

 Weld toe (slag intrusions, undercut, etc.)
 Lack of penetration
 Fabrication cracks (weld metal or HAZ)
 Visual and metallography
 Little macroscopic deformation
 Cracks tend to be straight
 Usually transgranular
 Fractography
 Macroscopically flat
 Beach marks and river lines
 Finely spaced striations related to da/dN

5-122
Module 5 – Weldability Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue Fracture Surface Features

Initiation

Initiation

Beach
marks

River
lines

Overload region

Failure in rotating shaft Failure initiating at corner

5-123
Corrosion

Module 5B
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Eight Forms of Corrosion

 General
 Galvanic
 Crevice
 Pitting
 Intergranular
 Selective leaching
 Erosion corrosion
 Stress-assisted

5-125
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

General Corrosion

 General, or uniform, surface attack

 Function of composition
 Nature of oxide
 Continuous or porous
 Adherence
 Stability
 Influence of welding
 Thermal “damage”
 Local changes in composition
 Residual stress

5-126
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Galvanic Corrosion

 Chemical potential difference between dissimilar metals

 Galvanic “couple” between dissimilar metals
 Anode - active metal has lower potential
 Cathode - noble metal has higher potential
 Net current flow from anode to cathode
 Effect of dissimilar base and/or weld metals

5-127
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Galvanic Series for Commercial Metals in Seawater

 Platinum
 Gold
 Titanium
 Silver
 Hastelloy C
 18-8 stainless steel (passivated) Cathodic (noble)
 Copper, monel, and cupronickels
 Nickel and Inconels (active) Anodic (active)
 Tin Lead
 18-8 stainless steel (active)
 Steel and iron
 Aluminum alloy 2024
 Aluminum alloy 1100
 Zinc
 Magnesium and Mg-alloys
Adapted from Fontana and Greene
5-128
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Solution Potential versus Location

Anode
Anode
(Good)

(OK)

Cathode Cathode
(Bad)

Weld Metal HAZ Base Metal

Distance

5-129
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Crevice Corrosion

 Localized corrosion at mechanical discontinuity or crevice

 Weld-induced crevices
 Slag intrusions or entrapment
 Lack-of-fusion or penetration defects
 Cracks

5-130
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion

 Localized attack
 Small “pit” or pinhole at surface
 Grows in direction of gravity
 Strong effect of composition Pit
 Microstructure effects Surface

Subsurface
Attack

5-131
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Pitting Resistance

 Strong function of Mo content

90 

 Measured in terms of critical
80 
254SMO
pitting temperature (CPT)
AL-6X 
 Minimum temperature at which
pits form
Critical Pitting Temperature, ºC

70 

60 
 Welds have lower CPT than
base metal
50  AL-6X
 904L
20Cb3   34L
 
40   904L
254SMO
 317L
30   316L  34L
 317L
20  20Cb3   316L

     
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Molybdenum Content, wt%

5-132
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion - Effect of Alloying Elements

Element Effect on Pitting Resistance

Chromium Increases
Nickel Increases
Molybdenum Increases
Tungsten Increases
Silicon Decreases, except with Mo
Titanium and Niobium Decreases resistance in FeCl3
Sulfur Decreases
Carbon Decreases, especially when
sensitized
Nitrogen Increase

Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE) = Cr + 3.3(Mo + 0.5W) + 16N

5-133
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Selective Leaching

 Referred to as “de-alloying”
 Loss of an alloying element
 “Dezincification” in brass alloys

5-134
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Erosion Corrosion

 Similar to general corrosion

 Accelerated by relative motion and impingement of the
corrosive medium
 Softer metals most susceptible
 Welds may be more susceptible than base metals due to
softened regions

5-135
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Intergranular Corrosion

 Localized attack at, or adjacent to, grain boundaries

 Associated with
 Impurity segregation
 Enrichment/depletion of alloying elements
 Formation of intermetallics
 Second phases
 Galvanic contribution
 Attack may be quite rapid

5-136
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

“Sensitization” Mechanism

Grain boundary attack in Type 304

5-137
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Carbide Precipitation

5-138
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

“Knifeline” Attack

 Associated with stabilized grades of stainless steel (321 and

347)
 Dissolution of NbC or TiC adjacent to fusion boundary
 Formation of Cr-rich carbide during cooling
 Sensitization of boundary in very narrow region

Carbide Dissolution

Type 347
or 321
HAZ

5-139
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Low Temperature Sensitization

 Cr-carbide formation in
service
 10-20 years
 Service temperature below
300°C (572°F)
 Results in IGA or IGSCC

5-140
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Avoiding Intergranular Attack in Stainless Steels

 Composition control
 Low-carbon (L-grade) alloys
 Stabilized alloys (additions of Nb and Ti)
 Microstructure control
 Use annealed base metals (cold work accelerates precipitation)
 Solution heat treat after welding and cool rapidly
 Welding process/procedure
 Low heat input
 Low or no preheat and interpass
 Accelerated cooling

5-141
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Stress-Corrosion Cracking

 Localized cracking resulting from combination of

 Tensile stress
 Corrosive environment
 Variables
 Environment (concentration)
 Temperature
 Material composition
 Stress level
 Microstructure
 Transgranular or intergranular

5-142
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Systems Susceptible to SCC

Alloy or Alloy System Environment

Aluminum alloys NaCl solutions, seawater
Copper alloys Ammonia vapors and solutions
Gold alloys FeCl3 solutions, acetic acid-salt solutions
Inconel Caustic soda solutions
Lead Lead acetate solutions
Magnesium alloys Distilled water
Monel Fused caustic soda, hydrofluoric acid
Nickel Fused caustic soda
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels Multiple
Stainless Steel Multiple, including seawater and H2S
Titanium alloys Fuming nitric acid, seawater, N2O4

5-143
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

SCC in Stainless Steels and Nickel Alloys

Time to Failure (hours)

1000
Cracking

100

No cracking

10

Tested in boiling Fe3Cl

1
0 20 40 60 80
Nickel (wt%)
5-144
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Transgranular SCC in Type 316 Tubesheet

309L Filler Carbon Steel

Metal

5-145
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Avoiding SCC in Welded Structures

 Alloy selection
 Substitute ferritic or duplex alloy for austenitic stainless steels
 Use high-Ni alloys
 Avoid sensitization
 Eliminate stress concentrations
 Reduce residual stresses
 Environmental control or isolation

5-146
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Heat Tint and Sugaring

 If stainless steel surfaces are heated to moderately high

temperatures in air during welding or grinding, a chromium
oxide heat tint develops
 Heat tints are thicker than Chromium oxides films and are very visible
 Color depends on thickness, with the thickest oxides appearing black
 Chromium content of the metal is reduced
 Lower corrosion resistance
 Heat tints should be removed as well as the underlying layer
with reduced carbon content

Figure showing decrease in heat tint as a function of oxygen exposure. AWS D18.1 1999 5-147
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Primary Water Stress Corrosion Cracking

(PWSCC)
 PWSCC is a form of stress corrosion cracking unique to
primary cooling water containment in nuclear power plants
 Operating experience has shown that Ni-base Alloy 600 and
Filler Metal 82 are susceptible to PWSCC
 Minimum Cr content of 25 wt% required to avoid PWSCC
 Use of Structural Weld Overlay (SWOL) and Pre-emptive
Weld Overlay (PWOL) approaches to avoid PWSCC

5-148
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Structural Weld Overlay (SWOL) and

Pre-emptive Weld Overlay (PWOL)
 “Safe-end” welds used to attach stainless steel piping to steel
nozzle
 FM82 dissimilar weld Type 308L
between nozzle and SS IN52M Overlay Buffer Layer

casting or forging
 IN52/52M overlay SA-508, Class 2
Cast
Type 316 Pipe, Type 316

contains ~30 wt% Cr

 Structural support and Type 316 Cladding FM82 Weld and Type 308L

corrosion resistance Butter

against PWSCC
Courtesy J.C. Lippold
 SS buffer layer required
in some cases to prevent
cracking during welding

5-149
Module 5 – Weldability Corrosion

Microbiologically-Induced Corrosion (MIC)

MIC attack in Type 308 SMA weld

5-150
Fractography

Module 5C
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Fractography Outline

 Introduction – description of fractography and its development

 Scanning Electron Microscope – overview of SEM
components and operating principles
 Fracture morphologies – fracture paths and principal fracture
modes
 Fractography of defects in welds – hot cracking, warm
cracking, cold cracking

5-152
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Fractography

 Term coined in 1944 by Carl A. Zapffe

 Definition: The study of fracture surfaces for the purpose of
relating the topographical features to the causes and/or basic
mechanisms of fracture.
 An important tool for fracture or failure analysis and
understanding of material properties.

5-153
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

History of Fractography

 Fracture surfaces analyzed since the Bronze Age

 First written description of fracture surface to estimate metal
quality in 1540’s
 In 1722 de Re’aumur used engravings to reproduce fracture
morphologies and classified 7 fracture types

5-154
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

History of Fractography

 In 1800’s metallography caused decline in fractography

 In 1940’s fractography experienced a rebirth with the
development of light fractography
 The electron microscope began to be used in the 1950’s to
look at fracture surfaces ushering in modern fractography
 SEM – bulk sample analysis
 TEM – fracture surface replicas

5-155
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Fracture Morphologies

 Fracture Paths
 Transgranular
 Intergranular
 Interphase
 Fracture Modes
 Dimple rupture
 Cleavage
 Fatigue
 Decohesive rupture

5-159
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Fracture Paths

 Transgranular
 Fracture passes
through the grain
 Intragranular
 Intergranular
 Fracture follows
path along grain
boundaries

Alloy 718
Courtesy Seth Norton

5-160
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Dimple Rupture Mode

 Occurs when overload is the primary cause of failure

 Microvoid Coalescence
 Nucleation
 Local strain concentrations
 Second phase particles
 Inclusions
 Grain boundaries
 Dislocation pileups
 Coalesce to form a continuous network of “cuplike” dimples

5-161
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Ductile Rupture: Microvoid Coalescence

From ASM Handbook, Fractography, 1992 5-162

Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

State of Stress

 Mode I
 Tension
 Mode II and Mode III
 Shear

From Barsom, et al, Fracture & Fatigue Control in Structures, 1987 5-163
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Effect of State of Stress on Dimple Direction

 Mode I - tear
 Dimples oriented in the same
direction
 Mode II and III - shear
 Dimples oriented in opposing
directions

From ASM Handbook, Fractography, 1992 5-164

Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Cleavage Fracture Mode

 Low energy fracture along crystallographic planes called

“cleavage planes”
 Fracture is typically smooth and featureless
 Associated with brittle failure
 Failure often initiates at flaw with loads below design levels

5-165
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Cleavage Initiation and Propagation

 Initiate on many parallel planes

 Continue uninterrupted through tilt boundaries
 Re-initiate at twist boundaries

From ASM Handbook, Fractography, 1992 5-166

Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Cleavage Fracture

Ferritic Stainless Steel Weld Metal

Courtesy John Lippold
5-167
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Fatigue Fracture Mode

 Fracture that is a result of repetitive or cyclic loading

 Three stages
 Stage I : Initiation
 Follows crystallographic planes
 Faceted, resembles cleavage
 High cycle, low stress
 Stage II
 Generally transgranular
 Fatigue striations related to da/dN
 Stage III
 Static fracture: dimple rupture or cleavage takes over

5-168
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Fatigue Cracks

Aluminum Alloy 7050-T7651 Commercially Pure Titanium

From ASM Handbook, Fractography, 1992 From ASM Handbook, Fractography, 1992

5-169
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Fractography Weld Defects

 Hot Cracking
 Solidification cracking
 Liquation cracking
 Warm Cracking
 Ductility dip cracking
 Strain age cracking
 Reheat cracking
 Cold Cracking
 Hydrogen embrittlement

5-170
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Solidification Cracking

 Along solidification grain boundaries

 Evidence of liquid films – smooth surfaces
 Two morphologies
 Type D : Deep dendritic
 Cracking near the liquidus and bulk solidus
 “Egg crate” appearance
 Type F : Shallow dendritic or Flat
 Cracking between the bulk solidus and true solidus

5-171
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Solidification Cracking of a Nickel Base Superalloy

IN939 Alloy
Courtesy E. P. George et al

5-172
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Solid-Solid Bridging During Solidification

Uddeholm NU744LN
Courtesy David Nelson

5-173
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Liquation Cracking

 HAZ and Weld Metal Liquation

 Intergranular
 Evidence of liquid films
 Thin liquid layer: clearly intergranular
 Thicker liquid layer: more irregular and dendritic appearance

5-174
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

HAZ Liquation Cracking of Duplex Stainless Steel

A B

Ferralium Alloy 255

Courtesy David Nelson

5-175
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Constitutional Liquation

Waspaloy
Courtesy Ming Qian

5-176
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Grain Boundary Liquation

Waspaloy
Courtesy Ming Qian

5-177
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Ductility Dip Cracking

 Macroscopic crack appearance

 Short and relatively straight
 Flat crack surfaces
 Intergranular along migrated grain boundaries in weld metal
 Transition of surface as temperature increases
 Low temperature: flat with ductile dimples
 Mid and high temperatures : wavy with fine ruggedness and minor
ductile dimples
 Extreme high temperatures: reverts back to flat or smooth with ductile
dimples

5-178
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

DDC Fracture Appearance

Macroscopically Flat Microscopic Wavy

(700°C) features (950°C)
310 stainless steel
Courtesy Nathan Nissley

5-179
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

DDC Fracture Appearance

Macroscopic Flat Increased Waviness at high

Appearance (1100°C) temperatures (1100°C)

310 Stainless Steel

Courtesy Nathan Nissley

5-180
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Strain Age Cracking

 Precipitation-
strengthened, Ni-base
alloys
 Intergranular
 Fracture surface varies
with grain boundary
orientation
 Microductility
 Flat

Alloy 718
Courtesy Seth Norton

5-181
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Strain Age Cracking: Grain Orientation Effect

Alloy 718
Courtesy Seth Norton
5-182
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Reheat Cracking

 Low alloy steels and stabilized stainless steels

 Reheat cracking mechanism
 On heating
 Carbide dissolution
 Impurity segregation to grain boundaries
 On reheating
 Intragranular precipitation of carbides
 Simultaneous stress relaxation
 Intergranular failure
 Fracture surface varies with grain boundary orientation
 Microductility
 Flat

5-183
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Reheat Cracking

From Nawrocki, et al, The Weldability of a Modified 2.25

Cr-Mo Steel (HCM2S), 1998

5-184
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

Hydrogen Assisted Cracking

 No single characteristic fracture surface for Hydrogen

Assisted Cracking (HAC)
 Three fracture morphologies
 Microvoid Coalescence (MVC)
 Quasi-cleavage (QC)
 Intergranular Fracture (IG)
 Crack morphology is a function of
 Stress intensity factor at crack tip
 Concentration of hydrogen at the crack tip
 Material characteristics

5-185
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

HAC Fracture Morphologies

From C.D. Beachem, A New Model for Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking

(Hydrogen “Embrittlement”), 1972 5-186
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

HAC Microvoid Coalescence

Weld Metal
Courtesy Matt Johnson

5-187
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

HAC Quasi-Cleavage

E9010-G Weld Metal

Courtesy Matt Johnson

5-188
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

HAC Quasi-Cleavage

E71T-1 Weld Metal

Courtesy Matt Johnson

5-189
Module 5 – Weldability Fractography

HAC Intergranular

HSLA-100 Steel Base Metal HAZ

Courtesy Matt Johnson

5-190
Weldability Case Studies

Module 5D
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

Case Study 1: Hydrogen Assisted Cracking

 Alexander Kielland Disaster

 Background
 Nb - microalloyed fine ferrite grain steel
 6 mm fillet weld on a non-load bearing flange initiated the failure
 Sea temperature was 6°C
 Some of the findings reported in the book by Easterling
 This is available on the Carmen web site
 Please study the notes carefully

 Web Pages
 http://www.exponent.com/kielland_platform/
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Kielland_(Platform)

5-192
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

One of the braces fractured suddenly!

Failure Analyses was done

5-193
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

What do we learn from the failed part?

Unzipping cracks were NOT associated with girth welds!

5-194
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

Fracture analyses showed interesting features

Fatigue cracks were

present already!

5-195
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

Flange welds: Lack of penetration!

How about the fillet welds?

5-196
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

Fillet welds: Showed many problems!

 Bead shape concave

 Lamellar tearing!
flange
 Undercuts!

 Where did the fatigue crack

start?

5-197
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

Micro-cracks near the fillet welds initiated the

crack!
 Paint was observed inside
the crack
 Means the cracking started
as soon as the welds were
done!

 What are the

specifications of these
steels?

5-198
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

Microstructural and Mechanical Property

Requirements

5-199
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

Failure Analysis – Hardness Testing Results

5-200
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 1

Summary of Failure Analysis

 Failure initially by HIC, fatigue and then overloading!

 What started the fatigue cracks?
 Butt weld of sonar flange plate contained toe and root cracks; butt
welds are poor
 Secondary cracks between crossover between butt and fillet weld
 Possible reasons:
 Quality of the fillet welds – not good uneven profile
 Lamellar tearing in the flange plate and not in the brace plate
 Cracks around fillet welds and main welds
 Cold cracks were found close to the initiation point
 These formed during construction itself!
 Flange steels are not as good as “brace” steels
 Stress concentration at the hole was high!

5-201
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Case study 2: Cracking in Heavy Section Welds for

Nuclear Application
 Crack Mitigation during Buttering and Cladding of a Low Alloy
Steel Pipe

Yu-Ping Yang, Suresh Babu and Suhas Vaze Jeffrey Kikel and David Dewees
Edison Welding Institute Babcock and Wilcox
yyang@ewi.org jmkikel@babcock.com

8th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research

Session 12 - Physical Processes in Weldiing II
June 3, 2008

5-202
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Outline

 Background
 Experiment study
 Finite element modeling
 Crack mitigation
 Summary

5-203
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Cracks in the Low-Alloy Steel Pipe

during Cladding and Buttering
 Both Solidification and
ductility dip cracking are
found in the shaded region
 More cracks near the top
(OD of pipe)
 Cracks also observed in
the buttering region
 Cladding and Buttering
deposited using Hot WIRE
GTAW using Inconel Filler
Metal 82

5-204
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

A Mockup Design

3 layers
Buttering
 A mockup was
Cladding designed to
investigate the
cracking problem
17 layers to
fill up

 The mockup
 Cladding
 Buttering
Outer bead
Inner bead

5-205
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Weld Parameters and Sequences

 Cladding
Outer Bead Overlap Inner bead  Welding Current
3 a ab b  Weld: 300 A
2 a ab b  Voltage: 13 V
Buttering Layer 1 a ab b
17 b ab a  Traveling Speed, 6.5
16 b ab a IPM

Steel
15 b ab a
14 b ab a  Buttering
Clading Layer
13 b ab a  Welding Current
12 b ab a
11 b ab a  Weld: 300 A
10 b ab a  Voltage: 16 V
9 b ab a
8 b ab a
 Traveling Speed, 6.5
IPM
Steel

5-206
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

A Clad and Buttered Pipe

start stop

270º

280º
355º
0º 180º
275º

265º

C 90º A
260º

B Non-cladding: 262.5º~277.5º

5-207
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Etched Microstructures

 Region 1
Region 3  High cracking tendency

 Region 2
Region 1 Region 2  Reduced cracking
tendency

 Region 3
 Buttered region where
cracks are observed

Region 4  Region 4
 Mixed region

5-208
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Summary of Experimental Study

 Experimental results show that the cracks are mainly located

in the
 outer bead region of cladding near the pipe OD surface
 buttering region near the end of the pipe
 Finite element modeling was conducted to find the reason for
the cracks

5-209
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Modeling Process

 Model Validation
 Predict fusion zone shape and size and compare with the
experimental data
 Predict temperature-time profiles and compare with the experimental
data
 Model Prediction
 Predict thermo-mechanical strain during solidification and during the
following-on pass deposition

5-210
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Modeling Approach

 Build a finite element model based on the mockup design and

weld cross sections
 Thermal analysis and thermo-mechanical analysis performed
with EWI weld FEA software by inputting:
 Temperature dependent thermal-physical and mechanical material
properties
 Cladding and buttering specifications
 Preheating, interpass temperature, welding parameters, welding
sequences, and torch weaving
 Welding fixture

5-211
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Finite Element Model

Three locations were modeled

2
3
1

2
Non-Modeling area

5-212
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Fusion-Zone Comparison between Prediction and

Experiment – Inner Bead of Cladding

5-213
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Fusion-Zone Comparison between Prediction and

Experiment – Outer Bead of Cladding

Bead 2 is a normal weld pool shape

5-214
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Temperature Profile
TC1 Outer bead
TC2
C Inner bead
Thermocouple TC3

Locations

Thermocouple histories
800 1000

700 TC3 900 Experiment

Experiment TC1
800 Prediction
600 TC2 Prediction
Temperature (C)

Temperature (C)
700
TC2
500 600
400 500
400
300 TC1
300
200 TC3
200
100 100
Inner Bead 0
Outer Bead
0
0 50 100 150 200 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
Time (Sec.) Time (Sec.)

