Introduction

India is one of the world's great civilizations. An ancient land, vast and complex, with a full and
diverse cultural heritage that has enriched the world. Extending back to the time of the world's
earliest civilizations in an unbroken tradition, Indian history has seen the mingling of numerous
peoples, the founding of great religions and the flourishing of science and philosophy under the
patronage of grand empires. With a great reluctance to abandon traditions, India has grown a culture
that is vast and rich, with an enormous body of history, legend, theology, and philosophy.

With such breadth, India offers a multitude of adventuring options. Many settings are available such
as the high fantasy Hindu epics or the refined British Empire in India. In these settings India allows
many genres. Espionage is an example, chasing stolen nuclear material in modern India or foiling
Russian imperialism in the 19th century. War is an option; one could play a soldier in the army of
Alexander the Great or a proud Rajput knight willing to die before surrender. Or horror in a
dangerous and alien land with ancient multi-armed gods and bloodthirsty Tantric sorcerers. Also,
many styles are available, from high intrigue in the court of the Mogul Emperors to earnest quests
for spiritual purity to the silliness of Mumbai "masala" movies.

GURPS India presents India in all its glory. It covers the whole of Indian history, with particular
emphasis on the Gupta Empire, the Moghul Empire, and the British Empire. It also details Indian
mythology and the Hindu epics allowing for authentic Indian fantasy to be played. GURPS India
provides a full introduction to Indian culture, describing the unique Indian customs and lifestyle.
India's religions are presented including details on the difficult concepts of karma and reincarnation.
This book is all you need to open up the exciting and fascinating land that is India.

About the Author

In 1993 Ben Chapman took up a scholarship to study physics at Maharaja Sayajirao University of
Baroda in India -- thereby reconciling the two disparate threads of his life, a love of India and a
career in the physical sciences.

In 1995 he took the "second birth" and become a Hindu, adopting the Hindu name "Baldev."
India
"So far as I am able to judge, nothing has been left undone, either by man or Nature, to make India
the most extraordinary country that the sun visits on his round . Always when you think you have
come to the end of her tremendous specialties and have finished hanging tags on her . another
specialty crops up and another tag is required. Perhaps it would be simplest to throw away all the
tags and generalize her with one all-comprehensive name, as the Land of Wonders."

--<\#208> Mark Twain

The Indies, the vast and ancient land across the Indus river, has become, as testified by Mark Twain,
synonymous with wonder, both magnificent and bizarre. Separated from the rest of the world by
giant mountain ranges, expanses of ocean, and walls of incomprehension, India has forever been a
foreign land of plenty, either a land of riches or a land of spiritual wealth.

India is one of the world's great cultures and it wears its antiquity with pride. The 5,000 years of
India's history has littered the landscape with ruins of forts, palaces, and temples that have been
home to magnificent emperors, pious heroes, and even gods. With an unbroken evolution from its
earliest days, the culture of India is rich beyond easy comprehension. India's many religions, arts,
and philosophies have depth born of millennia of contemplation and growth and have such
complexity and diversity as to be positively labyrinthine. Indian society too, with its untold customs
and ponderous caste system, has a complexity that can only come from great age.

In India, number seems to have a different meaning, such is the scale of things in this land. India the
country now has a population of over a billion people who speak 1,652 languages and worship as
many as 330 million gods. India it seems is only able to do things to excess. The wealth of India is
legendary, it has given the English language the word "mogul" to refer to people of extreme wealth.
Yet, India also has a wealth of poverty, India's impoverished outnumber the entire population of the
United States.

A land that contains so much is not easy to understand; nor should it be any surprise that India
contains great inconsistencies -- in fact India is a land of veritable contradictions. This is the land of
Gandhi and non-violence, with a nuclear arsenal and that once featured the savage cults of thagi. It is
a space-age country with an economy based on peasant farming, where pastoral, and often savage,
traditions coexist with the highest technological capacity. A worldly land with the most complex of
spiritual traditions. A staidly conservative land whose literature includes the Kamasutra, the famous
treatise on the arts of love.

It is little wonder that this land of paradoxes is such a mystery to outsiders. In the past, India was
viewed as a distant land of riches, the treasures of India were legendary; from India came gold,
diamonds, spices, exotic beasts, and the strangest of customs. Today, India is seen by many as being
a land of intractable spiritual philosophies. However, these philosophies are nearly as esoteric to the
average Indian as they are to interested foreigners. Indians, for their part, are rather less interested in
the rest of the world (at least they were until the advent of satellite TV and its visions of plenty). To
an Indian, this land has produced a culture so complete, as to need no imports.