5-215
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Maximum Temperature Comparison between

Outer Bead and Inner Bead

Predicted maximum temperature Experiments show that outer bead is always hotter.

Maximum temperature, C Temperature, C

layer bead 1 bead 2 difference
1 765 898 133
2 548 728 180
3 438 637 199

layer
TC1 Outer Bead (bead 2)
Non-modeling TC2
region TC3 Inner Bead (bead 1)

Temperature difference increasing

between the outer bead and the inner bead as the layer number increases

5-216
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Displacements Comparison between

Experiment and Prediction

0.04

Displacement (inch)
0.03 0-180º
0.02
0.01
0
-0.01
270º
-0.02
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
180º Time (Sec.)
0º
0.04

Displacement (inch)
0.03 90-270º
0.02
90º
0.01

-0.01

-0.02
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Time (Sec.)

5-217
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Summary of Model Validation

 Predicted fusion zone has a good agreement with

experimental results.
 Predicted temperature-time history has a good agreement
with experimental measured data.
 Higher temperature was observed at the outer bead by
comparing with the inner bead from both experiment and
modeling.

5-218
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Crack Mitigation Studies

 Reduce the heat input of the outer region by 15%

 Original heat input

 Cladding power input, 3900W
 Buttering power input, 4800W

 New heat input

 Cladding power input, 3315W
 Buttering power input, 4080W

 Traveling Speed
 6.5 IPM
Heat input reduced area

5-219
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Fusion-Zone Comparison between Two Heat

Inputs

Grey color - fusion zone

Normal Heat Input Reduced Power input by 15%

5-220
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Temperature Comparison between

Two Outer Bead Heat Inputs

Bead 2
2500
2328ºC Normal heat input
2000
Temperature (C)

Cladding layer 17
Cladding layer 16 Outer bead
1500 buttering layer 1
Outer bead melting 1492ºC Inner bead
1000 buttering layer 1
Cladding layer 17 Outer bead
500 Inner bead

0
15000 15500 16000 16500 17000 17500 18000 18500 19000 buttering layer 1
Inner bead
Time (Sec.) Cladding layer 17
2500
Cladding layer 16 Outer bead
2000
Temperature (C)

2032ºC
Reduced heat input
1500
1477ºC
melting
1000

500
Result locations
0
15000 15500 16000 16500 17000 17500 18000 18500 19000
Time (Sec.)

5-221
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Hoop Strain Comparison between Two Heat Inputs

0.03

0.02 cladding-16b1
cladding-17b1 Outer Bead
0.01
Hoop Strain

-0.01
Inner Bead
-0.02 cladding-16b2 cladding-17b2
-0.03
14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 buttering layer 1
Time (Sec.) Inner bead
Cladding layer 17

(a) Normal heat input Cladding layer 16 Outer bead

0.03

0.02
Outer Bead
Hoop Strain

0.01

-0.01
Result locations
-0.02 Inner Bead
-0.03
14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000
Time (Sec.)

(b) Reduced heat input 5-222

Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 2

Summary on Heat Input Study

 Predicted weld pool size using the reduced heat input is

smaller than that using the normal heat input.
 The modeling results shows:
 Thermo-mechanical strain is reduced by reducing heat input.
 Reduced heat input may lead to reduced cracking tendency
 Production welding with reduced heat input has shown
decreased susceptibility to cracking

5-223
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Case Study 3: Replacement Steam Generator

Divider Plate to Channel Head Weld Separation
 NRC Information Notice: 2010-7
 Released on April 5, 2010
 Title: welding defects in replacement steam generators

 Outline of the presentations

 Circumstances
 Failure Analyses
 Root Cause Problem
 Relevant to ASME Section X1; IWA-4461

5-224
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Background

 The licensee, Southern California

Edison (SCE), contracted Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries (MHI), to
manufacture four RSGs in Japan for
installation at San Onofre Nuclear
Generating Station (SONGS) Units 2
and 3.
 MHI completed manufacturing and
testing of the first two RSGs in 2008
and shipped them to SONGS Unit 2
for scheduled installation in October
2009.
 MHI was scheduled to complete
manufacturing and testing of the two
RSGs for SONGS Unit 3 in 2009.
5-225
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Routine Visual Inspection Showed a Crack

 After completion of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel

Code (ASME Code), Section III primary and secondary side
hydrostatic pressure test on the SONGS Unit 3 “B” RSG.
 5-inch long surface flaw (crack) in the dissimilar metal weld
between the divider plate, made from Alloy 690, and the
channel head, made from low-alloy steel (LAS).

5-226
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Flaw was observed in regions between the low-

alloy-steel and alloy 152 layer

 Where and when did the crack start?

5-227
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Fabrication Procedure

 Clad; carbon arc

gouge and then
butter;
 Surface cracks were
observed after the
clad removal
 Higher carbon content
observed in the fusion
zone
 Higher than expected
hardness in the HAZ
region of low-alloy
steel

5-228
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Results from Mock-up Confirm Brittle Regions

 Is there any other effect possible?

5-229
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Hydrogen induced cracking cannot be eliminated

 Remember the three components for HIC cracking; stress,

microstructure and hydrogen levels

5-230
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Improper Air carbon arc gouging technique may

lead to carbon pick up
Air Jet
Carbon electrode

 Carbon is indeed consumed during this process. The air stream should
remove carbon-rich metal from the groove to leave only minimal
contamination of the sidewalls. Poor gouging technique or insufficient air
flow will result in carbon pick-up!!! (See reference from TWI web page)
 Let us evaluate the sensitivity of rapid cooling and carbon pick up with
CCT diagrams (calculations.ewi.org)
5-231
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Effect of Carbon on Steel Phase Transformations

 Carbon pick up will make

the steel more hardenable
and will lead to cracking!

5-232
Module 5 – Weldability Weldability Case Study 3

Remedial Action - Conclusions

 ACAG is not specifically covered in Section III of the ASME

Code; however, ASME Code, Section XI, IWA-4461 covers
the qualification and use of a thermal removal process like
ACAG. In addition, 10 CFR 50.55a(b)(2)(xxiii) states:
 The use of provisions to eliminate the mechanical processing
of thermally cut surfaces in IWA-4461.4.2 of Section XI, 2001
Edition through the latest edition and addenda incorporated
by reference in paragraph (b)(2) of 10 CFR 50.55a are
prohibited.
 Although all specific requirements or standards were met, this
event illustrates that control over all aspects of welding ASME
Code Class 1, 2, and 3 components can prevent welding
defects like those found in the RSGs for SONGS Unit 3 from
occurring.

5-233
Non-Destructive Examination

Module 6
Module 6 – Inspection

Module 6 – Inspection

 6A – Non-Destructive Examination (NDE) Overview

 6A.1 – Visual Inspection (VT)
 6A.2 – Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
 6A.3 – Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
 6A.4 – Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
 6A.5 – Radiographic Testing (RT)
 6A.6 – Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
 6A.7 – NDE Advancements
 6A.8 – NDE Qualification
 6B – Fitness-for-Service
 6J – ASME Section XI – Rules for Inservice Inspection of
Nuclear Power Plant Components

6-2
Module 6 – Inspection

Module 6 Learning Objectives

 Familiarize participants with NDE methods and their

advantages and limitations
 Flaw Definitions and Classifications
 NDE Process Selection Guidelines
 NDE Personnel Qualification
 Pre-Service Inspection (PSI)
 In-Service Inspection (ISI)

6-3
Non-Destructive Evaluation Overview

Module 6A
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

Definition of NDE

 The use of noninvasive techniques to determine the integrity

of a material, component, or structure
 Quantitatively measure some characteristic of an object
 Ideal conditions
 NDE allows inspection or
measurement without doing
harm to the structure
 NDE enables engineers to
relate inspection data to service
conditions in a manner that
allows prediction and/or
prevention of failures

6-5
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

Methods of NDE

 Methods covered in this course  Methods not covered

 Visual Testing (VT)  Acoustic Emission (AE)
 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)  Leak Testing
 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)  Optical Inspection
 Eddy Current Testing (ECT)  Optical Interferometry
 Radiographic Testing (RT)  Shearography
 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)  Holography
 Digital Image Enhancement
 Metrology
 Thermography
 Microwave

6-6
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

Review of Weld Defect Types

 Fabrication-related
 Associated with primary fabrication or repair
 Can be controlled by combination of metallurgical and welding
process factors
 Use of appropriate inspection techniques is critical
 Service-related
 Occur upon exposure to service environment
 Generally mechanically or environmentally induced
 May result from remnant weld defects or metallurgical phenomena
associated with the weld thermal cycle
 Inspection and design issues are important to control defect formation
and monitor propagation
Module 6 – Inspection Weld Defects

Review of Weld Defect Types

 Fabrication-Related Defects
 Lack-of-fusion (LOF)
 Weld undercut
 Excessive overbead or drop through
 Lack of penetration (LOP) or incomplete penetration
 Slag inclusions
 Porosity, voids
 Craters, melt-through, spatter, arc-strikes, underfill
 Sugaring
 Oxidation of root pass
 Cracks
 Service-Related Damage Mechanisms
 Hydrogen-induced
 Corrosion and Corrosion-fatigue
 Fatigue
 Creep and creep-fatigue
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

Flaw Definitions and Classifications

Volumetric Flaws Planar Flaws

Porosity Seams
Inclusions (e.g., Slag, Tungsten, etc.) Lamination
Shrinkage Lack of bonding
Holes and voids Forging/rolling lap
Corrosion thinning/loss Casting shut
Corrosion pitting Fatigue cracks
Porosity Stress corrosion cracks
Lack of fusion
Incomplete penetration

6-9
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

NDE Process Selection and Guidelines

 Volumetric Flaws  Planar Flaws
 Surface Breaking  Surface Breaking
 Visual, Liquid Penetrant, or  Visual
Optical Inspection  Near Surface
 Near Surface  Magnetic Particle and Eddy
 Magnetic Particle and Eddy Current
Current  Microwave
 Microwave  Ultrasonic Testing (internal
 Ultrasonic Testing (internal flaws)
flaws)  Acoustic Emission
 Radiography  Thermography
 Thermography

Near Surface Internal Surface Breaking

6-10
Module 6 – Inspection Welding Codes Overview

ASME Section V –
NDE Method vs.Type of Defect

6-11
Module 6 – Inspection Welding Codes Overview

ASME Section V –
NDE Method vs. Type of Defect

6-12
Module 6 – Inspection Welding Codes Overview

ASME Section V Guidance on NDE Method vs.

Type of Defect

6-13
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

NDE Personnel Certification

 American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)

 www.asnt.org
 The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing (PCN
Cerification)
 www.bindt.org
 CSWIP Certification Scheme for Welding & Inspection
Personnel
 www.cswip.com
 Natural Resources Canada
 www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/mms-smm/ndt-end/index-eng.htm

6-14
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

NDE Personnel Qualification Levels

 Personnel certification levels

 Level I
 Follow procedures and techniques approved by Level III
 Not allowed to interpret and evaluate for acceptance or rejection
 Supervised and guided by Level II or Level III
 Level II
 Performs, evaluates, and documents results in accordance with written
procedure approved by Level III
 Guides and supervises Level I
 Level III
 Interprets codes, standards, and other contractual documents
 Develops procedures
 Conducts training and examination of NDT personnel
 Chooses the inspection method
 Level III approves procedures for technical adequacy

6-15
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

Performance Demonstration

 In some cases personnel must demonstrate performance on

flawed samples prior to inspection
 Demonstrations are in addition to personnel certifications
 Performance demonstrations require specific levels of flaw
detection and sizing on samples representative of
components to be inspected

6-16
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Overview

Inspection Types

 Construction Inspection
 Conducted during the fabrication of the component
 As designated per ASME Section III or other construction code

 Pre-service Inspection
 Conduct preoperational examinations prior to initial operation of
equipment or a facility to establish a baseline condition
 As designated per ASME Section III or other construction code

 Inservice Inspection
 Subsequent examinations for comparison to original (PSI) condition to
determine and indentify any changes or growth of a flaw
 As designated per ASME Section XI or other in-service inspection code

6-17
Visual Inspection

Module 6A.1
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Introduction

 Four primary factors affect the quality of a visual inspection

 Quality of the detector (eye or camera)
 Lighting conditions
 Capability to process the visual data
 Level of training and attention to detail

6-19
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Contrast Sensitivity

 Contrast sensitivity is a measure of how faded or washed out

an object can be before it becomes indistinguishable from a
uniform field
 The human eye can detect is about 2% of full brightness
 Contrast sensitivity varies with
 The size or spatial frequency of a feature
 The lighting conditions
 Whether the object is lighter or darker
than the background

Campbell, F. W. and Robson, J. G. (1968)

Application of Fourier analysis to the visibility of
gratings. Journal of Physiology (London) Image
Courtesy of Izumi Ohzawa, Ph.D. University of
California School of Optometry

6-20
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Light Levels

 Under normal lighting conditions the eye has good visual

acuity and is most sensitive to greenish yellow color, which
has a wavelength around 555 nanometers (photopic curve)
 At this very low light level, sensitivity to blue, violet, and
ultraviolet is increased, but sensitivity to yellow and red is
reduced

6-21
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Light Intensity Measurement

 Effective visual inspection requires adequate lighting

 Specification requirements for lighting should be reviewed
prior to performing an inspection
 Light Intensity monitors like that shown
to the right ensure that the specification
is being followed

6-22
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Light Directionality

 The directionality of the light is a very important consideration

 For some applications, flat, even
lighting works well
 For other applications, directional
lighting is better because it
produces shadows that are
larger than the actual flaw and
easier to detect

6-23
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Perspective

The eye/brain need visual clues

to determine perspective.

Is the book facing towards

or away from you?

6-24
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Optical Illusions

Sometime the eye/mind has trouble correctly processing

visual information

Are the horizontal lines parallel or How many black dots do you see?
do they slope?

6-25
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Basic Principles – Vision

 When evaluations are made by an inspector, eye

examinations must be done at regular intervals to assure
accuracy and sensitivity
 Near Vision (Jaeger)
 Far Vision (Snellen)
 Color Differentiation
 When using machine vision, different but
similar performance checks must be
performed

6-26
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Manual vs Automated Inspection

 Majority of visual inspections are completed by an inspector,

but machine vision is becoming more common
 Inspector has ability to quickly adapt to a variety of lighting and other
non-typical conditions, and ability to use other senses
 Machine vision inspection system has the ability to make very
consistent and rapid inspections of specific details of a component

6-27
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Alignment & Distortion

 Visual inspection frequently involves checking materials and

components for fit and alignment
 Many standards establish allowable tolerances for fit and
distortion

A fabricated girder is being

inspected for distortion,
sweep and web flatness

6-28
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Equipment

 Visual inspection equipment includes a variety of different

tools
 Rulers, tape measures and spring type calipers
 Rigid or flexible borescopes
 Remote crawlers with cameras
 Many tools have been designed for specific applications such
as the various weld gauges
 Some of the specialized tools such as crawlers have been
designed to satisfy the inspection needs in applications where
conventional techniques are not feasible

6-29
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Dimensional Conformance of Welds

Palmgren
gauge
Fillet gauge
set

VWAC gauge

Cambridge
gauge

6-30
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Dimensional Conformance of Welds

Throat measurement Leg size determination Convexity measurement

using a Palmgren gauge with fillet gauge with VWAC gauge

6-31
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Dimensional Conformance of Welds

Measurement of undercut depth

with VWAC gauge

6-32
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Dimensional Conformance of Machined Parts

The finished depth of a Small hole gauge used in

machined mold is determined determining hole diameter
with a depth micrometer

6-33
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Basic Measurements

 One of the most common tools used in visual inspection is the

rule or scale
 Used to measure linear dimensions, when properly used will
measure within 0.015-in. or 1/64-in. and smaller
 Rules are made in a variety lengths,
widths, and thicknesses
 They are graduated in common
fractions, decimal units, and metric
units, or combinations of both
 The specific type of rule is typically
chosen relative to the application

6-34
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Precision Measurements

6-35
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Transferring Gauges

 Transfer instruments are used to take measurements which

are transferred to direct measurement devices
 They consist of calipers, dividers, telescoping gauges and
small hole gauges

6-36
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Transferring Gauges

6-37
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Direct and Remote Visual Inspection

 Many codes refer to direct visual examination as a visual

inspection
 Requires that access to the area is sufficient to place the eye within
24 inches of the surface
 Examined at an angle of not less than 30º to that surface
 If these requirements cannot be met, then remote visual
inspection may be used
 Remote visual inspection may be accomplished with the use
of a number of optical aids such as, mirrors, magnifiers, and
rigid or flexible borescopes

6-38
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Optical Aids

 Mirrors are valuable aids in

visual inspection; they allow
the inspection of threaded
and bored holes, inside
surfaces of pipes and fittings,
as well as many others
 Magnifiers assist by enlarging
the size of the object being
examined
 Comparators are a magnifier with a
measuring capability
 The comparator has interchangeable
reticles which provide measurements
for threads, angles, linear
measurement, diameters and radii

6-39
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Optical Aids

Clean Surface Corrosion Damage

6-40
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Inspection Applications

 Applications for visual inspection range from looking a

product over for obvious defect to performing detailed
inspections
 Detection of surface anomalies such as scratches, excess surface
roughness, and areas void of paint or plating
 Crack, porosity, corrosion or other flaw detection
 Dimensional conformance
 Precision measurements
 Foreign object detection
 Component location

6-41
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Flaw Detection

 Visual inspection of manufactured materials and components

is a cost effective means of identifying flaws
 Visual inspection of a casting reveals
a crack between a threaded opening
and a pressed fit
 The aluminum sand casting has hot
tears and shrinkage at the transition
zones

6-42
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Flaw Detection

 In-service inspections of existing components and structures

is commonly accomplished visually
 In this example, visual inspection of a fire escape reveals a failure in a
handrail tube
 The failure is in the tube
seam and is likely the
result of ice expansion

6-43
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Flaw Detection

 Normal inspection practices for

highway bridges rely almost entirely
on visual inspection to evaluate the
condition of the bridges
 Over 80 percent of all aircraft
inspections are performed visually

6-44
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Flaw Detection

 Weld quality requirements are

commonly determined through
visual inspection
 Many standards have established
acceptance criteria for welds

Transverse weld crack

Slag rolled into toe of weld

6-45
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Machine Vision Inspection

6-46
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Machine Vision - Equipment

 Key System Elements

 Common elements to all vision systems
 Front-end optics
 Frame grabber
 Processor
 Control software
 Other components can be included in a machine vision system, which
depend on the environment, the application, and the budget

6-47
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Machine Vision – Applications

 Assembly verification
 Caps, fasteners, electronic board components, etc.
 Surface inspection
 Dents, scratches, porosity, etc.
 Verification of colors, gradients,
patterns in fabrics and labels
 Confirmation of proper labeling for
medications, foods and other products
 Inspection of coating coverage
Assembly Verification
 Feature measurements

Spark Gap Measurement

6-48
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 9, Visual Examination

 T-920, General Requirements
 Lists the requirements for written procedures, procedure qualifications and
demonstration reference
 Personnel requirements, physical requirements, equipment
 T-950, Techniques
 Describes different techniques used for visual inspection
 T-952, Direct Visual Examination
 T-953, Remote Visual Examination
 T-954, Translucent Visual Examination
 T-980, Evaluation
 Covers the evaluation requirements and references the code of
construction
 ASME Section III or ASME B31.1
 T-690, Documentation
 Describes the minimum requirements for the examination record
 Procedure and techniques used, examination personnel, map or record of
indications, etc.
6-49
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Change from direct to or from translucent X
Change from direct to remote X
Remote visual aids X
Personnel performance requirements, when required X
Lighting intensity (decrease only) X
Configurations to be examined and base material product
forms (pipe, plate, forgings, etc.) X
Lighting equipment X
Methods or tools used for surface preparation X
Equipment or devices used for a direct technique X
Sequence of examination X
Personnel qualifications X

6-50
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

ASME Acceptance Requirements for

Visual Inspection
 ASME B31.1
 Section 136.4.2 provides visual examination acceptance criteria
 References ASME Section V, Article 9
 ASME Section III, Division 1 – NB only gives visual
acceptance criteria for brazed joints
Indication ASME B31.1 Acceptance Criteria
External Cracks Unacceptable
External Undercut Greater than 1/32 in. deep
Maximum limit ranges from 1/16 in. through 1/4 in. (depends on
Weld Reinforcement material thickness and design temperature)
External Lack of Fusion Unacceptable
Incomplete Penetration Unacceptable
Linear Indication Greater than 3/16 in.
Any single indication greater than 3/16 in.
Surface Porosity Four or more indications separated by 1/16 in or less edge to edge
6-51
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection Summary

 Advantages
 Readily used on almost all materials
 Simple to perform
 Low in cost, (application dependent)
 Relatively quick
 Results may be permanently recorded.
 Can be automated
 Disadvantages
 Direct inspections are limited to surfaces only
 Indirect inspections require greater inspector knowledge and training
 Inspector dependent, knowledge of materials and processing, eye
sight
 Standards (workmanship) may be difficult to obtain

6-52
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection Experience

 Is the fillet weld visually acceptable according to ASME

B31.1?