The Regions of India

For the purposes of this book, India refers not just to the modern county of India or Bharat (see
Names of India), but to the whole region often known as the Subcontinent or South Asia. Crowned
by the Himalayas in the north, this region ranges roughly from the Hindu Kush Mountains in the
west to the Patkai Hills in the east, encompassing the countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Nepal, and Bhutan, as well as the islands of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
Combined, these countries cover an area of 1,730,000 sq. miles, encompassing the widest range of
geographies; from the Himalayas, the worlds highest mountain range to the flatness of the Gangetic
plain; from the arid Thar Desert to Cherrapunji, one of the wettest places in the world; from the
glaciers at the heights of Kashmir to the baking Deccan plateau.

The Indus and Punjab

One of the great rivers of India, the Indus flows from its source in the Himalayas through the
provinces of Punjab and Sind to the Arabian Sea. All but the uppermost parts of the river now lie in
Pakistan. It was on the banks of this great river that the ancient Indus Valley Civilization flourished
(see p. xx). At that time the land was semi-arid but fertile enough to support an urban civilization.
However, since then, the southern regions of the river basin have become dry and barren. In A.D.
644 an Arab invasion force turned back from this land finding that the "water is scarce, the fruits are
poor, and the robbers are bold; if a few troops are sent they will be slain, if many, they will starve."
Karachi is the main city of the southern Indus basin.

The Punjab lies up the Indus River. The name means "five rivers," referring to the rivers Indus,
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej. With the waters of these five rivers and the climate of the hills,
Punjab is the breadbasket of India and Pakistan, between whom the region is divided. As the entry
point to India from the west, Punjab has been the first to see most of India's invaders. It was here that
the Aryans first lived in India (see Aryans, p. xx) and since then it has been fought over by Persians,
Greeks, Scythians, Kushans, Hunas, Turks, and Moghuls -- only the British and Portuguese entered
India from other directions. The Punjab is the birthplace of Sikhism (see Sikhism, pp. xx-yy) and for
periods during the 19th century was home to a Sikh kingdom. However, when the region was
divided during Partition (see Independence and Partition, p. xx), a large number of Sikhs left
Pakistani Punjab to move to India (along with many Hindus and also many Muslims relocated west
to Pakistan). Some Sikhs call for Punjab to become a Sikh homeland, "Khalistan." Before 1966 the
states of Himachal Pradesh and Haryana were part of the state and region of Punjab. Lahore is the
largest city of Punjab, now in Pakistan. Amritsar in India is the home of the Golden Temple.

The western fringes of this region, Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier, where the country of
Pakistan meets Afghanistan, has long been home to warrior tribes. Today it is home to Afghans and
Pathans but the dry, rocky hills have also been defended by Turks, Kushans, and Bactrian Greeks.

Ganga River Valley

The mighty Ganga flows from the sacred town of Hardwar, running out of the Himalayas into the
vast Gangetic river basin. It absorbs the Jamuna at Allahabad and flows east to empty into the Bay of
Bengal, catching the Brahmaputra on the way. The Ganga River Valley cuts a deep trough between
the Himalayas to the north and the Vidhya Hills to the south. Largely flat plains, the valley, heartland
of modern India, has been the most populated and farmed region of India since the Aryans cleared
the impenetrable jungle. However, it has been inhabited for so long the soil is all but exhausted and
precious little of the former jungle remains. In classical times this was the center of Hindu glory. It
was from the city of Pataliputra (modern day Patna) that the great Hindu empires of the Mauryas and
Guptas had their capitals. However, in modern day India, the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have
become the poorest and most backward, excepting maybe only Orissa. The literacy rate of this
region is about 40% and poverty has turned some desperates to banditry.

Up the Jamuna is Delhi, the site of the modern capital of India, New Delhi. Other important cities of
the region are Varanasi, India's most holy city; Ayodhya, Rama's birthplace (see Ramayana, pp. xx-
yy); Allahabad (known as Prayag before 1584), the site of the Kumbha Mela; and Agra, the home of
the Taj Mahal.