Indication ASME B31.1 Acceptance Criteria

External Cracks Unacceptable
External Undercut Greater than 1/32-in. deep
Weld Reinforcement Maximum thickness 3/32-in.
External Lack of Fusion Unacceptable
Incomplete Penetration Unacceptable
Linear Indication Greater than 3/16-in.
Any single indication greater than 3/16-in.
Four or more indications separated by 1/16-in. or less edge
Surface Porosity to edge
6-53
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection Experience

6-54
Module 6 – Inspection Visual Inspection

Visual Inspection Experience

Convex weld
Acceptable per this gauge

Concave weld

Not acceptable per this gauge

6-55
Liquid Penetrant Testing

Module 6A.2
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Examples of Liquid Penetrant Testing

6-57
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

How Does PT Work?

 A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics is applied to

the surface of a component under test
 The penetrant “penetrates” into surface breaking
discontinuities via capillary action and other mechanisms
 Excess penetrant is removed from the surface and a
developer is applied to pull trapped penetrant back to the
surface
 With good inspection technique,
visual indications of surface
discontinuities present become
apparent

6-58
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

What Makes PT Work?

 Every step of the penetrant process is done to promote

capillary action
 This is the phenomenon of a liquid rising
or climbing when confined to small
openings due to surface wetting
properties of the liquid
 Plants and trees draw water up from the
ground to their branches and leaves to supply
their nourishment
 The human body has miles of capillaries that
carry life sustaining blood to our entire body

6-59
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

What Can Be Inspected Via PT?

 Almost any material that has a relatively smooth, non-porous

surface on which discontinuities or defects are suspected

6-60
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

What Cannot be Inspected Via PT?

 Components with rough surfaces, such as sand castings, that

trap and hold penetrant
 Porous ceramics
 Wood and other fibrous materials
 Plastic parts that absorb or react with the penetrant materials
 Components with coatings that prevent penetrants from
entering defects

Defect indications become

less distinguishable as
the background “noise”
level increases

6-61
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

What Types of Discontinuities Can Be Detected

Via PT?
 All defects that are open to the surface
 Rolled products – Cracks, seams, laminations
 Castings – Cold shuts, hot tears, porosity, blow holes, shrinkage
 Forgings – Cracks, laps, external bursts
 Welds – Cracks, porosity, undercut, overlap, lack of fusion, lack of
penetration

6-62
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Choices of Penetrant Materials

Penetrant
Types Flourescent
Visible
Method Water Washable
Postemulsifiable – Lipophilic
Solvent Removable
Postemulsifiable - Hydrophilic
Developer
Form Dry Powder
Wet, Water Soluble
Wet, Water Suspendable
Wet, Non-Aqueous
6-63
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Sensitivity Levels

 Penetrants are also formulated to produce a variety of

sensitivity levels
 The higher the sensitivity level, the smaller the defect that the
penetrant system is capable of detecting
 The four sensitivity levels are:
 Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
 Level 3 - High Sensitivity
 Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
 Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
 As the sensitivity level increases, so does the number of
nonrelevent indications
 Penetrant needs to be selected that will find the defects of interest but
not produce too many nonrelevent indications.

6-64
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Visible vs. Fluorescent PT

 Inspection can be performed using visible (or red dye) or

fluorescent penetrant materials
 Visible PT is performed under white light while fluorescent PT
must be performed using an
ultraviolet light in a darkened area
 Fluorescent PT is more sensitive than
visible PT because the eye is more
sensitive to a bright indication on
a dark background
 Sensitivity ranges from 1 to 4

6-65
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Why is Visible Penetrant Red and

Fluorescent Penetrant Green?
 Visible penetrant is usually red because red stands out and
provides a high level of contrast against a light background
 Fluorescent penetrant is green because the eye is most
sensitive to the color green

6-66
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Penetrant Removal Method

 Penetrants are also classified by the method of removing the

excess penetrant
 Solvent removable
 Water washable
 Post-emulsifiable

6-67
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Developers

 The role of the developer is to pull trapped penetrant out of

defects and to spread it out on the surface so it can be seen
Also provides a light background to increase contrast when
visible penetrant is used

6-68
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

6 Steps of Penetrant Testing

 1. Pre-Clean
 2. Penetrant Application
 3. Excess Penetrant Removal
 4. Developer Application
 5. Inspect/Evaluate
 6. Post-clean

6-69
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Pre-Cleaning – Step 1

 Parts must be free of dirt, rust, scale, oil, grease, etc. to

perform a reliable inspection
 The cleaning process must remove contaminants from the
surfaces of the part and defects, and must not plug any of the
defects
 Pre-cleaning is the most important step in the PT
process!!!

6-70
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Penetrant Application – Step 2

 There are many methods of application

 Brushing
 Spraying
 Dipping/Immersing
 Flow-on
 And more

6-71
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3

 The removal technique depends upon the type of penetrant

used, as stated earlier
 Solvent Removable
 Water Washable
 Post Emulsifiable

6-72
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Developer Application – Step 4

 The method of developer application is dependent on the type

of developer used
 The primary methods for the main developer types will be
covered in the following slides
 Dry
 Wet
 Nonaqueous Wet

6-73
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Inspection/Evaluation – Step 5

 In this step the inspector evaluates

the penetrant indications against
specified accept/reject criteria and
attempts to determine the origin
of the indication
 The indications are judged to be
either relevant, non-relevant, or
Non-relevant weld geometry
false indications

Relevant crack indications from an

abusive drilling process
6-74
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Post Clean – Step 6

 The final step in the penetrant inspection process is to

thoroughly clean the part that has been tested to remove all
penetrant processing materials
 The residual materials could possibly affect the performance
of the part or affect its visual appeal

6-75
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Penetrant Inspection Systems

6-76
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Verification of Penetrant System Performance

 Since penetrant testing involves multiple processing steps,

the performance of the materials and the processes should
be routinely checked using performance verification tools
 TAM Panels
 Crack Sensitivity Panels
 Run Check Panels

6-77
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 6, Liquid Penetrant Testing

 T-620, General Requirements
 Lists the requirements for written procedures and procedure qualifications
 T-640, Miscellaneous Requirements
 Include requirements for control of contaminants, surface preparation and
drying after preparation
 T-650, Techniques
 Describes different techniques used for liquid penetrant testing
 Visible or flourescent
 Water washable, post-emulsifiying, or solvent removable
 Inspecting at nonstandard temperatures
 T-660, Calibration
 Covers the calibration requirements of the testing equipment

6-78
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Identification of and any change in type or family group of
penetrant materials including developers, emulsifiers, etc. X
Surface preparation (finishing and cleaning, including type of
cleaning solvent) X
Method of applying penetrant X
Method of removing excess surface penetrant X
Hydrophilic or lipophilic emulsifier concentration and dwell
time in dip tanks and agitation time for hydrophilic emulsifiers X
Hydrophilic emulsifiers concentration in spray applications X
Method of applying developer X
Minimum and maximum time periods between steps and
drying aids X
Decrease in penetrant dwell time X
Increase in developer dwell time (Interpretation Time) X
6-79
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Minimum light intensity X
Surface temperature outside 40ºF to 125ºF (5ºC to 52ºC) or
as previously qualified X
Performance demonstration, when required X
Personnel qualification requirements X
Materials, shapes, or sizes to be examined and the extent of
examination X
Post-examination cleaning technique X

6-80
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 6, Liquid Penetrant Testing

 T-670, Examination
 Lists the examination steps
 T-671, Penetrant Application
 T-672, Penetrant (Dwell) Time
 T-673, Excess Penetrant Removal
 T-675, Developing
 T-676, Interpretation
 T-677, Post-Examination cleaning

6-81
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 6, Liquid Penetrant Testing

 T-680, Evaluation
 Covers the evaluation requirements and references the code of
construction
 ASME Section III or ASME B31.1
 T-690, Documentation
 Defines what are considered rejectable and non-rejectable indications and
describes the minimum requirements for the examination record
 Procedure used
 Liquid penetrant type and other equipment used
 Examination personnel
 Map or record of indications
 Material and thickness
 Date of examination

6-82
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

ASME Section III – NB and B31.1 Acceptance

Requirements for Liquid Penetrant Testing
 Section NB-5350 of ASME Section III provides liquid
penetrant examination acceptance criteria
 Section 136.4.4 of ASME B31.1 provides liquid penetrant
examination acceptance criteria
 Both standards references ASME Section V, Article 6

Criteria ASME Section III – NB ASME B31.1

Crack or Linear Indication Unacceptable
Any single indication greater than 3/16-in.
Four or more indications in a line separated by 1/16-in or
less edge to edge
Rounded Indications Ten or more indications in any 6-in2 of surface

6-83
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Advantages of Liquid Penetrant Testing

 Relative ease of use

 Can be used on a wide range of material types
 Large areas or large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low cost
 Parts with complex geometries are routinely inspected
 Indications are produced directly on surface of the part
providing a visual image of the discontinuity
 Initial equipment investment is low
 Portable

6-84
Module 6 – Inspection Liquid Penetrant Testing

Limitations of Liquid Penetrant Testing

 Only detects surface breaking defects

 Requires relatively smooth, nonporous material
 Precleaning is critical
 Contaminants can mask defects
 Requires multiple operations under controlled conditions
 Chemical handling precautions necessary (toxicity, fire,
waste)
 Metal smearing from machining, grinding and other
operations inhibits detection
 Materials may need to be etched prior to inspection
 Post cleaning is necessary to remove chemicals

6-85
Magnetic Particle Testing

Module 6A.3
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Examples of Magnetic Particle Testing

6-87
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Introduction to Magnetism

 Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract other matter to

itself
 Magnetic lines of force can be found in and around the objects
 A magnetic pole is a point where a magnetic line of force exits or
enters a material

Magnetic lines of force Opposite poles attracting Similar poles repelling

around a bar magnet

6-88
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Ferromagnetic Materials

 A material is considered ferromagnetic if it can be magnetized

 Materials with a significant iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), or cobalt (Co) content
are generally ferromagnetic
 Ferromagnetic materials are made up of many regions (i.e.,
magnetic domains) in which the magnetic fields of atoms are
aligned
 Magnetic domains point randomly in demagnetized material,
but can be aligned using electrical current or an external
magnetic field to magnetize the material

S N
Demagnetized Magnetized

6-89
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

How Does MT Work?

 A ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with a strong

magnetic field created by a magnet or special equipment
 If the specimen has a discontinuity, the discontinuity will
interrupt the magnetic field flowing through the specimen and
a leakage field will occur

6-90
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Basic Procedure

 There are four basic steps in a magnetic particle testing

procedure
 Component pre-cleaning
 Introduction of magnetic field
 Application of magnetic media
 Interpretation of magnetic particle indications

6-91
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Pre-Cleaning

 When inspecting a test part via MT, it is essential for the

particles to have an unimpeded path for migration to both
strong and weak leakage fields alike
 The part’s surface should be clean and dry before inspection
 Contaminants such as oil,
grease, or scale may not
only prevent particles from
being attracted to leakage
fields, they may also
interfere with interpretation
of indications

6-92
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Introduction of the Magnetic Field

 The required magnetic field can be introduced into a

component in a number of different ways
 Using a permanent magnet or an electromagnet that contacts the test
piece
 Flowing an electrical current through the specimen
 Flowing an electrical current through a coil of wire around the part or
through a central conductor running near the part

1 2 3

6-93
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Direction of the Magnetic Field

 Two general types of magnetic fields may be established

within the specimen
 The type of magnetic field established is determined by the
method used to magnetize the specimen
 Longitudinal magnetic field - magnetic lines of force run parallel to the
long axis of the part
 Circular magnetic field - magnetic lines
of force run circumferentially around the
perimeter of the part

6-94
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Producing a Longitudinal Magnetic Field Using a

Coil
 A longitudinal magnetic field is usually
established by placing the part near
the inside or a coil’s annulus
 This produces magnetic lines of force
that are parallel to the long axis of the
test part.
Coil on Wet Horizontal
Inspection Unit

Portable Coil
6-95
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Producing a Longitudinal Field Using Permanent

or Electromagnetic Magnets
 Permanent magnets and electromagnetic yokes are often
used to produce a longitudinal magnetic field
 The magnetic lines of force run from one pole to the other,
and the poles are positioned such that any flaws present
run normal to these lines of force

6-96
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Circular Magnetic Fields

 Circular magnetic fields are produced by

passing current through the part or by
placing the part in a strong circular magnet
field
 A headshot on a wet horizontal test unit and
the use of prods are several common
methods of injecting current in a part to
produce a circular magnetic field
 Placing parts on a central conductor
carrying high current is another way to
produce the field
Magnetic Field

Electric Current
6-97
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Application of Magnetic Media (Wet Versus Dry)

 MT can be performed using either dry

particles or particles suspended in a liquid
 With the dry method, the particles are
lightly dusted onto the inspection surface
 With the wet method, the part is flooded
with a solution carrying the particles
 Dry method is more portable
 Wet method is generally more sensitive
since the liquid carrier gives the magnetic
particles additional mobility

6-98
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Dry Magnetic Particles

 Magnetic particles come in a variety of colors

 A color that produces a high level of contrast against the
background should be used

6-99
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Wet Magnetic Particles

 Wet particles are typically supplied as visible or fluorescent

 Visible particles are viewed under
normal white light and fluorescent
particles are viewed under black light

6-100
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Crane Hook with Service Induced Crack

Wet Fluorescent Method

6-101
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Gear with Service Induced Crack

Wet Fluorescent Method

6-102
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Drive Shaft with Heat Treatment Induced Crack

Wet Fluorescent Method

6-103
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Splined Shaft with Service Induced Crack

Wet Fluorescent Method

6-104
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Threaded Shaft with Service Induced Crack

Wet Fluorescent Method

6-105
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Large Bolt with Service Induced Crack

Wet Fluorescent Method

6-106
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Crank Shaft with Service Induced Crack

Wet Fluorescent Method

6-107
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Lack of Fusion in SMAW Weld

Visible, Dry Powder Method

6-108
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Toe Crack in SMAW Weld

Visible, Dry Powder Method

6-109
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Throat and Toe Cracks in Partially Ground Weld

Visible, Dry Powder Method

6-110
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Demagnetization

 Parts inspected by the magnetic particle method may

sometimes have an objectionable residual magnetic field that
may interfere with subsequent manufacturing operations or
service of the component
 May interfere with welding and/or machining operation
 Can effect gauges that are sensitive to magnetic fields if placed in
close proximity
 Abrasive particles may adhere to components surface and cause an
increase in wear to engines components, gears, bearings etc.
 For these reasons demagnetization maybe required

6-111
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 7, Magnetic Particle Examination

 T-720, General Requirements
 Lists the requirements for written procedures and procedure qualifications
 T-730, Equipment
 Specifies the type of equipment needed as well as the particle type and
temperature limitations
 T-740, Miscellaneous Requirements
 Include requirements for surface preparation and surface enhancement
 T-750, Techniques
 Describes different techniques used for magnetic particle testing
 T-752, Prod Technique
 T-753, Longitudinal Magnetization Technique
 T-754, Circular Magnetization Technique
 T-755, Yoke Technique
 T-756, Multidirectional Magnetization Technique

6-112
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Magnetizing technique X
Magnetizing current type or amperage outside range
specified by this Article or as previously qualified X
Surface preparation X
Magnetic particles (fluorescent/visible, color, particle size,
wet/dry) X
Method of particle application X
Method of excess particle removal X
Minimum light intensity X
Existing coatings, greater than the thickness demonstrated X
Nonmagnetic surface contrast enhancement, when utilized X
Performance demonstration, when required X

6-113
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Examination part surface temperature outside of the
temperature range recommended by the manufacturer of the
particles or as previously qualified X
Shape or size of the examination object X
Equipment of the same type X
Temperature (within those specified by manufacturer or as
previously qualified) X
Demagnetizing technique X
Post-examination cleaning technique X
Personnel qualification requirements X

6-114
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 7, Magnetic Particle Examination

 T-760, Calibration
 Covers the calibration requirements of the testing equipment which
includes checking magnetic field strength and orientation
 T-770, Examination
 Lists the examination steps
 T-772, Direction of Magnetization
 Specifes that the area to be tested shall be tested twice with the magnetic
field of the second inspection perpendicular to the magnetic field of the first
inspection
 T-773, Method of Examination
 T-774, Examination Coverage
 T-775, Rectified Current
 T-776, Excess Particle Removal
 T-777, Interpretation
 T-778, Demagnitization
 T-779 Post-Examination Cleaning

6-115
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 7, Magnetic Particle Examination

 T-780, Evaluation
 Covers the evaluation requirements and references the code of
construction
 ASME Section III or ASME B31.1
 T-690, Documentation
 Defines what are considered rejectable and non-rejectable indications and
describes the minimum requirements for the examination record
 Procedure used
 Magnetic particle equipment and current used
 Examination personnel
 Map or record of indications
 Material and thickness
 Date of examination

6-116
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

ASME Section III – NB and B31.1 Acceptance

Requirements for Magnetic Particle Testing
 Section NB-5340 of ASME Section III provides magnetic
particle examination acceptance criteria
 Section 136.4.3 of ASME B31.1 provides magnetic particle
examination acceptance criteria
 Both standards references ASME Section V, Article 7

Criteria ASME Section III – NB ASME B31.1

Crack or Linear Indication Unacceptable
Any single indication greater than 3/16 in.
Four or more indications in a line separated by 1/16 in or
less edge to edge
Rounded Indications Ten or more indications in any 6 in2 of surface