At the Delta end of the Ganga is Bengal. Rather more tropical than the rest of the river valley,
Bengal is considerably more humid. It too is largely devoid of jungle except for the man-eating-
tiger-infested Sundaban mangrove swamps at the mouths of the Ganga. Bengal has usually been part
of a larger empire but at times was also an independent kingdom. It was here that the British began
their empire, building their early capital Calcutta down the Hooghly, a tributary of the Ganga.
Bengal was divided by the British along religious lines and after Partition, the western half became
the Indian state of West Bengal and the eastern province became East Pakistan and later the
independent country of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is a pitifully poor country, frequently flooded
during the monsoon.

Rajasthan and the West

The rugged lands of Rajasthan, the Land of Kings, are dominated by the Thar desert. The whole
region is mostly arid and even the relatively verdant hills in the south and east of the region contain
little vegetation. This desert land, formally called Rajputana, is the home of the Rajputs, a proud
people, inhabitants of the region since about the first century A.D., who developed a singular warrior
culture. In stark contrast to the drab countryside, Rajasthani culture is vibrant and delights in the use
of all the colors God did not put in the desert. The land is dotted with Rajput fortresses and palaces
including the incomparably romantic lake palace at Udaipur, giving the region a decidedly Arabian
Nights feel, though of a Hindu flavor rather than Muslim. Rajasthan has long been divided into
several princely states, nominally under the Maharana of Marwar but independent in practice.
Important cities and princely states in Rajasthan are Jaipur, Jodhpur, Marwar in the southern hills
with its capital at Udaipur, and Jaisalmer in the center of the Thar desert. Rajasthan is the western-
most state of modern India and the Thar Desert forms the border with Pakistan. It is an important
military area and it was at Pokaran that India tested its nuclear devices (Pakistan incidentally tested
theirs in the Chagai Hills of Baluchistan).

To the south of Rajasthan is Gujarat, home state of Mahatma Gandhi. The culture of Gujarat is
reminiscent of Rajasthan but the region has had quite a different political history to its northern
neighbor; Gujarat has often been unified in a kingdom or sultanate but regularly part of a larger
empire. As the entry-point to northern India for sea-based trade, Gujarat has always been a major
trading center of India and Gujaratis are renown for being great traders. This aptitude for commerce
has made Gujarat one of the wealthiest and most industrialized states, in contrast to Rajasthan, which
is amongst the poorest. In Saurashtra, is the temple of Somnath and in the far west is Dwarka, the
kingdom ruled over by Krishna in his time.

Kashmir and The Himalayas

The northern reaches of India are bounded by the Himalayas, the Home of the Clouds, where can be
found Shiva's home Mt Kailesh. Without this huge mountain range it is likely that India would be
uninhabitable as the mountains and the Tibetan plateau cause the rain-bringing weather system
known as the Monsoon. Furthermore, the great rivers of northern India are all sourced in the
Himalayas.

The foothills of the Himalayas are blessedly cooler than the baking heat of the lowlands of India. For
this reason, the British built summer towns in the hills. Shimla and Darjeeling are the two most
important hill stations in the Himalayas, one on either end of the range. The mountains were home to
two important kingdoms. One, the Gurkha kingdom, became modern-day Nepal. The other, centered
on the spectacular Vale of Kashmir, is a highly coveted land. The Moghul emperors (see Moghul
Empire, pp. xx-yy) loved Kashmir and used it as their summer retreat, building beautiful gardens by
Dal Lake. Another interesting feature of Dal Lake are the "houseboats" of the British; forbidden to
build on the land, they resorted to building their homes on the water. Kashmir has become a byword
for alpine paradise in India and is used to compare other beautiful places in the world; for example,
Switzerland is the "Kashmir of Europe" and New Zealand the "Kashmir of the South." Today
Kashmir is coveted by both India and Pakistan, more for strategic and political than aesthetic
reasons.

The Deccan Plateau

Peninsula India is separated from continental India by a series of forests and ranges of hills, the chief
range being the Vidhya Hills. This barrier has worked to keep the culture of north and south distinct,
even though they are quite similar. This boundary region is home to the greatest number of Adivasi
tribes (see sidebar and People of India below). Bounded by the two mountain ranges, the Western
and Eastern Ghats, the hilly Deccan plateau is dry and hot. The plateau slopes slightly from west to
east and all the major rivers run from the west to the Bay of Bengal. The great rivers that run through
it, notably the Narmada and the Godavari, are barely sufficient to keep the area watered and the
inhabitants rely far more on wells and reservoirs than the northerners who rely mainly on river water.
On either side of the Ghats are narrow coastal plains.