6-117
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Inspection

 Can detect both surface and VERY NEAR sub-surface

defects
 Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily
 Pre-cleaning of components is not as critical as it is for some
other inspection methods. Most contaminants within a flaw
will not hinder flaw detectability
 Fast method of inspection and indications are visible directly
on the specimen surface
 Considered low cost compared to many other NDT methods
 Is a very portable inspection method especially when used
with battery powered equipment

6-118
Module 6 – Inspection Magnetic Particle Testing

Limitations of Magnetic Particle Inspection

 Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum,

magnesium or most stainless steels
 Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with
special power requirements
 Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to
achieve desired inspection sensitivity
 Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities.
Maximum depth sensitivity is approximately 0.6” (under ideal
conditions)
 Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary
 Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important

6-119
Eddy Current Testing

Module 6A.4
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

History

 1879 - D. Hughes sorting of

genuine and counterfeit coins
 1881 - A. Bell induction
sensing device for bullet in
President J. Garfield (missed)
 1933 - Kaiser-Wilhelm-
Institute developed industrial
system
 1948 - Förster founded his
own company in Reutlingen
 1950 - F. Förster theory and
instrumentation
 1960 - proliferation of testing
equipment
Moore, P., Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 5,
Electromagnetic Testing, Columbus, OH, American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, 2004 6-121
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Electromagnetic Induction

 Eddy currents are created through a process called

electromagnetic induction
 When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as
copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the
conductor
 This magnetic field expands as the
alternating current rises to maximum
and collapses as the current is
reduced to zero

6-122
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Electromagnetic Induction

 If another electrical conductor is brought into the proximity of

this changing magnetic field, the reverse effect will occur
 Magnetic field cutting through the second conductor will
cause an “induced” current to flow in this second conductor
 Eddy currents are a form of induced currents

Current Flow

Current Flow

6-123
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Generation of Eddy Currents

 In order to generate eddy currents for an inspection a “probe”

is used
 Inside the probe is an electrical conductor which is formed
into a coil
 Alternating current is allowed to flow in the coil at a frequency
chosen by the technician for the type of test involved
 A dynamic expanding and collapsing
magnetic field forms in and around the
coil as the alternating current flows
through the coil

6-124
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Generation of Eddy Currents

 When an electrically conductive material is placed in the coil’s

dynamic magnetic field electromagnetic, induction will occur
and eddy currents will be induced in the material
 Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their own
“secondary” magnetic field which
will oppose the change of coil’s
“primary” magnetic field which will
change the coil impedance

6-125
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Electricity – Alternating Current

 Impedance
 Capability of AC element or circuit to conduct AC current
 Vectorial representation
 Vectors (usually space related) | Z |= R 2 + X L2
or rather phasors (time related
vectors) are used to represent
currents, voltages and
Impedance Modulus X L = ωL
impedances in AC circuits Inductive
90 Reactance

ω
Imaginary Axis

XL
Imaginary Axis

tan φ =
R
Vm Phase Angle Calculated
0 from Vectorial
Presentation
-Φ Real Axis
Im
Moore, P., Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 5,
Electromagnetic Testing, Columbus, OH, American Society for Real Axis
Nondestructive Testing, 2004
6-126
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Theory of EC – Depth of Penetration

 Variation of amplitude and phase of current

 Amplitude attenuates exponentially and phase changes linearly with
depth in material
 Depth of standard penetration depends Current Density
Amplitude vs Depth
on material properties and frequency
 Defect signal with increasing depth
 Signal from identical defects at different depths
will decrease
 Signal phase angle from defect will increase

Flat
Conductor

2 2
Y Induced δ= δ=
Current ωσµ0 µ r ωσµ0
Standard Depth of Standard Depth of
X Standard Depth
of Penetration Penetration for Penetration for
Z Conductive Material Magnetic Material. Nonmagnetic Material 6-127
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Depth of Penetration Illustration

Standard Depth
of
Depth

Depth
Penetration
(Skin Depth)

1/e or 37 %
of surface density
Eddy Current Density Eddy Current Density
High Frequency Low Frequency
High Conductivity Low Conductivity
High Permeability Low Permeability

Shallow Deep

6-128
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Geometric Flaw Characterization –

Current Interruption
 Hypothesis of interrupted currents
 Increased resistance
 Changed inductance
 Case of point defects
 Point defect will cause small interruption of eddy current contours if
point defect size is relatively small compared to size of coil
 Case of large defects
 Larger defects will cause large interruption of eddy current contours
and will easily be detected
 Interruption will also depend on defect orientation. If defect is parallel
(delaminations) to EC contours it may be missed even if large
 Case of multiple defects
 Multiple defects will be easy to detect but may be difficult to separate

6-129
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

ET Interaction with Flaw –

Current Interruption (3D View)

6-130
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

ET Interaction with Flaw –

Current Interruption (2D View)

6-131
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Probes – Principles and Basic Characteristics

 Induction and reception functions

 Parametric
 Transformer
 Absolute and differential measure
 Absolute
 Differential
 Types of probes – parametric and transformer, absolute and
differential, surface and encircling or internal, any
combination of above.

6-132
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Probe Arrangements for Long Bars

Parametric Absolute Transformer Absolute Transformer Absolute (Differential

to Temperature and External EMN)

Parametric Differentia
Self-comparison

Parametric Absolute (Differential to

Temperature and External EMN)
Transformer Differential
MOVIE Self-comparison
P – Primary Or Transmitter Encircling
S – Secondary Or Receiver
McMaster, R., Nondestructive Testing Handbook: Volume 2, Electromagnetic
Testing, Columbus, OH, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1959 6-133
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Probe Arrangements for Plates, Sheets and Tubes

Encircling Parametric Internal Parametric

Surface Parametric Absolute Absolute
Absolute

MOVIE
BobbinProbe

Screen Transformer Screen Surface Parametric- Encircling Surface Transformer

Absolute differential or Transformer- Transformer Absolute Absolute
(Transmitter/ Receiver) Absolute Transmitter Transmitter
Transmitter
Receiver

Receiver

Receiver

6-134
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Different Probe Designs and Applications

 Surface spot probes

 Pencil probes
 Sliding and ring probes
 Bolt hole probes
 Encircling probes
 Internal or bobbin
probes

The Collaboration for NDT Education, www.ndt-ed.org

6-135
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Probes – EC Distributed Related to Coil Position

Coil in Air  Field generated by non-load

inductor coil
 EC contours in the part related
to juxtaposition between the coil
Coil without Ferrite Magnetic
Flux
and the part
Conductive  Distance/Lift off effect on
Material
coupling in various probes
Coil with Ferrite Core
 Focusing means

Coil with Ferrite Cup Core

Moore, P., Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 5, Electromagnetic

Testing, Columbus, OH, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 2004 6-136
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Probes – Reaction of Different Coils

According to Coil Shape
 Reaction to small flaws
 Reaction strongly depends on the ratio of flaw-to-probe size
 The higher the ratio the better the sensitivity to flaw but worse the
sensitivity to lift off
 Differential probes with self-comparison are better for detection of
small flaws than absolute
 Reaction to long flaws
 Long flaws are those that are longer than the diameter of surface or
pencil probes or longer than the width of encircling/internal probes
 Differential probes will only indicate the begging and the end of long
flaws whereas the absolute will indicate the entire length of long flaws
 Reaction to continuous (e.g. seam weld) flaws
 Absolute or self-comparison differential probes may not be adequate
for this application
 May require differential arrangement with separate reference
specimen
6-137
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Probes – Technology and Practical

Characterization
 Critical design factors
 Manufacturing/design technology
 Electric parameters
 Maintenance
 Many factors possible to simulate through modeling

6-138
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Equipment – Different Types of EC Equipment

 Mono-parameter, mono-channel
and specialized
 Multi-parameter and multi-channel
 Advantages of multi-parameter

The Collaboration for NDT Education, www.ndt-ed.org

6-139
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Equipment – Auxiliary Devices

 Auxiliary devices for signal acquisition

 Driving mechanism,
Saturating unit,
Demagnetizer
 Equipment of signal
storage
 System for automatic
processing of signals

The Collaboration for NDT Education, www.ndt-ed.org 6-140

Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Materials and Products – Electromagnetic

Properties
 Electric conductivity
 Chemical
 Temperature
 Grain size
 Texture
 Structure
 Magnetic permeability
 Chemical analysis 90

 Temperature 80

 Grain size
µri
70

 Texture
60
 Structure
50
150 250 350 450 550 650 750
Normalization Temperature, degree C

Moore, P., Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 5, Electromagnetic

Testing, Columbus, OH, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 2004 6-141
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Materials and Products – Main Discontinuities

Detected by EC
 Production – surface and slightly subsurface
 Solidification cracks
 Pores
 Chemical and phase composition
 Welding
 Processing (hot or cold)
 Discontinuities
 Heat treatment
 Residual stresses and hardness
 Phase composition
 In-services
 Creep
 Fatigue
 Corrosion

6-142
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Influence of Parameters – Flaw Position and

Orientation
 EC contours
 Contours must be as close to perpendicular to the flaw plane as
possible to generate max response
 Penetration depth
 Best detection and sizing possible in one to two standard depth of
penetrations
 Zone of probe action
 Non-shielded - Extends several depths of penetration around probe tip
on inspected surface
 Shielded – Area around the probe is significantly reduced due to
focusing ferrite and soft magnetic iron means

6-143
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Influence of Parameters – Material Temperature

 Heating – Temperature affects material properties

 Resistivity increases with the temperature increase
 Magnetic properties are lost above Curie temperature
 Local areas of spontaneous magnetization may appear on surface of
hot rolled materials due to local cooling
 Compensation
 Differential and particularly transformer differential probes are best
temperature compensated
 Probes may need cooling or must be cooled when testing materials
after the furnace or hot rolling processing

6-144
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Influence of Parameters –
Geometry and Structure of Part
 Choice of test frequency
 Very important to optimize the operating point on the impedance plane
diagram for best separation and sensitivity
 Phase discrimination
 Flaw depth measurements is better done with phase measurements in
many cases
 Frequency selection important for better signal
separation/discrimination by phase
 Filtering
 Reduces noise from fluctuating properties, vibration, electrical sources
etc
 Magnetic saturation
 Used mainly for inspection of thin wall magnetic tubes as nonmagnetic
(improved penetration) during saturation

6-145
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Influence of Parameters – Coupling

 Vibration
 Must be eliminated through mechanical means or filtered
electronically
 Centering
 For encircling, internal tube and bolt hole probes, ensures the
sensitivity is uniform along the tube or hole circumference
 Sensitivity
 Sensitivity is reduced when the coupling (usually increased distance)
is reduced
 Compensation
 Use means for centering and stabilization of probe movement as
close to inspected surface as possible
 Design probes less sensitive to coupling variations

6-146
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Influence of Parameters –
Speed Relative Part vs. Probe
 Defect spatial frequency (fdefect)
 Examples of defect frequency at different inspection speeds
 Defect frequency of 100 Hz is obtained at
testing speed of 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s) with probe Vtest
diameter of 3 mm f defect =
 Defect frequency of 1 kHz is obtained at Dcoil
testing speed of 3 m/s (10 ft/s) with probe
diameter of 3 mm
 Bandwith of equipment according to testing speed
 Bandwith is increased with increased inspection speed
 Further bandwidth increase is required when several probes are
simultaneously used in multiplex arrangement
 Important to select adequate equipment for the expected inspection
speeds
 Filter settings must be adjusted correctly for automated inspection
applications
6-147
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Inspection Procedures – Reference Standards

 Reference standards are used to assure repeatability and

provide acceptance criteria
 Choice of reference standards
is very important
 Various types of reference Tube Standards EDM Notches (Crack Simulation)
standards including
fabrication, reproducibility
types
 EDM notches Coating Standard

 Actual flaws
 Drilled holes or machined
grooves

Multipurpose - EDM
Notches and Conductivity

Corrosion Standard MOVIE

The Collaboration for NDT Education, www.ndt-ed.org TubCalibrSpec 6-148
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Inspection Procedures – Inspection

 Access
 Surface preparation
 Speed
 Use of auxiliary devices
 Inspection range
 Indication recording

6-149
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Main Applications of EC Testing – Flaw Detection

 Absolute measurements
 Inspection for properties that change
gradually (see slides with probe types)
 Differential measurements
 Detection of relatively small and localized
discontinuities (see slides with probe types)

6-150
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Main Applications of EC Testing –

Surface Flaw Detection

MOVIE
Surf&BoltholeProbe

MOVIE MOVIE
ThreadInsp WeldInspACFM

 One of the most wide-spread applications

 Conducted manually, semi- or fully-automated
 In many cases, superior to other surface inspection methods
(LPI, MPI, UT)
 Performed through paint, coatings or at a distance from
surface 6-151
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Main Applications of EC Testing –

Tube Flaw Detection

 Typical inspection tasks

 Cracks, corrosion and
other fabrication and
service damage
 Renaissance of nuclear
power plants will require
more inspections
 Weld surface inspection
MOVIE MOVIE
TubInsp TubInspDiffer

The Collaboration for NDT Education, www.ndt-ed.org 6-152

Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Main Applications of EC Testing –

Coating Thickness
Probe Aluminum Coating over Carbon Steel
Coating
µC, σC
LO

TC

TS
Substrate Paint over Aluminum and Carbon Steel

µS, σS
LO - Lift off
TC – Coating thickness
TS – Substrate thickness
µS, σS – magnetic permeability and electrical
conductivity of substrate
µC, σC – magnetic permeability and electrical
conductivity of coating
Phasec D60 Manual 6-153
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Main Applications of EC Testing –

Material Sorting and Conductivity
Impedance Plane Indications

Set of
Conductivity
Specimens

 Common procedure for primary metal and

Sorting of Ferromagnetic and automotive industries
Nonferromagnetic Materials
 Performed manually, semi- or fully-
automated
 Very reliable tool for heat treatment, case
hardening depth, hardness, metal phase
composition, stress and strain
measurement and detection and other
metal conditions
Sorting of Nonferromagnetic Materials MOVIE
Sorting
Phasec D60 Manual
6-154
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 8, Eddy Current Examination

 The section refers to different mandatory appendices depending on
application
 Appendix II, Eddy Current Examination of Nonferromagnetic Heat
Exchanger Tubing
 Appendix III, Eddy Current Examination on Coated Ferritic Materials
 Appendix IV, External Coil Eddy Current Examination of Tubular Products
 Appendix V, Eddy Current Measurement of Nonconductive-Nonmagnetic
Coating Thickness on Nonmagnetic Metallic Material
 Appendix VI, Eddy Current Detection and Measurement of Depth of
Surface Discontinuities in Nonmagnetic Metals with Surface Probes
 The format and requirements for all the appendices are similar
 Only covering Appendix II in example

6-155
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 8, Appendix II, Eddy Current

Examination of Nonferromagnetic Heat Exchanger Tubing
 II-820, General Requirements
 Lists the requirements for written
procedures and procedure qualifications
 II-830, Equipment
 Describes different types of data
acquisition systems and other
equipment needed
 II-840, Requirements
 Include requirements for recording and
sensitivity levels, probe speed, fixture
location verification and automated eddy
current data screens

6-156
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Tube material X
Tube diameter and wall thickness X
Mode of inspection – differential or absolute X
Probe type and size X
Length of probe cable and probe extension cables X
Probe manufacture, part number, and description X
Examination frequencies, drive voltage, and gain settings X
Manufacturer and model of eddy current equipment X
Scanning direction during data recording, i.e., push or pull X
Scanning mode – manual, mechanized probe driver, remote
controlled fixture X
Fixture location verification X

6-157
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Identity of calibration reference standard(s) X
Minimum digitization rate X
Maximum scanning speed during data recording X
Personnel requirements X
Data recording equipment manufacturer and model X
Scanning speed during insertion or retraction, no data
recording X
Side of application – inlet or outlet X
Data analysis parameters X
Tube numbering X
Tube examination surface preparation X

6-158
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 8, Appendix II, Eddy Current

Examination of Nonferromagnetic Heat Exchanger Tubing
 II-860, Calibration
 Covers the calibration requirements and reference standards
 II-870, Examination
 II-880, Evaluation
 Covers the evaluation requirements and describes ways to determine flaw
depth
 II-890, Documentation
 Defines indications and describes the minimum requirements for the
examination record
 Procedure used
 Eddy current equipment used
 Examination personnel
 Record of indications
 Date of examination

6-159
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Advantages of Eddy Current Inspection

 Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

 Detects surface and near surface defects
 Inspection gives immediate results
 Equipment is very portable
 Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
 Minimum part preparation is required
 Test probe does not need to contact the part
 Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

6-160
Module 6 – Inspection Eddy Current Testing

Limitations of Eddy Current Inspection

 Only conductive materials can be inspected

 Surface must be accessible to the probe
 Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques
 Surface finish and roughness may interfere
 Reference standards needed for setup
 In general, depth of penetration is limited
 Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil
winding and probe scan direction are undetectable

6-161
Radiographic Testing

Module 6A.5
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Electromagnetic Radiation

6-163
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

General Principles of Radiography

 The part is placed between the

radiation source and a piece of film
 The part will stop some of the radiation
 Thicker and more dense areas will
stop more of the radiation
 The film darkness (density) will
vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the X-ray film
test object

Top view of developed film

= less exposure
= more exposure
6-164
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

General Principles of Radiography

 The energy of the radiation affects its penetrating power

 Higher energy radiation can penetrate thicker and more dense
materials
 The radiation energy and/or exposure time must be controlled
to properly image the region of interest

Thin Walled Area

Low Energy Radiation High Energy Radiation

6-165
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Flaw Orientation

Optimum Angle

0o 10o 20o 6-166

Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Radiation Sources

 Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in

industrial radiography are x-ray generators and gamma
sources
 Industrial radiography is divided into X-ray radiography or
gamma-radiography, depending on the source of radiation
used

6-167
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Gamma Radiography

6-168
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Gamma Radiography

6-169
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Gamma Radiography

 A drive cable is connected to the other

end of the camera
 The drive cable, controlled by the
radiographer, is used to force the
radioactive material out into the guide
tube where the gamma rays will pass
through the specimen and expose the
recording device

6-170
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

X-Ray Radiography

6-171
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

X-Ray Radiography

 The cathode contains a small filament much the same as in a

light bulb High Electrical Potential
 Current passes through the filament
which heats it, which causes electrons Electrons
to be stripped off + -

 The high voltage causes these free

electrons to be pulled toward a target X-ray Generator or
Radioactive Source

material (usually made of tungsten) Creates Radiation

located in the anode

 The electrons impact against the target
causing an energy exchange which
creates x-rays Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample
Exposure Recording Device

6-172
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Imaging Modalities

 Several different imaging methods are available to display the

final image in industrial radiography:
 Film Radiography
 Real Time Radiography (RTR)
 Computed Radiography (CR)
 Digital Radiography (DR)
 Computed Tomography (CR)

6-173
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Film Radiography

 One of the most widely used and

oldest imaging mediums in industrial
radiography is radiographic film
 Film contains microscopic material
called silver bromide
 Once exposed to radiation and
developed in a darkroom, silver
bromide turns to black metallic silver,
which forms the image

6-174
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Film Radiography

6-175
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Film Radiography

Once developed, the film is referred to as a radiograph

6-176
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Film Radiography

 The primary advantage of film radiography is high sensitivity

 There are several disadvantages
 Typically longer exposure times than digital
 Film processing time
 Waste disposal issues associated with silver and the film processing
chemicals
 Storage of film
 Degradation of film over time

6-177
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Digital Radiography

 One of the newest forms of radiographic imaging is Digital

Radiography
 Requiring no film, digital radiographic images are captured
using either special phosphor screens or flat panels
containing micro-electronic sensors
 No darkrooms are needed to process film, and captured
images can be digitally enhanced for increased detail
 Images are easily archived when in digital form

6-178
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Digital Radiography

 Advantages
 Lower radiation levels required
 Image can be digitally enhanced to help with interpretation
 No degradation of image over time
 Ease of storage
 Disadvantages
 Typically lower sensitivity than film
 Fear factor of changing

6-179
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Computed Radiography

Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital imaging process

that uses a phosphor imaging plate (PIP) instead of film

6-180
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Computed Radiography

 X-rays penetrating the specimen stimulate the phosphors

 The stimulated phosphors remain in an excited state

CR Phosphor Screen Structure

X-Rays

Protective Layer

Phosphor Layer

Phosphor Grains Substrate

6-181
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Computed Radiography

 After exposure the imaging plate is read electronically and

erased (via natural light) for re-use in a special scanner
system

6-182
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Computed Radiography

 Technique possible due to photostimulable luminescence

(PSL)
 PSL is a phenomenon in which a phosphor that has ceased
emitting light, because of the removal of the stimulus, once
again emits light when excited by light with a longer
wavelength
Optical
Scanner Photo-multiplier Tube

Laser Beam

A/D
Converter

Imaging
110010010010110
Plate
Motor 6-183
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Computed Radiography

 Digital images are typically sent to a computer workstation

where specialized software allows manipulation and
enhancement

6-184
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Computed Radiography

 Examples of computed radiographs:

6-185
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Real-Time Radiography

 The equipment needed for Real-Time Radiography (RTR)

includes:
 X-ray tube
 Image intensifier or
other real-time detector
 Camera
 Computer with frame grabber board and software
 Monitor
 Sample positioning system (optional)

6-186
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Real-Time Radiography

 The image intensifier is a device that

converts the radiation that passes
through the specimen into light
 It uses materials that fluoresce when
struck by radiation
 The more radiation that reaches the
input screen, the more light that is
given off
 The image is very faint on the input
screen so it is intensified onto a small
screen inside the intensifier where the
image is viewed with a camera

6-187
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Real-Time Radiography

 Comparing Film and Real-Time Radiography

Real-time images are lighter Film images are darker in

in areas where more X-ray areas where more X-ray
photons reach and excite photons reach and ionize
the fluorescent screen. the silver molecules in
the film.
6-188
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Direct Radiography

 Direct radiography (DR) is a form of real-

time radiography that uses a special flat
panel detector
 The panel works by converting penetrating
radiation passing through the test
specimen into minute electrical
charges
 The panel contains many micro-
electronic capacitors
 The capacitors form an electrical
charge pattern image of the specimen
 Each capacitor’s charge is converted into a
pixel which forms the image

6-189
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Computed Tomography

 Computed Tomography (CT) uses a real-time inspection

system employing a sample positioning system and special
software

6-190
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Computed Tomography

 Many separate images are saved and complied into 2-

dimensional sections as the sample is rotated
 2-D images are then combined into 3-D images
 Known as a CT or CAT scan in the medical field

Real-Time Compiled 2-D Compiled 3-D

Captures Images Structure

6-191
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Image Quality

6-192
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Image Quality

 Image quality for plaque IQIs is given as a combination of

hole size and IQI thickness relative to the part thickness
 2-2T is a common sensitivity level requirement
 This means that a plaque IQI having a thickness that is 2% of the part
thickness shall be used and the IQI hole diameter that is 2 times the
IQI thickness shall be visible in the radiograph
 ASTM E747 provides “equivalent penetrameter sensitivity”
(EPS) levels for plaque IQIs and wire IQIs

6-193
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Radiation Safety

6-194
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Radiation Safety

Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring devices

that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them when they
are in a high radiation area.

Survey Meter Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Alarm Radiation Badge

6-195
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Radiation Safety

 There are three means of protection to help reduce exposure

to radiation
 Time
 Distance
 Shielding

6-196
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 2, Radiographic Examination

 The section refers to different mandatory appendices depending on
application
 Appendix I, In-Motion Radiography
 Appendix II, Real-Time Radioscopic Examination
 Appendix III, Digital Image Acquisition, Display, and Storage for
Radiography and Radioscopy
 Appendix IV, Interpretation, Evaluation, and Disposition of Radiographic
and Radioscopic Examination Test Results Produced by the Digital Image
Acquisition and Display Process
 Appendix VI, Digital Image Acquisition, Display, Interpretation, and
Storage of Radiographs for Nuclear Applications
 Appendix VII, Radiographic Examination of Metallic Castings
 Appendix VIII, Radiography using Phosphor Imaging Plate
 Appendix IX, Application of Digital Radiography
 There is a nonmandatory appendix the provides recommendations of
radiographic techniques for pipe or tube welds

6-197
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 2, Radiographic Examination

 T-220, General Requirements
 Lists the requirements for written procedures, procedure qualifications,
procedure demonstration, surface preparation, and backscatter radiation
 There are a minimum of seven requirements for a procedure
 Material and thickness range
 Isotope or maximum x-ray voltage
 Source to object distance
 Source size
 Film brand and designation
 Screens used
 T-230, Equipment and Materials
 Describes different types of equipment
needed
 Specifies Image Quality Indicator (IQI)
designs should be hole or wire type or
equivalent

6-198
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

6-199
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 2, Radiographic Examination

 T-260, Calibration
 Lists the calibration requirements including verifying the source size and
densitometer or step wedge comparison file
 T-270, Examination
 Covers the different methods and requirements for examination
 T-271.1, Single-Wall Technique
 T-271.2, Double-Wall Technique
 T-274, Geometric
Unsharpness
 T-275, Location Markers
 T-276, IQI Selection

6-200
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

6-201
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

6-202
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

6-203
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 2, Radiographic Examination

 T-280, Evaluation
 Covers the evaluation requirements and describes ways to determine the
quality of the radiograph
 T-281, Quality of Radiographs
 T-282, Radiographic Density
 T-283, IQI Sensitivity
 T-284, Excessive Backscatter
 T-290, Documentation
 Defines the minimum requirements for the examination record
 Procedure used
 Total number of radiographs
 Equipment used including source size and film
 Base material thickness, weld thickness, weld reinforcement thickness, etc.
 Record of indications including location of markers
 Type of exposure

6-204
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section III – NB and B31.1 Acceptance

Requirements for Radiographic Testing
 Section NB-5320 of ASME Section III provides radiographic
examination acceptance criteria
 Section 136.4.5 of ASME B31.1 provides radiographic
examination acceptance criteria
 Both standards references ASME Section V, Article 2

6-205
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

ASME Section III – NB and B31.1 Acceptance

Requirements for Radiographic Testing

Criteria ASME Section III – NB ASME B31.1

Crack Unacceptable
Zone of Incomplete Fusion Unacceptable
¼ in. up to ¾ in. t (weld thickness)
1/3t for t from ¾ to 2 ¼ in.
Elongate Indication ¾ in. for t over 2 ¼ in.
Any abrupt change in density of image brightness
Internal Root Condition No elongated indications as defined above
Aligned Indications Aggregrate length greater than t in a 12t length
Any single indication greater than 1/4t or 5/32 in
whichever is smaller
Any single indication greater than 1/3t or 1/4 in whichever
is smaller for indications 1 in. or more apart
Round Indications For t > 2 in. the maximum indication is 3/8”
6-206
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Advantages of Radiography

 Technique is not limited by material type or density

 Can inspect assembled components
 Minimum surface preparation required
 Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks,
and material density changes
 Detects both surface and subsurface defects
 Provides a permanent record of the inspection

6-207
Module 6 – Inspection Radiographic Testing

Limitations of Radiography

 Many safety precautions for the use of high intensity radiation

 Many hours of technician training prior to use
 Access to both sides of sample required
 Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical
 Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional
angled exposures
 Expensive initial equipment cost

6-208
Ultrasonic Testing

Module 6A.6
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of Sound

 Sound is produced by a vibrating body

and travels in the form of a wave
 Sound waves travel through materials by
vibrating the particles that make up the
material
 The pitch of the sound is determined by
the frequency of the wave (vibrations or
cycles completed in a certain period of
time)
 Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high
to be detected by the human ear

6-210
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of Sound

 Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light

waves in that they can be reflected,
refracted, and focused
 In solid materials, the vibrational energy
can be split into different wave modes
when the wave encounters an interface
at an angle other than 90-degrees
 Ultrasonic reflections from the presence
of discontinuities or geometric features
enables detection and location
 The velocity of sound in a given material
is constant and can only be altered by a
change in the mode of energy

6-211
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Frequency

 Since sound is a series of vibrations, one way of measuring it

is to count the number of vibrations per second, which is
frequency
 Unit of measurement is Hertz (Hz)
 1 Hz = 1 cycle/s
 1,000 Hz = 1 KHz = 1,000 cycles/s
 1,000,000 Hz = 1 MHz = 1,000,000 cycles/s

6-212
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Typical Sound Velocities & Wavelengths

LONGITUDINAL SHEAR

Material Velocity Wavelength @ 5 MHz Velocity Wavelength @ 5 MHz

M/s in./µs (mm) (in.) M/s in./µs (mm) (in.)

Air 330 0.013 0.07 0.003 --- --- --- ---
Aluminum 6300 0.248 1.26 0.050 3100 0.122 0.62 0.024
Copper 4660 0.183 0.93 0.037 2260 0.089 0.45 0.018
Plexiglass 2700 0.106 0.54 0.021 1100 0.043 0.22 0.009
Rexolite 2330 0.092 0.47 0.018 1100 0.043 0.22 0.009
Carbon Steel 5900 0.232 1.18 0.046 3230 0.127 0.65 0.025
Titanium 6100 0.240 1.22 0.048 3100 0.122 0.62 0.024
Water 1480 0.058 0.30 0.012 --- --- --- ---

6-213
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Wavelength

 Wavelength is the distance from one point to the next

identical point along a repetitive waveform
 It is dependent upon the material sound velocity and the
transducer frequency
V
 Wavelength (λ) = Velocity/Frequency or λ =
F
 Typical wavelength
 Wavelength of 200 Hz sound in air = 332/200 = 1.66 m
 Wavelength of 2 MHz compression wave in steel = 5,920/2,000,000 =
2.96 mm
 Wavelength of 2 MHz shear wave in steel = 3,250/2,000,000 = 1.63
mm

6-214
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Wavelength

Wavelength
Amplitude (mV)

Time (micro seconds)

6-215
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Effects of Wavelength in UT

 Shorter wavelengths can detect smaller flaws

 Therefore, shear waves of a given frequency will be capable of
detecting smaller flaws in a material than compression waves
 Discontinuities of a size less than λ/2 may not be detected
 Shorter wavelengths attenuate quicker and therefore do not
penetrate thicker material as well as long wavelengths would

6-216
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasound Generation

 Ultrasound is generated with a transducer

 A piezoelectric element in the transducer converts electrical energy
into mechanical vibrations (sound), and vice versa

6-217
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Principles of Ultrasonic Inspection

 Ultrasonic waves are introduced into a material where they

travel in a straight line and at a constant speed until they
encounter a surface.
 At surface interfaces some of the wave energy is reflected
and some is transmitted.
 The amount of reflected or transmitted energy can be
detected and provides information about the size of the
reflector.
 The travel time of the sound can be measured and this
provides information on the distance that the sound has
traveled.

6-218
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Test Techniques – Pulse-Echo

 In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of

energy and the same or a second transducer listens for
reflected energy (an echo)
 Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and
the surfaces of the test article
 The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus
time, which provides the inspector information about the size
and the location of features that reflect the sound

initial
pulse back surface
echo
crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
UT Instrument Screen
6-219
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Test Techniques – Pulse-Echo

Digital display
showing signal
generated from sound
reflecting off back
surface

Digital display showing the

presence of a reflector
midway through material, with
lower amplitude back surface
reflector

The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access to only one

side of the material is possible, and it allows the location of
reflectors to be precisely determined
6-220
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Test Techniques – Through Transmission

 Two transducers located on opposing sides

of the test specimen are used. 11

 One transducer acts as a transmitter, the other T R

as a receiver
 Discontinuities in the sound path will result
in a partial or total loss of sound being T R

transmitted and be indicated by a decrease 2

in the received signal amplitude
 Through transmission is useful in detecting
discontinuities that are not good reflectors, 11

and when signal strength is weak

 It does not provide depth information
2

0 2 4 6 8 10

6-221
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Test Techniques – Through Transmission

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material
thickness

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal
due to presence
of a discontinuity
in the sound field

6-222
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Test Techniques – Normal and Angle Beam

 In normal beam testing, the sound beam is introduced into the

test article at 90º to the surface
 In angle beam testing, the sound beam is
introduced into the test article at some
angle other than 90º
 The choice between normal and angle
beam inspection usually depends on:
 The orientation of the feature of interest
 Obstructions on the surface of the part that
must be worked around

6-223
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Effect of Flaw Orientation and Beam Angle

6-224
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)

6-225
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Sizing Weld Discontinuities

 Determining Weld Discontinuity Length Dimension

6-226
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Inspection Applications

 There are numerous applications for which UT may be

employed
 Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)
 Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging
 Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively joined and brazed
components
 Estimation of void content in composites and plastics
 Measurement of case hardening depth in steels
 Estimation of grain size in metals

6-227
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Relative Difficulty of Discontinuity

Detection Using UT

Type of Discontinuity Easy Difficult

Porosity (isolated)
Porosity (cluster)
Porosity (elongated)
Slag (scattered, globular)
Slag (elongated)
Cracks (subsurface)
Incomplete joint penetration
Cracks (surface)
Incomplete fusion

6-228
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Thickness Gauging

 Ultrasonic thickness gauging is routinely utilized in the

petrochemical and utility industries to determine various
degrees of corrosion/erosion
 Applications include piping systems, storage and containment
facilities, and pressure vessels

6-229
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Flaw Detection - Delaminations

Contact, pulse-echo inspection for delaminations on 36”

rolled beam

Signal showing multiple back

surface echoes in an unflawed area

Additional echoes indicate

delaminations in the member
6-230
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Flaw Detection in Welds

 One of the most widely used

methods of inspecting weldments
is ultrasonic inspection
 Full penetration groove welds lend
themselves readily to angle beam
shear wave examination

6-231
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Equipment

 Equipment for ultrasonic testing is very diversified and proper

selection is important to insure accurate inspection data as
desired for specific applications
 UT systems are generally comprised of three basic
components
 Instrumentation
 Transducers
 Calibration Standards

6-232
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Transducers

 Transducers are manufactured in a variety of forms, shapes,

and sizes for varying applications
 Transducers are categorized in a number of ways which
include:
 Contact or immersion
 Single or dual element
 Normal or angle beam
 In selecting a transducer, it is
important to choose the desired
frequency, bandwidth, size, and
in some cases focusing, which optimizes the inspection
capabilities

6-233
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Probe Selection

 Factors to be considered:
 Test object thickness
 Test object diameter
 Surface condition
 Metallurgical condition, e.g., grain size
 Type, position, and orientation of likely discontinuities
 Flaw sizing accuracy (beam should be smaller than flaw)

6-234
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Contact Transducers

 Contact transducers are

designed to withstand rigorous
use and usually have a wear
plate on the bottom surface to
protect the piezoelectric element
from contact with the surface of
the test article
 Many incorporate ergonomic
designs for ease of grip while
scanning along the surface

6-235
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Contact Transducers

 Contact transducers with two piezoelectric crystals in one

housing are called dual element transducers
 One crystal acts as a transmitter, the other as
a receiver
 This arrangement improves near surface
resolution because the second transducer does
not need to complete a transmit function before
listening for echoes
 Dual elements are commonly employed in
thickness gauging of thin materials

6-236
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Angle Beam Transducers

 Angle beam transducers incorporate wedges to introduce a

refracted shear wave into a material
 The incident wedge angle is used with
the material velocity to determine the
desired refracted shear wave according
to Snell’s Law
 Transducers can use fixed or variable
wedge angles
 Common application is in weld
examination

6-237
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Immersion Transducers

 Immersion transducers are designed to transmit sound

whereby the transducer and test specimen are immersed in a
liquid coupling medium (usually water)
 Immersion transducers are manufactured with planar,
cylindrical or spherical acoustic lenses (focusing lens)

6-238
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Instrumentation

 Ultrasonic equipment is usually purchased to satisfy specific

inspection needs
 Some users may purchase general purpose equipment to fulfill a
number of inspection applications
 Test equipment can be classified in a number of different
ways
 Portable or stationary
 Contact or immersion
 Manual or automated
 Further classification of instruments commonly divides them
into four general categories
 D-meters
 Flaw detectors
 Industrial
 Special application
6-239
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Instrumentation D-Meters

 D-meters or digital thickness gauge instruments

provide the user with a digital readout
 They are designed primarily for corrosion/
erosion inspection applications
 Some instruments provide the user with both a
digital readout and a display of the signal
 A distinct advantage of these units is that they allow
the user to evaluate the signal to ensure that the
digital measurements are of the desired features

6-240
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Instrumentation Flaw Detectors

 Flaw detectors are instruments

designed primarily for the
inspection of components for
defects
 However, the signal can be
evaluated to obtain other
information such as material
thickness values
 Both analog and digital display
 Offer the user options of gating
horizontal sweep and amplitude
threshold

6-241
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Instrumentation Flaw Detectors

 Industrial flaw detection

instruments provide users with
more options than standard
flaw detectors
 May be modulated units
allowing users to tailor the
instrument for their specific
needs
 Generally not as portable as
standard flaw detectors

6-242
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Instrumentation Immersion System

 Immersion ultrasonic scanning systems are used for

automated data acquisition and imaging
 They integrate an immersion tank, ultrasonic
instrumentation, a scanning bridge, and
computer controls
 The signal strength and/or the time-of-flight
of the signal is measured for every point in
the scan plan
 The value of the data is plotted using colors
or shades of gray to produce detailed
images of the surface or internal features of
a component

6-243
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Calibration Standards

 Calibration is a operation of configuring the ultrasonic test

equipment to known values
 Calibration provides the inspector with a means of comparing
test signals to known measurements
 Calibration standards come in a wide variety of material
types, and configurations due to the diversity of inspection
applications
 Calibration standards are typically manufactured from
materials of the same acoustic properties as those of the test
articles

6-244
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Calibration Standards

 Thickness calibration standards may Step Wedges

be flat or curved for pipe and tube
applications, consisting of simple
variations in material thickness
 Distance/Area Amplitude standards
utilize flat bottom holes (FBH) or side ASTM Distance/Area
Amplitude
drilled holes (SDH) to establish a
known reflector size with changes in
sound path from the entry surface

NAVSHIPS Cal Block

Side Drilled Holes

6-245
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Data Presentation

 Information from ultrasonic testing can be presented in a

number of differing formats
 Three of the more common formats include:
 A-scan
 B-scan
 C-scan

6-246
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Data Presentation – A-Scan

 A-scan presentation displays the

amount of received ultrasonic energy

Signal Amplitude
as a function of time
 Relative discontinuity size can be
estimated by comparing the signal
amplitude to that from a known
reflector Time
 Reflector depth can be determined
by the position of the signal on the

Signal Amplitude
horizontal sweep

Time

6-247
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Data Presentation – B-scan

 B-scan presentations display a profile

view (cross-sectional) of a test
specimen
 Only the reflector depth in the cross-
section and the linear dimensions can
be determined
 A limitation to this display technique is
that reflectors may be masked by
larger reflectors near the surface

6-248
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Data Presentation – C-Scan

 The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of the test

specimen and discontinuities
 C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data
acquisition system, such as in immersion scanning
 Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary when depth
determination is desired

Photo of a Composite C-Scan Image of

Component Internal Features
6-249
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 4, Ultrasonic Examination Methods

for Welds
 The section refers to different mandatory appendices depending on
equipment and technique applied
 Appendix I, Screen Height Linearity
 Appendix II, Amplitude Control Linearity
 Appendix III, Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique
 Appendix IV, Phased Array Manual Raster Examination Techniques Using
Linear Arrays
 There is a nonmandatory appendix the provides recommendations for
calibration including calibration blocks, recording data and
interpretation

6-250
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 4, Ultrasonic Examination Methods

for Welds
 T-420, General Requirements
 Lists the requirements for written procedures and procedure qualifications
T-430, Equipment
 Describes different types of equipment
 T-433, Couplant
 T-434 Calibration Blocks
 T-440, Miscellaneous Requirements
 Defines how to identify the weld locations, how to mark the welds and
generate a reference point
 T-450, Techniques
 Describes different types of examination techniques and defines the terms
“straight beam” and “angle beam”
 T-460, Calibration
 Lists the calibration requirements and the equipment linearity checks that
need to be performed
6-251
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Weld configuration to be examined, including thickness
dimensions and base material product form (pipe, plate, etc.) X
The surfaces from which the examination shall be performed X
Technique(s) (straight beam, angle beam, contact, and/or
immersion) X
Angle(s) and mode(s) of wave propagation in the material X
Search unit type(s), frequency(ies), and element
size(s)/shape(s) X
Special search units, wedges, shoes, or saddles, when used X
Ultrasonic instrument(s) X
Calibration [calibration block(s) and technique(s)] X
Direction and extent of scanning X
Scanning (manual vs. automatic) X

6-252
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

Essential Nonessential
Requirement (as applicable) Variable Variable
Method for discriminating geometric from flaw indications X
Method for sizing indications X
Computer enhanced data acquisition, when used X
Scan overlap (decrease only) X
Personnel performance requirements, when required X
Personnel qualification requirements X
Surface condition (examination surface, calibration blocks) X
Couplant: brand name or type X
Automatic alarm and/or recording equipment, when
applicable X
Records, including minimum calibration data to be recorded
(e.g., instrument settings) X

6-253
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

6-254
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

6-255
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 4, Ultrasonic Examination Methods

for Welds
 T-470, Examination
 Covers the different technique and requirements for examination
 T-471, General Examination Requirements
 T-472, Weld Joint Distance Amplitude Technique
 T-473, Cladding Technique
 T-274, Non-Distance Amplitude Technique
 T-480, Evaluation
 Covers the evaluation requirements and describes techniques used to
evaluate the reflectors

6-256
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section V Requirements

 ASME Section V, Article 4, Ultrasonic Examination Methods

for Welds
 T-490, Documentation
 Defines what are considered non-rejectable and rejectable indications
 Refers to the code of construction
 Specifies the minimum requirements for the examination record
 Procedure used including beam angles
 Equipment used any special equipment
 Calibration block used
 Map or record of rejectable indications
 Examination personnel
 Date of examination

6-257
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section III – NB and B31.1 Acceptance

Requirements for Ultrasonic Testing
 Section NB-5330 of ASME Section III provides ultrasonic
examination acceptance criteria
 Section 136.4.6 of ASME B31.1 provides ultrasonic
examination acceptance criteria
 Both standards references ASME Section V, Article 4

6-258
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

ASME Section III – NB and B31.1 Acceptance

Requirements for Radiographic Testing

Criteria ASME Section III – NB ASME B31.1

Crack Unacceptable
Lack of Fusion Unacceptable
Incomplete Penetration Unacceptable
Indication greater than 20 % and length ≥ ¼ in. up to ¾
in. t (weld thickness)
Indication greater than 20 % and length ≥ 1/3t for t from
¾ to 2 ¼ in.
Indication greater than 20 % and length ≥ ¾ in. for t over
Indication 2 ¼ in.

6-259
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing

 Sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities

 Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other methods
 Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used
 High accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating
size and shape
 Minimal part preparation required
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results
 Detailed images can be produced with automated systems
 Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition
to flaw detection

6-260
Module 6 – Inspection Ultrasonic Testing

Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound

 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other
methods
 Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of
sound energy into test specimen
 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to
inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal noise
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected
 Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration, and characterization of flaws

6-261
NDE Advancements

Module 6B
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

NDE Modeling

 Modeling and simulation offers significant flexibility and cost

reduction during the development and implementation of NDT
process
 Modeling of radiography
 Modeling conventional and phased array UT
 Modeling of eddy current

6-263
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

RT Modeling

 Simulated X-Ray Radiograph of Weld Butt Joint with Weld

Defects

Setup Screen
6-264
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

RT Modeling - 3D POD Maps

0.6-mm Flaw 0.4-mm Flaw

Undetectable
Questionable Detectability

Images courtesy of NDTEducation 6-265

Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

UT Modeling

 PA Contact Probe
 Angle Steering and Focusing

6-266
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

UT Modeling of Complex Part

Misaligned specimen (2.5D-CAD specimen with revolution)

Customized PA Delay
Laws Compensate for
Component Geometry
Effect

6-267
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

ET Modeling – Multilayer Subsurface

 Sliding probe and inspection area

with fasteners are modeled for the 4e-4

Imaginary Component, V
first time in NDE industry
 Modeled signals compared well
with actual signals
0

-4e-4
-8e-4 -4e-4 0

Real Component, V
Fastener Hole without Notch
Fastener Hole with Notch in 3-rd Layer
Lift Off

Hole without
Notch Hole with
Notch
Lift Off

6-268
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

ET Modeling - Inconel Tube Testing

Tube
with
Defects

Differential
Coil
External
Groove

Internal
Cavity

Internal
Groove

6-269
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

New Developments

 New developments broaden the applications, reliability, and

accuracy of NDE techniques
 Computed tomography
 Phased array ultrasonics (PA UT)
 Advanced array eddy current (AEC)
 The NDE becomes more quantitative than qualitative process

6-270
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

Computed Tomography (CT)

 CT Scan of Turbine Blade

Image courtesy of NDTEducation

6-271
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

Ultrasonic Phased Arrays (PA) Techniques

One Dimensional Linear Array

Lack of Side
Wall Fusion

Depth Focusing
A-scan

Beam Angle Steering

6-272
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

PA UT & TOFD for Cr-Mo Heavy-walled Reactors

Attachment – PE PA – 3 MHz (Right Atk.) Nozzle – PE PA – 3 MHz (CW Atk.)

Flaws
Flaw Flaw

Flaw
Flaw

Avg. UT Measured Flaw Hgt. vs Fabrication Flaw Hgt. Back Surface

Flaw
Flaw
SE-CW Wedge Wedge Noise
Nozzle Noise
Avg. Measured Flaw Hgt. (mm)

SE-CCW Flaws
30
SE - P
DE-CW
DE-CCW
DE - P Nozzle TOFD – 2 MHz 55o R.L.
20
PA-CW
1

Flaw
PA-CCW Tip
PA - P
DPA-CW
10
DPA-CCW
DPA - P Lateral
Average 2 Wave
Back Wall

0 TOFD Clad Interface

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Fabrication Flaw Height (mm) Flaw
1 2
Avg. Measured = Average of 4 Average = Average of the maximum flaw
data points near the flaw center heights for all techniques for each flaw Tip

 Advanced UT modeling and simulation tools

 Optimized and implemented PA UT and TOFD for nozzles
and attachments in 100-300 mm heavy-walled clad reactors

6-273
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

PA UT for Austenitic and Dissimilar Welds

 Developed dual phased array technology

 Better inspections of large grain, highly anisotropic materials,
dissimilar steel welds and nickel based alloys
6-274
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

Eddy Current Multipurpose Array Systems

Up to 64 coils and 256 channels

for conventional, array EC, Portable eddy current array
magnetic flux leakage (MFL) and system for up to 32 coils
remote field eddy current (RFEC) Scanner for Curved and Flat
Surfaces

Array EC Probes
6-275
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Advancements

Conventional versus Advanced

Eddy Current Techniques

Conventional Probe Advanced Imaging - Same Fast Advanced Processing - Array

and Crack Indication Probe and 3 Crack Indications Probe and Crack Indication

Crack in LF sample similar to

crack in RH sample (sectioned)

Cracks Crack Indication

Correlated to Depth
Crack

 Fast and reliable

detection and flaw
 Slow scanning  Reliable detection sizing
 Unreliable detection flaw sizing
and sizing
6-276
NDE Qualification

Module 6C
Module 6 – Inspection

Outline

 Definitions
 Inspection background
 NDT personnel certification
 NDT procedures, qualification process and standards
 Specimens for POD and sizing
 POD and modeling for validation
 Inspection reliability
 Qualification standards, summary and references

6-278
Module 6 – Inspection

Definitions

 ASME BPVC, Section V, Article 14

 Examination System
 Performance Demonstration
 Qualification
 Qualification requirements for ultrasonic examination systems
in ASME BPVC, Section XI, Appendix VIII, Article VIII-3000

6-279
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

Inspection Background

 Reason(s) for performing NDT

 In-process, final, and in-service inspection
 Type(s) of flaws of interest in the object
 Volumetric or planar
 Size and orientation rejectable flaw
 Code, standard, other requirement
 Anticipated location of the flaws of interest in the object
 Surface and subsurface
 Size and shape of the object/part
 Simple, complex, large, small, sheet, tube, sphere, etc.
 Characteristics of the material to be evaluated
 Density, roughness, paint, coating, electrical and thermal conductivity,
magnetic permeability, tight or open cracks

6-280
Module 6 – Inspection

NDT Personnel Certification - ASNT SNT-TC-1A

 Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Personnel

Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing.
 Provides guidelines for employers to establish in-house certification
programs.
 Provides the general framework for a qualification and certification
program.
 Provides recommended educational, experience and training
requirements for the different test methods.

6-281
Module 6 – Inspection

Other ASNT Standards and Guidelines for

Nondestructive Testing Personnel
 ANSI/ASNT CP-189-2006
 ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel.
 ANSI/ASNT ILI-PQ-2005
 In-line Inspection Personnel Qualification and Certification
 ANSI/ASNT CP-105-2006
 ASNT Standard Training Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel

6-282
Module 6 – Inspection

Other ASNT Standards and Guidelines for

Nondestructive Testing Personnel
 ANSI/ASNT CP-106-2007
 Nondestructive Testing - Qualification and Certification of Personnel
 ASNT CP-107-2007
 ASNT Standard for Performance-Based Qualification and Certification
of Nondestructive Testing Personnel

6-283
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

NDT Procedures

 Most in accordance with ASME Section III, V and XI as

applicable
 UT examination of vessel and piping welds - ASME Section XI,
Appendix III, Article III-2300
 Weld types
 Scanning surface and surface conditions
 Equipment list
 Examination technique
 Calibration techniques
 Calibration block design
 Data and method of recording, interpretation of indications (III-4510)
 Techniques for data interpretation and plotting
 Personnel qualification requirements

6-284
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

NDT Procedures

 Separate articles dedicated to Calibration (III-3000) and

Examination (III-4000)
 Important to identify correct standard/specification and
technique Essential Parameters

6-285
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

NDT Qualification Process

 Input inspection data

 What to inspect, flaw size location, orientation, detection and sizing
capabilities to be demonstrated
 Technical justification (in some codes)
 Review of NDE procedure, essential parameters, personnel
qualification, previous experience, mathematical modeling, determine
scope of qualification
 Specimen preparation (if needed)
 Special requirements for flaw sizes, location, spatial and size
distribution, number of units with and without flaw, specimen quality
provisions

6-286
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

NDT Qualification Process

 Trials with specimens

 Open and blind depending on requirements and inspection criticality
 Processing of data and making decision regarding adequacy
of inspection equipment and procedure and/or personnel to
perform to required level
 Inspection objectives were met or were not met
 Quality assurance procedures for qualification process control
 Issue of certificates, conditions for certification and recertification,
specimen storage and access etc.

6-287
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

How Many Specimens Are Needed?

 ASME BPVC, Section XI, Appendix VIII

 Supplement 2&3 – Wrought austenitic and ferritic piping welds
 3 personnel qualification sets for initial procedure qualification (detection)
 1 personnel qualification set for qualifying change of essential parameter
 Supplement 4 – Clad/base metal interface of reactor vessel
 3 personnel qualification sets for initial procedure qualification (detection)
 1 personnel qualification set for qualifying change of essential parameter
 Supplement 10 – Dissimilar metal piping welds
 3 personnel qualification sets for initial procedure qualification (detection)
 1 personnel qualification set for qualifying change of essential parameter
 Special requirements for flaw location on ID, OD and mid wall

6-288
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

How Many Specimens Are Needed?

Confidence Number of Number of Sectors  ASME BPVC, Section V,

Misses with Flaws Article 14 requires number of
POD 90% POD 95%
90% 0 22 45
successfully detected flaws
1 38 77 based on binomial law
2 52 105  POD estimates are relevant
3 65 132
4 78 158
for ONE FLAW SIZE ONLY
5 91 184  Different number required
10 152 306 depending on the POD and
20 267 538
95% 0 29 59
confidence
1 46 93  See table
2
3
61
76
124
153
 Number of flaws to be
4 89 181 detected increases rapidly
5 103 208 with increase of misses
10 167 336
20 286 577

6-289
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

How Many Specimens Are Needed?

 European Methodology for Qualification of Non-destructive

Testing (EMQNDT), Issue 3
 Not specific on number of flaws
 Depends on criticality
 MIL-HDBK-1823 (latest 2007 draft)
 At least 60 (ideally 120) flaws are required to build a reliable POD(a)
curve when the hit/miss approach is implemented
 At least 40 flaws are required to build a reliable POD(a) curve when â
vs. a approach is implemented because additional information is
available
 In addition, other conditions (linearity, error normality, adequate size
selection, uncorrelated measurements and uniform variance) shall be
verified to ensure that POD(a) estimate is valid

6-290
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

Issue of Flaw Sizing Qualification

 ASME BPVC, Section XI, Appendix VIII

 Uses root mean square (RMS) sizing error to accept or reject a
qualification test
 mi – measured flaw size
 ti – true flaw size
 n – number of flaws measured

∑ (m − t )
i i
2

RMS = i =1
n

6-291
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

POD for Validation

 Weld flaws exhibit high variability

 Numerous factors may cause POD to vary widely
 Any POD data is specific to the application and conditions
during test
 POD validation
 Concept of POD introduced in 1973 by NASA on shuttle program
 Similar requirements initiated by USAF
 The concept later received widespread adoption for quantifying and
assessing of NDE capabilities

6-292
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

POD for Validation

 ASME BPVC, 2008a Section V, Article 14

 Defines POD as proportion of flaws detected to all flaws examined.
Binomial law used for POD of similar flaws
 MIL-HDBK-1823
 Defines POD as function of flaw size (length or height or other
parameter) and uses non linear regression for POD estimate

6-293
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

Typical POD Curve vs. Defect Size

 Defect size of
90% 0.011” is a90/95 it
Mean POD has 90/95 POD
Probability Of Detection, %

Lower 95% Bound  90% of defects

0.011” and larger
50%
a50 are detected with
95% confidence (in
a90 95% of the cases)
 a90, a50 are also
used for system
assessment
a90/95 = 0.011

Actual Defect Size, Inches

6-294
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

Modeling for Verification and Validation

 ASME BPVC, Section XI, Nonmandatory Appendix M

 Models are to have limitations known, performance verified, and
results accepted if difference with known solutions is less than +/-
10%
 ASME BPVC, Section V, Article 14
 Modeling mentioned as part of technical justification (TJ)
 ENIQ, Recommended Practice 6, Report No. 15, EUR EN
19017
 Use and validation of models as part of TJ discussed in more details
 MIL-HDBK-1823 (latest 2007 draft), Appendix H
 Model applications discussed related to Model Assisted determination
of POD (MAPOD)
 See previous section on modeling in RT, UT and ET

6-295
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

Factors Affecting Inspection Reliability

 Individual inspectors/human factors – experience, education,

age, physical condition, attitude, and concentration
 Equipment – accuracy, sensitivity, analysis capability,
versatility, portability, availability
 Procedures - simple and complex, general and specific, easy
or difficult to follow
 Environment - production or in-field, laboratory or workshop,
day or night, slow or fast paced, indoor or outdoor, in air (e.g.,
airborne, space, etc.), land, sea or underwater, accessibility

6-296
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

Inspection Reliability Improvement

 Establish and maintain personnel certification system

 Central or employer based
 Use of readily available off-the-shelf equipment with well
established capabilities
 Verification of procedure performance at the environment
where it is expected to be carried out
 Use of procedure performance indicators
 Computer modeling, probability-of-detection (POD) curves,
experimental data, past experience, industry data and specifications,
expert judgment, etc.
 Conducting performance demonstration (PDI) or NDE
qualification programs for selected techniques, equipment
and personnel
 Trails with actual specimens
 Sometimes qualification is based solely on technical justification (past
experience, modeling etc.) 6-297
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

NDE Qualification Standards

 NRC Specifications and Procedures

 NRC Inspection Manual
 ASME BPVC, Section XI – Rules for In-service Inspection of
Nuclear Power Plant Components
 Appendix VIII – Performance Demonstration for Ultrasonic
Examination Systems
 ASME BPVC, Section V – Nondestructive Examination
 Article 14 – Examination System Qualification
 Others
 European Methodology for Qualification of Non-destructive Testing
(EMQNDT), Issue 3, European Network for Inspection Qualification
(ENIQ) Report No. 31, EUR EN 22906
 MIL-HDBK-1823, Nondestructive Evaluation System Reliability
Assessment, Department of Defense Handbook

6-298
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

Summary of NDE Qualification

 Reference appropriate ASME document

 Verify input information
 Clarify NDT specifics
 Use techniques with established capabilities
 Perform NDT demonstration if needed

6-299
Module 6 – Inspection NDE Qualification

References

 ASME Standards
 ASM Metals Handbook, Volume 17, Nondestructive
Evaluation and Quality Control
 MIL-HDBK-1823, Nondestructive Evaluation System
Reliability Assessment
 ASTM Standards, Section 3, Metals Test Methods and
Analytical Procedures, Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing

6-300
ASME Section XI – Rules for Inservice
Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant
Components
Module 6C

Prabhat Krishnaswamy
Dr. Gery M. Wilkowski
Engineering Mechanics Corporation of Columbus
3518 Riverside Drive – Suite 202
Columbus, OH 43221
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

ASME Section XI - Early History

 Early power plant designers used “high” standards so that

passive components of reactors could operate for their life
without attention.
 In 1966, the AEC (NRC) recognized an inspection program
will be necessary for pressure-containing components.
 A committee was developed and accepted as a subgroup of
the ASME Section III Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee.
 ASME Section XI code was published in 1970, originally
containing 24 pages of text.
 Today, contains over 500 pages and covers Class 1, 2 and 3 systems
primarily for light-water reactors

6-302
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

ASME Section XI – Rules for Inservice Inspection

of Nuclear Power Plant Components
 Three divisions
 Light-water cooled reactors (483 pages)
 Subsections for light-water cooled reactors
 IWA – General requirements
 IWB – Requirements for Class 1
 IWC – Requirements for Class 2
 IWD – Requirements for Class 3
 IDE – Requirements for Class MC
 IWF – Requirements for Supports
 IWL – Requirements for Concrete Components
 Mandatory Appendices
 Non-Mandatory Appendices
 Gas-cooled reactors(2 pages)
 Liquid metal cooled reactors (1 page)

6-303
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

IWA – General Requirements

 Points user to other Subsections (i.e., IWB-, IWC-, etc.)

 IWA-1000 – Scope and Responsibility

 IWA-2000 – Examination and Inspection
 Duties, qualification, access for inspectors (Including NRC inspectors)
 Examination methods (visual-VT, surface-MP/EC, volumetric-UT/R,
alternative-AE; more details later)
 Qualifications of Nondestructive Examination Personnel – ASNT
qualified Level 1 < Level 2 < Level 3
 Inspection program – (details later)
 Extent of examination (excludes welds for repairs in base metals)
 Weld reference system (i.e., 0-degrees is top of pipe)

6-304
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

IWA – General Requirements

 IWA-3000 – Standards for Examination Evaluation

 Significant digits for limiting values
 Flaw characterization (discussed later)
 Linear flaws detected by surface or volumetric examination (more
detail later)
 IWA-4000 – Repair/Replacement Activities
 General Requirements
 Items for Repair/Replacement Activities
 Design
 Welding, Brazing, Metal Removal, Fabrication and Installation
 Examination and Testing
 Alternative Welding Methods, i.e., temper bead welding for repair of
ferritic materials to avoid post-weld heat treatment
 Heat Exchanger Tubing – plugging, explosive welding, friction welds,
etc.

6-305
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

IWA – General Requirements

 IWA-5000 – System Pressure Tests

 General
 System Test Requirements
 Test Records
 IWA-6000 – Records and Reports
 Scope
 Requirements
 Retention
 IWA-9000 – Glossary

6-306
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

IWB – Class 1 Components

 IWB-1000 – Scope and Responsibility

 IWB-2000 – Examination and Inspection
 Preservice
 Inspection Schedule
 Examination and Pressure Test Requirements

6-307
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

IWB – Class 1 Components

 IWB-3000 – Acceptance Standards

 Evaluation of examination results
 Supplemental examinations
 Standards
 Acceptance Standards- Workmanship flaw tables
 Analytical Evaluation of Flaws
 3610 – 4” and thicker ferritic steel components
 3620 – less then 4” thick ferritic steel components
 3630 – Steam generator tubing
 3640 – flaws in austenitic and ferritic piping
 3660 – RPV head penetration nozzle flaws
 3700 – Analytical evaluation of operating plant events
 Non-Mandatory Appendix A, C, G, H, K, L, O, Q
 IWB-5000 – System Pressure Tests

6-308
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

IWC & IWD – Class 2 & 3 Components

 IWC-XXXX for Class 2 piping (39 pages)

 IWD-XXXX for Class 3 piping (10 pages)

 Generally IWC and IWD have much less detail than IWB, and
IWC and IWD will frequently refer user to IWB.
 Exception might be some criteria specific to Class 2/3 piping, i.e.,
flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) also called erosion-corrosion.

6-309
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Other Subsections

 IWE-XXXX for Requirements for Class MC and Metallic

Liners of Class CC Components of Light-Water Cooled Plants
(10 pages)
 i.e., drywell containment vessel for BWRs (Oyster Creek corrosion)
 IWF-XXXX for Requirements for Class 1, 2, 3 and MC
component supports of Light-Water Cooled Plants (6 pages)
 IWL-XXXX for Requirements for Class CC Concrete
Components of Light-Water Cooled Plants (14 pages)
 Appendices
 Mandatory (I-X)
 Nonmandatory (A-R)

6-310
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Inspections

 The Code allows option for inspection programs, but a 10-

year interval was chosen based on historical failure rate data

 Risk-based inspection currently being used to determine

inspection frequencies of different components
 Non-mandatory Appendix R

6-311
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Inspection Methods

 Originally concerned with fatigue cracking.

 Note, the design sections of the ASME Code are made for preclusion
of overload failures of unflawed components and fatigue failures, not
any other degradation modes.
 SCC is much more common in nuclear plants – Code does good job
in designing to avoid fatigue failures
 UT was chosen over RT for superiority in locating and sizing
fatigue cracks
 UT can be performed from one surface
 Appendices were developed for techniques for improving UT reliability
 Appendix I for Vessels in 1973
 Appendix III for piping in 1975
 Currently eight appendices for UT

6-312
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Inspection of Class 1 Systems

 Systems subject to examination include;

 Reactor coolant system (RCS)
 Portions of the auxiliary systems connected to RCS
 Portions of the Emergency Core Coolant System (ECCS)
 ISI requirements were developed during and after the
design/order of most US power plants
 Prior to 1977
 Only 5% of each circumferential and 10% of each longitudinal vessel
weld was required
 Except vessel-to-flange and head-to-flange welds
 After 1977
 100% of the length of 25% of piping circumferential welds, and all
circumferential dissimilar welds are required to be inspected

6-313
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Flaw Characterization

 If a flaw is found, it must first be

characterized
 The code gives guidance in the
form of figures for determining
flaw size, etc. for analyses
 The figures are for all flaw
types
 Surface, subsurface, multiple,
planar,non-planar, etc.

6-314
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Flaw Characterization

 Spacing criteria (S) being updated

 Flaw interaction difference for subcritical crack growth like SCC of
fatigue cracks than for failure criteria

6-315
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Flaw Acceptance Standards

 After the flaw is characterized, its size is compared with the

Acceptance Standards
 These “Acceptance Standard” flaw sizes are also known as
“Workmanship flaws”

6-316
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Flaw Acceptance

 Flaws that are smaller than these flaw sizes are acceptable
for continued service without any evaluation
 Tables being updated recently
 Flaws that are larger than the acceptable flaw size can either
be repaired, or replaced, or found acceptable by analytical
evaluation

6-317
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Analytical Evaluation of Flaws

 The Code separates the evaluation of flaws into five

categories
 Ferritic components where t > 4 inches (102mm)
 Ferritic components where t < 4 inches
 Steam generator tubing
 Ferritic and austenitic piping
 PWR head penetration nozzles

6-318
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Flaw Evaluation Flow Chart

Initial flaw
size, ai
Fatigue
Subcritical flaw Pipe Normal operating
SCC analysis stresses Emergency and
Faulted
Inspection
SF
interval
Reduce
Inspection
Final flaw Allowable Flaw
interval
size, af size
No
Acceptance
criteria

Yes

Repair/replace Continued
Operation
6-319
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Flaw Evaluation for Class 1 Piping

 The Code gives the user choices in evaluating flaws in piping

 If the flaws exceed the workmanship size flaws, they can be
analyzed by;
 Following the procedures in Nonmandatory Appendix C
 Following the procedures in Nonmandatory Appendix H
 Performing an alternate procedure, i.e., finite element analyses and
demonstrating that the allowable loads have the following safety
factors
 Service level A – 2.7
 Service level B – 2.4
 Service level C – 1.8
 Service level S – 1.4

6-320
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Appendix C – Alternative Pipe Flaw Evaluation

Criteria
 An Appendix C analyses has the following steps;
 Determine flaw size
 Resolve size into circumferential and axial components
 Determine stresses normal to flaw for Service Level A-D
 Perform a flaw growth analysis to determine flaw size at end-of-
evaluation time period
 Obtain material properties at operating conditions
 Determine failure mode
 Determine allowable flaw size or allowable stress (with appropriate
safety factors)
 Note the term “Safety Factor” is being changed to “Structural Factor”
 Apply acceptance criteria
 Recently updated for Dissimilar Metal Welds (In82/182 – SCC
susceptible materials in PWRs.

6-321
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Section XI Code Cases and Relief Request

 The Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee meets regularly to

consider proposed additions and revisions to the Code and to
formulate Cases to clarify the intent of existing requirements
or provide, when the need is urgent, rules for materials or
constructions not covered by existing Code rules
 ~200 code cases in existence (N-4 to N-759 as of 7/09)
 ½ of them are for Section XI – rest for all other divisions of the code
 More recent ones deal with evaluation of PWSCC cracking inspection,
evaluations, and repairs, i.e.,
 N-735 – Successive inspections of Class 1 and 2 pipe welds
 N-740 – Dissimilar weld metal overlay for repair of Class 1, 2, and 3 items

6-322
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Evolving Areas of Section XI

 Plastic pipe being approved for service water lines (Code

Case N-755)
 Next step is inspection and flaw evaluation – lack of fusion girth welds
 Buried service water line flaw acceptance criteria
 Developing new procedures in Section XI for corrosion in steel buried
pipes
 Similar to natural gas/oil line issues, but level of tolerable leakage sensitive
to contaminates in the line
 Gen IV reactors developing design criteria in Section III NH
 Flaw acceptance criteria for creep/fatigue design may be in Section XI

6-323
Module 6 – Inspection ASME Section XI

Evolving Areas of Section XI

 Code is not based on guidance for avoidance of SCC (most

common type of degradation mechanism in existing plant high
energy systems) – needs some significant improvements!
 SCC requires combination of material, water environment, high
stresses
 Usual cure is to change to a new material, try adjusting water
chemistry, stress mitigation, repairs (overlays) or replacements
 For new plant construction, need better guidance on how to fabricate
welds with reduced or no tensile residual stresses on wetted surface
of pressure boundary

6-324
Summary

Module 7
Module 7 – Summary

Module 7 – Summary

 7A – ASME Section IX Weld Procedure Qualification

 7B – ASME Section IX Welder Qualification

7-2
Module 7 – Summary

Module 7 Learning Objectives

 Understand how to qualify welding procedures in accordance

to ASME Section IX
 Understand how to qualify welders accordance to Section IX

7-3
Weld Procedure Qualification

Module 7A
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Weld Procedure Qualification

 Primary purpose for procedure qualification
 To verify compatibility of materials and techniques to result in a
sound weld with acceptable mechanical properties
 WPS qualified by mechanical testing
 PQR is documentation to prove that a weld can be made using the
procedure and have acceptable mechanical properties

 How do you qualify a welding procedure?

 Five step process
1. Understand the intended application for which the WPS will be used
2. Develop a draft procedure
2. Make a qualification weld
3. Test the qualification weld
4. Write up the WPS

7-5
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Weld Procedure Qualification

 Understand the intended application for which the WPS will
be used
 Things to know prior to qualifying a welding procedure
 Know the application for the welding procedure
 What welding process(es) are going to be used during construction
 What materials are going to be used during construction
 The types and grades
 The thicknesses of each material
 Are there dissimilar welds including welds between different P-No.

 Know the design requirements for the application

 Does the design require specific material toughness requirements

7-6
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Example Procedure Qualification

 GTAW/GMAW qualification weld

 0.75” A 36 plate material
 Flat position
 ER70S-6 electrode was used for GMAW
 ER80S-D2 electrode was used for GTAW
 No preheat or PWHT

 Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) needs to address the

welding variables of each welding process

7-7
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

GTAW Weld Procedure Variables

7-8
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

GMAW Weld Procedure Variables

7-9
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)

7-10
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Joint Variables

 Joint variables are the same for GTAW and GMAW

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Groove Design X
.4 - Backing X

QW-402 .10 φ Root Spacing X

Joints .11 ± Retainers X

 QW-402.1 – Groove design was a V-groove with a 45º

included angle
 QW-402.4 – There was a backing bar used
 QW-402.10 – The root spacing was 1/8-in.
 QW-402.11 – Nonmetallic or nonfusing retainers were not
used

7-11
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Joint Variables

Company Name: Nuclear Construction
PQR No.: NRC-PQR-1
WPS No.: NRC-WPS-1 Date: June 8 and 9, 2010
Welding Process: GTAW and GMAW
Types (Manual, Automatic, Semi-Automatic): Manual
Joints (QW-402):

Note: The weld was both GTAW and GMAW with 1/4-in. deposited with
GTAW and 1/2-in. deposited with GMAW
7-12
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Base Metal Variables

 Relevance of base metal variables depend on process

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
QW-403 .5 φ Group No. X
Base
Materials .11 φ P-No. Qualified X

 QW-403.5 and QW-403.11 – Material was A36 plate which is

P-No. 1 and Group 1 Material
 Table QW-422
Group Nominal
Spec. No. Type/Grade UNS No. P-No. No. Composition Product Form
SA-36 - K02600 1 1 C-Mn-Si Plate, Bar & Shapes

7-13
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Base Metal Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.6 T Limits X
.8 φ T Qualified X
QW-403
Base .9 t pass > 1/2-in. X
Materials .10 T Limits (S. Cir. Arc) X

 QW-403.6, QW-403.8 and QW-403.10 – Material thickness

was 0.75-in.
 QW-403.9 – No single weld pass in the qualification weld was
greater than 1/2-in.
 GMAW only

7-14
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Base Metal Variables

Base Metals (QW-403)
Material Spec.: SA-36
Type or Grade: N/A
P- No.: P-No.1 To P-No.: P-No. 1
Thickness of Test Coupon: 3/4-in.
Diameter of Test Coupon: N/A
Other:
1. SA-36 does not come in different grades
2. The weld was made on plate so diameter does not apply.
3. All passes were less than 1/2-in. thick

7-15
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Filler Metal Variables

 Relevance of filler metal variables depend on process

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.3 φ Size X
QW-404
Filler .6 φ Diameter X
Metals .23 φ Filler Metal Product Form X
 QW-404.3 – The GTAW wire diameter was 1/8-in.
 GTAW only
 QW-404.6 – The GMAW electrode diameter was 0.035-in.
 GMAW only
 QW-404.23 – Solid wire was used

7-16
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Filler Metal Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
QW-404
Filler
Metals .4 φ F-No. X

 QW-404.4 – The welding wire was ER80S-D2 for GTAW and

ER70S-6 for GMAW
 ASME Section II, SFA 5.28 specifies low-alloy steel electrodes for gas
shielded arc welding
 ASME Section II, SFA 5.18 specifies carbon steel electrodes for gas
shielded arc welding
 Table QW-432
F-No. ASME Specification AWS Classification
6 SFA-5.28 All Classifications
6 SFA-5.18 All Classifications

7-17
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Filler Metal Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
QW-404
Filler
Metals .5 φ A-No. X

 QW-404.5 – The welding wire was ER80S-D2 for GTAW and

ER70S-6 for GMAW
 SAME ASME Section II specifications apply to determine chemistry
 Table QW-442
Analysis, %
A-No. Weld Deposit C Cr Mo Ni Mn Si
11 Mn – Mo 0.17 - 0.25 – 0.75 0.85 1.25 – 2.25 1.00
ER80S-D2 (SFA 5.18) 0.07 – 0.12 - 0.4-0.6 0.15 1.60 – 2.10 0.5 – 0.8
1 Mild Steel 0.20 - - - 1.60 1.00
ER70S-6 (SFA 5.18) 0.06 – 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 1.40 – 1.85 0.80 – 1.15

7-18
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Filler Metal Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.12 φ Classification X
.14 ± Filler X
QW-404
Filler .33 φ Classification X
Metals .50 ± Flux X

 QW-404.12 and QW-404.33 – The wire classification was

ER80S-D2 for GTAW and ER70S-6 GMAW
 QW-404.14 – Filler metal was used
 GTAW only
 QW-404.50 – No flux was used
 GTAW only

7-19
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Filler Metal Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.22 ± Consumable Insert X
.24 ± or φ Supplemental X
.27 φ Alloy Elements X
QW-404
Filler .30 φt X
Metal .32 t limits (S.C. Arc) X

 QW-404.22 – No consumable insert was used

 GTAW only
 QW-404.24 and QW-404.27 – No Supplemental filler metal
was used so variable does not apply
 GMAW only
 QW-404.30 and QW-404.32 – Weld thickness was 1/4-in. for
GTAW and 1/2-in. for GMAW
7-20
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Filler Metal Variables

Filler Metals (QW-404)
SFA Specification: SFA 5.28 for GTAW
SFA 5.18 for GMAW
AWS Classification: ER80S-D2 for GTAW
ER70S-6 for GMAW
Filler Metal F-No. 6 for GTAW and GMAW
Weld Metal Analysis A-No.: 11 for GTAW
1 for GMAW
Size of Filler Metal 1/8-in. for GTAW
0.035-in. for GMAW
Weld Metal Thickness: 1/4-in. for GTAW
1/2-in. for GMAW
Other:

7-21
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Position Variables

 Positions variables are the same for GTAW and GMAW

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 + Position X

QW-405 .2 φ Position X
Positions .3 φ ↑↓ Vertical Welding X

 QW-405.1, QW-405.2 and QW-405.3 – The weld was made

in the flat position

7-22
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Position Variables

Position (QW-405)
Position of Groove: Flat
Weld Progression: N/A
Other:

7-23
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Preheat Variables

 Relevance of preheat variables depend on the process

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 Decrease > 100ºF X

QW-406 .2 φ Preheat Maintenance X

Preheat .3 Increase >100ºF X

 QW-406.1 and QW-406.2 – No preheating was used during

qualification
 QW-406.3 – Maximum interpass temperature was 450ºF

7-24
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Preheat Variables

Preheat (QW-406)
Preheat Temperature: Ambient (70ºF)
Interpass Temperature: 450ºF
Other:

7-25
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – PWHT Variables

 PWHT variables are the same for GTAW and GMAW

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ PWHT X

QW-407 .2 φ PWHT (T & T range) X

PWHT .4 T Limits X

 QW-407.1, QW-407.2 and QW-407.4 – No PWHT was used

during qualification

7-26
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Preheat Variables

PWHT (QW-407)
Temperature: None
Time: None
Other: 1. No PWHT was used during qualification

7-27
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Gas Variables

 Gas variables are the same for GTAW and GMAW

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 ± Trail or φ Composition X
.5 ± or φ Backing Gas X

QW-408 .9 - Backing or φ Composition X

Gas .10 φ Shielding or Trailing X

 QW-408.1 and QW-408.10 – No trail shield gas was used

 QW-408.5 and QW-408.9 – No backing shield gas was used

7-28
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Gas Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential

QW-408 .2 φ Single, Mixture or % X

Gas .3 φ Flow Rate X
 QW-408.2 – 100% Argon shielding gas was used for GTAW
and 75% Argon/25% CO2 was used for GMAW
 QW-408.3 – 15 – 25 cfh shielding gas flow rate was used for
GTAW and 25 – 35 cfh shielding gas flow rate was used for
GMAW

7-29
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Gas Variables

Gas (QW-408)
Percent Composition
Gas(es) Mixture Flow Rate
Shielding GTAW - Argon 100% 15 – 25 cfh
GMAW - Argon/CO2 75%/25% 25 – 35 cfh
Trailing N/A N/A N/A
Backing N/A N/A N/A

7-30
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification –
Electrical Characteristics Variables
 Relevance of electrical characteristics variables depend on
the process
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 > Heat Input X
QW-409
Electrical .2 φ Transfer Mode X
Characteristics .3 ± Pulsing I X
 QW-409.1 – The maximum heat input was 45 kJ/in.
 HI (kJ/in.) = I * V /T.S. * 60 / 1000
 QW-409.2 – The GMAW transfer mode was globular
 GMAW only
 QW-409.3 – Pulse mode GTAW was not used
 GTAW only

7-31
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification –
Electrical Characteristics Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.4 φ Current or Polarity X X
QW-409
Electrical .8 φ I or E Range X
Characteristics .12 φ Tungsten Electrode X

 QW-409.4 – GTAW weld was made using direct current with

electrode positive polarity and the GMAW weld was made
using direct current and electrode negative polarity
 QW-409.8 – GTAW weld was made using a 175 -200 amps
and 10 - 14 volts and the GMAW weld was made using 170-
200 amps and 24-28 volts
 QW-409.12 – The tungsten was 2% ceriated with a 1/8-in.
diameter
 GTAW only

7-32
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification –
Electrical Characteristics Variables
Electrical Characteristics (QW-409)
Current: Direct Current
Polarity: EP for GTAW and EN for GMAW
Amps: 175 – 200 for GTAW and 170 – 200 for GMAW
Volts: 10 – 14 for GTAW and 24 – 28 for GMAW
Tungsten Electrode Size: 1/8-in. diameter
Other: 1. Maximum heat input was 45 kJ/in.
2. 2% Ceriated Tungsten was used

7-33
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification –
Technique Variables
 Relevance of technique variables depend on the process
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Stringer/Weave X
.3 φ Orifice, Cup or Nozzle Size X

QW-410 .5 φ Method of cleaning X

Technique .6 φ Method of Back Gouging X

 QW-410.1 – GTAW and GMAW weld was made using

stringer beads
 QW-410.3 – GTAW weld was made with a 5/8-in. cup size
and the GMAW weld was made with a 1-in. nozzle size
 QW-410.5 – Cleaning was done using a wire brush
 QW-410.6 – No back gouging was performed

7-34
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification –
Technique Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.7 φ Oscillation X
.8 φ Tube-work Distance X
.9 φ Multiple to Single Pass/Side X X

QW-410 .10 φ Single to Multiple Electrodes X X

Technique .11 φ Closed to Out Chamber X

 QW-410.7 – The weld was a manual weld

 QW-410.8 – A CTWD of 1/2 to 3/4-in. was used
 GMAW only
 QW-410.9 – Multiple passes per side were deposited
 QW-410.10 – A single electrode was used
 QW-410.11 – The weld was made outside a chamber
 GTAW only
7-35
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification –
Technique Variables
Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.15 φ Electrode Spacing X
.25 φ Manual or Automatic X

QW-410 .26 ± Peening X

Technique .64 Use of Thermal Processes X

 QW-410.15 – Only a single electrode was used

 QW-410.25 – The weld was a manual weld
 QW-410.26 – No peening was used
 QW-410.11 – No thermal processing was used

7-36
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification –
Electrical Characteristics Variables
Technique (QW-410)
Travel Speed: 1 to 5 ipm
Stringer or Weave Bead: Manual Stringer Bead
Oscillation: No Oscillation
Multi/Single Pass per Side: Multiply Passes per Side
Multi/Single Electrode: Single Electrode
Other: 1. No peening was used
2. CTWD was 1/2 – 3/4-in.
3. Cleaning with a wire brush
4. GTAW gas cup was 5/8-in.
5. GMAW nozzle size was 1-in.

7-37
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Testing

 The qualification weld was a groove weld in 0.75-in. thick

plate
 Table QW-451.1 and QW-451.2 outline the destructive test
requirements for procedure qualification
Type and Number of Test Required
Tension, Side Bend, Face Bend, Root Bend,
Thickness of Test Coupon, T QW-150 QW-160 QW-160 QW-160
1/16-in. to 3/8-in. 2 (5) 2 2
> 3/8-in. but < 3/4-in. 2 (5) 2 2
3/4-in. to < 1 1/2-in. 2 (4) 4 - -
1 1/2-in. to 6-in. 2 (4) 4 - -

 (4) See details on multiple specimens when coupon thickness

is over 1-in.
 (5) Four side bends can replace the face and root bends
when coupon thickness is 3/8-in. or greater
7-38
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Testing

7-39
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Testing

 QW-150 describes the different types of tensile test samples,

machine tolerances and acceptance criteria
 The tensile strength must exceed 58 ksi
 Minimum required strength for A36
 QW-422

7-40
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Testing

 QW-160 describes the different types of bend test samples,

machine tolerances and
acceptance criteria
 No open discontinuities in
the weld or HAZ greater
than 1/8-in.
 Provides some leeway

7-41
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Testing

 QW-162 describes the bend test jig that should be used for
qualification

7-42
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Testing

 The diameter of the mandrel is based on the material being

tested

7-43
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Testing

7-44
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Procedure Qualification – Testing

Tensile Test (QW-150)
Specimen Ultimate Ultimate Stress, Type of Failure
No. Width Thickness Area Load, lb psi and Location
Tensile 1
Tensile 2

 The tensile strength must exceed 58 ksi

Guided-Bend Test (QW-160)

Type Results
Side Bend 1
Side Bend 2
Side Bend 3
Side Bend 4

 No open weld or HAZ discontinuity greater than 1/8-in.

7-45
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)

7-46
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure Specification

 Qualified welding procedures are based on the PQR

 The number of welding procedures
 The range of variables
Company Name: Nuclear Construction
By: Joe Welder
WPS No.: NRC-WPS-1 Date: June 8 and 9, 2010
Supporting PQR No.(s) NRC-PQR-1

7-47
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Welding Process Variable

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
QW-410
Technique .25 φ Manual or Automatic X

Procedure Qualification Record

Welding Process: GTAW and GMAW
Types Manual
(Manual, Automatic, Semi-Automatic):

Welding Procedure Specification

Welding Process: GTAW and GMAW
Types Manual, Automatic or Semi-
(Manual, Automatic, Semi-Automatic): Automatic

7-48
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Joint Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Groove Design X
.4 - Backing X

QW-402 .10 φ Root Spacing X

Joints .11 ± Retainers X

Procedure Qualification Record

Joints (QW-402):

Welding Procedure Specification

Joint Design: All Groove and All Fillet Weld Joint Designs
Backing: With and Without Backing
Backing Material: Carbon Steel
Root Spacing: 0 – 2 in.
Retainers: With or Without Metallic or Nonmetallic Retainers
7-49
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Base Material Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
QW-403 .5 φ Group No. X
Base
Materials .11 φ P-No. Qualified X

Procedure Qualification Record

Material Spec.: SA-36
Type or Grade: N/A
P-No. and Group No.: P-No. 1 Group No. 1 to P-No.1 Group No. 1
UNS No.: K02600
Welding Procedure Specification
P-No. and Group No.: P-No. 1 Group No. 1 to P-No.1 Group No. 1
OR
Specification/Type/Grade or UNS No.: N/A
OR
Chemical and Mechanical Properties: N/A

7-50
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Base Material Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
QW-403
Base
Materials .8 φ T Qualified X

 QW-403.8 describes how to determine the qualified base

material thickness range
 Table QW-451
Thickness of Test Coupon Range of Thickness (T) Qualified
(T) Min. Max.
1/16-in. to 3/8-in. 1/16-in. 2T
> 3/8-in. but < 3/4-in. 3/16-in. 2T
3/4-in. to < 1 1/2-in. 3/16-in. 2T
1 1/2-in. to 6-in. 3/16-in. 8-in.
 Note (3) of Table QW-451 calls out QW-202.2 which defines thickness
ranges for fillet welds when qualifying with a groove weld
 All material thicknesses when depositing fillet welds
7-51
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Base Material Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.6 T Limits X
QW-403
Base .9 t pass > ½-in. X
Materials .10 T Limits (S. Cir. Arc) X

 QW-403.6, QW-403.9 and QW-403.10 limit the qualified

thickness range
 QW-403.6 limits the minimum thickness to T or 5/8-in. which ever is
less or when T < 1/4-in. minimum thickness is 1/2T
 Does not apply when PWHT is above upper transformation temperature or
when austenitic material is solution annealed
 QW-403.9 limits the maximum thickness to 1.1T when any single weld
pass greater than 1/2-in.
 QW-403.10 limits maximum thickness to 1.1T when the qualification
thickness is less than 1/2-in. when welding with short circuit GMAW

7-52
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Base Material Variables

Procedure Qualification Record
Thickness of Test Coupon: 0.75-in.
Other: 3. All passes were less than ½-in. thick
Welding Procedure Specification
Thickness Range for Groove Welds: 5/8-in. to 1.5-in.
Thickness Range for Fillet Welds: Unlimited
Maximum Pass Thickness ≤ 1/2-in.: Yes

7-53
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Filler Metal Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.4 φ F-No. X
QW-404
Filler .12 φ Classification X
Metals .33 φ Classification X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
SFA Classification: SFA 5.28 SFA 5.18
AWS Classification: ER80S-D2 ER70S-6
F-No.: 6 6
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
SFA Classification: SFA 5.28 SFA 5.18
AWS Classification: ER80S-D2 ER70S-6
F-No.: 6 6

7-54
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Filler Metal Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.3 φ Size X
QW-404
Filler .5 φ A-No. X
Metals .6 φ Diameter X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
A-No.: 11 1
Size of Filler Metal: 1/8-in. 0.035-in.
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
A-No.: 11 1
Size of Filler Metal: 1/16 – 1/4-in. 0.035 – 0.052-in.

7-55
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Filler Metal Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.14 ± Filler X
.23 φ Filler Metal Product Form X
QW-404
Filler .24 ± or φ Supplemental X
Metals .27 φ Alloy Elements X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
Filler Metal Product Form: Solid Wire Solid Wire
Supplemental Filler Metal: N/A None Used
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
Filler Metal Product Form: Solid Wire Solid Wire
Size of Filler Metal: N/A None Used

7-56
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Filler Metal Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
QW-404 .30 φt X
Filler
Metal .32 t limits (S.C. Arc) X

 QW-404.30 describes how to determine the qualified weld

thickness range
 Table QW-451
 QW-404.32 limits the maximum weld thickness to 1.1t when
qualifying short circuit GMAW on 1/2-in. thick material
Thickness of Test Coupon (T) Maximum Weld Thickness (t) Qualified
1/16-in. to 3/8-in. 2t
> 3/8-in. but < 3/4-in. 2t
3/4-in. to < 1 1/2-in. 2t
t1 1/2-in. to 6-in. 2t when t < 3/4-in. or 8-in. when t ≥ 3/4-in.
 Note (3) of Table QW-451 calls out QW-202.2 which defines fillet weld
sizes when qualifying with a groove weld
 All fillet weld sizes 7-57
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Filler Metal Variables

Procedure Qualification Record
GTAW GMAW
Weld Thickness: 1/4-in. 1/2-in.
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
Maximum Weld Thickness for Groove Welds: 1/2-in. 1-in.
Maximum Weld Thickness for Fillet Welds: Unlimited Unlimited

7-58
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Filler Metal Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
QW-404 .22 ± Consumable Insert X
Filler
Metal .50 ± Flux X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
Electrode/Flux: N/A N/A
Flux Type: N/A N/A
Flux Trade Name; N/A N/A
Consumable Insert: None Used N/A
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
Electrode/Flux: N/A N/A
Flux Type: N/A N/A
Flux Trade Name: N/A N/A
Consumable Insert: None Used N/A
7-59
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Position Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.1 + Position X

QW-405 .2 φ Position X
Positions .3 φ ↑↓ Vertical Welding X

 QW-405.2 limits the welding position by not including vertical-

uphill progression
 Does not apply when PWHT is above upper transformation temperature or
when austenitic material is solution annealed
Procedure Qualification Record
Position of Groove: Flat
Weld Progression: N/A
Welding Procedure Specification
Position(s) of Groove: All
Weld Progression: Vertical-Downhill Progression
Position(s) of Fillet: All
7-60
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Preheat Variables

Supplementary
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Essential Nonessential
.1 Decrease > 100ºF X

QW-406 .2 φ Preheat Maintenance X

Preheat .3 Increase >100ºF (IP) X

Procedure Qualification Record

Preheat Temperature: Ambient (70ºF)
Interpass Temperature: 450ºF
Welding Procedure Specification
Minimum Preheat Temperature: -30ºF
Maximum Interpass Temperature: 550ºF
Preheat Maintenance: Weld should be allowed to air cool

7-61
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – PWHT Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.1 φ PWHT X

QW-407 .2 φ PWHT (T & T range) X

PWHT .4 T Limits X

Procedure Qualification Record

Temperature: None
Time: None
Welding Procedure Specification
Temperature Range: No PWHT Allowed
Time Range: No PWHT Allowed

7-62
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Gas Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential

QW-408 .2 φ Single, Mixture or % X

Gas .3 φ Flow Rate X

Procedure Qualification Record

Percent Composition
Gas(es) Mixture Flow Rate
Shielding: GTAW – Argon 100% 15 – 25 cfh
GMAW – Argon/CO2 75%/25% 25 – 35 cfh
Welding Procedure Specification
Percent Composition
Gas(es) Mixture Flow Rate
Shielding: GTAW - Argon 100% 10 – 40 cfh
GMAW - Argon/CO2 75%/25% 10 – 45 cfh

7-63
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Gas Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.1 ± Trail or φ Composition X
.5 ± or φ Backing Gas X

QW-408 .9 - Backing or φ Composition X

Gas .10 φ Shielding or Trailing X

Procedure Qualification Record

Percent Composition
Gas(es) Mixture Flow Rate
Trailing: None Used None Used None Used
Backing: None Used None Used None Used
Welding Procedure Specification
Percent Composition
Gas(es) Mixture Flow Rate
Trailing: Argon 100% 15-35 cfh
Backing: N/A N/A N/A
7-64
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure –
Electrical Characteristics Variables
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.1 > Heat Input X
QW-409
Electrical .2 φ Transfer Mode X
Characteristics .3 ± Pulsing I X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
Heat Input: 45 kJ/in. 45 kJ/in.
Transfer Mode: N/A Globular
Pulsing Current: None Used N/A
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
Maximum Heat Input: 45 kJ/in. 45 kJ/in.
Transfer Mode: N/A Globular and Spray
Pulsing Current: None Used N/A

7-65
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure –
Electrical Characteristics Variables
Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.4 φ Current or Polarity X X
QW-409
Electrical .8 φ I or E Range X
Characteristics .12 φ Tungsten Electrode X

Procedure Qualification Record

Weld Process Filler Metal Current Volts Travel Speed
Pass Class. Dia. Type/Polarity Amps
1-3 GTAW ER80S-D2 1/8-in. DCEP 175 – 200 10 – 14 Not Recorded
4-10 GMAW ER70S-6 0.035-in. DCEN 170 – 200 24 – 28 Not Recorded
Other: 2% Ceriated Tungsten was used

7-66
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure –
Electrical Characteristics Variables
Procedure Qualification Record
Weld Process Filler Metal Current Volts Travel Speed
Pass Class. Dia. Type/Polarity Amps
1-3 GTAW ER80S-D2 1/8-in. DCEP 175 – 200 10 – 14 1-5
4-10 GMAW ER70S-6 0.035-in. DCEN 170 – 200 24 – 28 1-5
Other: 2% Ceriated Tungsten was used

Procedure Qualification Record

Weld Process Filler Metal Current Volts Travel Speed
Pass Class. Dia. Type/Polarity Amps
1-3 GTAW ER80S-D2 3/32-in. DCEP 150 – 300 5 – 25 1-10
1-3 GTAW ER80S-D2 1/8-in. DCEP 175 – 200 10 – 14 1-10
Fill GMAW ER70S-6 0.035-in. DCEN 150 – 250 20 – 30 5-20
Fill GMAW ER70S-6 0.045-in. DCEN 200 – 400 20 – 30 5-20
Other: 2% Ceriated Tungsten was used
GMAW Wirefeed Speed Range wire is 100-300 ipm

7-67
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Technique Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.1 φ Stringer/Weave X

QW-410 .3 φ Orifice, Cup or Nozzle Size X

Technique .5 φ Method of Cleaning X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
Stringer or Weave: Stringer Stringer
Orifice, Nozzle, or Gas Cup: 5/8-in. 1-in.
Method of Cleaning: Wire Brush Wire Brush
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
Stringer or Weave: Stringer or Weave
Orifice, Nozzle, or Gas Cup: 1/4 – 1-in. 1/2 – 1 1/2-in.
Method of Cleaning: Any method can be used to clean slag between
passes
7-68
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Technique Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.7 φ Oscillation X

QW-410 .8 φ Tube-work Distance X

Technique .9 φ Multiple to Single Pass/Side X X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
Oscillation: None Used None Used
Tube-work Distance: N/A 1/2 – 3/4-in.
Multiply or Single Pass per Side: Multiply Pass Multiply Pass
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
Oscillation: Only manual weaving is permitted
Tube-work Distance: N/A 1/4 – 1-in.
Multiply or Single Pass per Side: Multipass welding only

7-69
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Technique Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential
.6 φ Method of Back Gouging X
.10 φ Single to Multiple Electrodes X X

QW-410 .11 φ Closed to Out Chamber X

Technique .15 φ Electrode Spacing X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
Multiple or Single Electrodes: Single Single
Method of Back Gouging: None Used None Used
Closed to Out Chamber: Out of Chamber N/A
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
Multiple or Single Electrodes: Single Electrode Only
Method of Back Gouging: Back Gouging can be used by
Closed to Out Chamber: N/A N/A
7-70
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welding Procedure – Technique Variables

Paragraph Brief of Variables Essential Sup. Essential Nonessential

QW-410 .26 ± Peening X

Technique .64 Use of Thermal Processes X

Procedure Qualification Record

GTAW GMAW
Peening: None Used None Used
Thermal Processing: None Used None Used
Welding Procedure Specification
GTAW GMAW
Peening: No Peening Allowed
Thermal Processing: N/A N/A

7-71
Welder Qualification

Module 7B
Module 7 – Summary Welder Qualification

Welder Qualification

 Primary purpose for performance qualification

 To verify the ability of an individual to execute a qualified welding
procedure specification to produce a sound weld

 Welders can be qualified by visual inspection and destructive

testing or radiographic inspection

 Welders qualify to specific welding process NOT welding

procedures
 All variables are essential
 Machine welding is considered a different welding process

7-73
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welder Qualification – Test Requirements

 Visual examination acceptance criteria

 Weld should show complete penetration and fusion
 Bend test acceptance criteria
 No open discontinuities in the weld or HAZ greater than 1/8-in.

7-74
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welder Qualification – Test Requirements

 Radiographic acceptance criteria

 Linear Indications
 Any type of crack, incomplete fusion, or incomplete penetration
 Elongated slag with a length greater than
 1/8-in. for t equal to 3/8-in. or less
 1/3t for t over 3/8-in. up to 2 1/4-in.
 3/4-in. for t over 2 1/4-in.
 Group slag should have an aggregate length no greater than t in a 12t
length
 Exception is when the distance between successive imperfections is 6L where L
is the length on the longest imperfection
 Rounded Indications
 Maximum dimension shall be 20% of t or 1/8-in. whichever is smaller
 For material less than 1/8-in only 12 rounded indications can be present
per 6-in. of weld
 For material greater 1/8-in. and greater the acceptance criteria is provided
in Appendix I
 Characterization charts
7-75
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welder Qualification – Test Requirements

7-76
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

Welder Qualification – Essential Variables

7-77
Module 7 – Summary Welder Qualification

GTAW and GMAW Welder Qualification – Variables

 QW-402.4 states the deletion of backing is essential

 Welders were qualified with backing so they are only allowed to weld
on backing
 QW-403.16 states a change in the pipe diameter qualified is
essential
 Welders were qualified on plate so they can only weld on plate
 QW-403.18 states a change in the P-No. material qualified is
essential
 Welders were qualified on P-No. 1 material so they are qualified to
weld P-No. 1 through P-No. 15F, P-No. 34, and P-No. 41 through P-
No. 49
 All types of carbon and low-alloy steel, Cr-Mo steels, nickel steel, duplex
stainless steels, and Nickel and nickel-based alloys

7-78
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

GTAW and GMAW Welder Qualification – Variables

 QW-404.14 is for GTA welders only and states a change

between using filler metal or not using filler metal is essential
 Welders were qualified with filler metal so they are only allowed to
weld with filler metal
 QW-404.15 states a change in F-No. is essential
 Welders were qualified with F-No. 6 so they are only allowed to weld
with F-No. 6
 QW-404.22 is for GTA welders only and states a change
between using a consumable insert or not using consumable
insert is essential
 Welders were qualified without a consumable insert so they are only
allowed to weld without a consumable insert

7-79
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

GTAW and GMAW Welder Qualification – Variables

 QW-404.23 is for GTA welders only and states a change in

the type of filler metal is essential
 Welders were qualified using a solid wire so they can only weld with a
solid wire
 QW-404.30 states a change in the weld metal thickness
qualified is essential
 Welders deposited 1/4-in. GTA weld and 1/2-in. of GMA weld so they
are qualified to deposit an 1/2-in. GTA weld and unlimited GMA weld

7-80
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

GTAW and GMAW Welder Qualification – Variables

 QW-404.32 is for GMA welders only and limits the weld

thickness range for short circuit GMA welders
 Welders were qualified using globular transfer so the variable does
not apply
 QW-405.1 states a change in the position qualified is
essential
 Welders were qualified in the flat (1F) position so they can only weld
in the 1F position
 QW-405.3 states a change in the weld direction for vertical
weld is essential
 Welders were qualified in the flat (1F) position so they can weld in the
vertical direction

7-81
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

GTAW and GMAW Welder Qualification – Positions

7-82
Module 7 – Summary Weld Procedure Qualification

GTAW and GMAW Welder Qualification – Variables

 QW-408.8 states the omission of inert gas backing is

essential
 Welders were qualified with backing so the variable does not apply
 QW-409.2 is for GMA welders only and states a change in the
transfer mode is essential
 Welders were qualified using globular transfer so they can only weld
with globular, spray or pulsed transfer modes
 QW-409.4 is for GTA welders only and states a change in the
current and polarity is essential
 Welders were qualified using DCEP so they can only weld using
DCEP

7-83
Module 7 – Summary Welder Qualification

Welder Qualification Requirements

 QW-320 covers the requirements for retesting and renewing

welder qualification

 QW-322 Expiration and Renewal of Qualification

 When the welder has not welded with the process within 6 months
 When there is a specific reason to question his ability to make welds
that met the specifications

7-84