The western end of the state of Madhya Pradesh was formally known as Malwa. Ujjain is an
important city here, often important in history (e.g. it was Chandra Gupta II's capital) but important
also because the Kumbha Mela takes place here every 12 years. The west of the Deccan is the state
of Maharashtra, home to the Marathas, a warrior people. Mumbai, India's commercial center, is the
capital of Maharashtra. To the east of the Deccan is the state of Orissa, containing Puri, one of the
most important Hindu holy sites.

The Eastern Hills

The hilly region to the east of Bangladesh was known as Assam under British administration but is
now divided into seven states and provinces, consistent with the great diversity in the region with
scores of distinct tribes living here, chief amongst them being the head hunting Nagas. This region is
largely forested and receives great rainfall during the monsoon. The northern parts of the region are
claimed by China.

Deep South

The southern-most reaches of India are a continuation of the Deccan. In climate the south is
considerably more tropical than the north, being consistently hot and humid, rather than scorching
and predominantly dry. As noted above, the culture of the south is distinct from that of the north. For
most periods of India's history, events in the south have occurred independently of the north. While
empires rose and fell in the Gangetic plain, the south's dynasties made their own sport over the plains
of Tamil Nadu, the Land of the Tamils. A significant difference is the fact that the northern Islamic
empires never conquered the deep south, meaning it remained strongly Hindu in culture. One
striking difference between north and south is language. The Tamil derived "Dravidian" languages of
the south are of a different language family from the Sanskrit derived "Indo-Aryan" languages of the
north. Some use this as a flimsy pretext for seeing the southerners as a different race of Dravidians
and push for independence for the south as Dravidistan. The difference in language has become
particularly pertinent since India gained independence as the south is reluctant to accept Hindi, a
northern tongue, as the national language. Important cities in the South are Chennai (formally
Madras), Bangalore the technical city, Hyderabad, and Mysore the sandalwood city. The main river
of the south is the Kaveri. The southern most tip of the peninsula is called Kanya Kumari, or Cape
Comorin to the British.

Sri Lanka

The tear shaped island of Sri Lanka shares some of the culture of India but has most had its own
history. However, Buddhism and Tamils have infiltrated the island from India. Sri Lanka is tropical,
particular the south west which is quite wet. The interior of the island is mountainous.
The Weather
"Hot" is almost sufficient to describe the weather of most of India. Together with the Monsoon, the
heat dominates India's climate. In May, at the height of summer, temperatures inland can exceed
100°F -- vegetation withers, rivers dry up, and homeless unfortunates bake to death. The land shuts
down in summer with most people retreating to their homes and the security of the ubiquitous ceiling
fans. Most activity takes place at night when the temperature is merely oppressive rather than
debilitating.

At the beginning of June the Monsoon arrives in the south of India like a primal force, building
slowly as black rain clouds and electrical storms. Then it breaks with a fury, sending down torrents
of rain. The Monsoon spreads north east across India, reaching Bengal a week after its arrival at
Kanya Kumari, and Mumbai some days later. By July, the Monsoon has covered all of India. It rains
heavily during the Monsoon but intermittently; each Monsoon day would see a small number of
downpours of short duration but great intensity. Outside of the Monsoon, most parts of India get very
little rainfall.

Immediately after the arrival of the Monsoon, India is regenerated -- plants grow again and
innumerable frogs come out of hibernation. The temperature begins dropping after the coming of the
rains, a drop of 20°F in a month is possible in the hottest parts of the country. The temperature then
continues to drop steadily as winter approaches. Winter in India remains hot; most parts of India will
still see temperatures of 70°F during January. Coastal regions and the south do not see a great
variation in temperature during the year but inland areas can get cool, particularly at night.

Wildlife and Vegetation

India teems with wildlife; an extraordinary number of animal species can be found in the
subcontinent. A number of great cats live in India, notably tigers but also leopards and Asiatic lions.
Once thousands of these cats roamed India but now they are measured in hundreds, mostly in
sanctuaries, with lions now found only in the Sasan Gir Lion Sanctuary in Saurashtra. Indian
Elephants too once lived throughout India but wild populations are now very low, confined mostly to
Assam and northern Bengal. There are many domestic elephants throughout India however. The
open lands and jungles of India see many different species of deer. There are still considerable wild
populations of monkeys, of which India has several species, the most common being the langur and
macaque. India has many species of reptiles including crocodiles and snakes such as the king cobra
and species of python. The wilderness is home to goats, pigs, wolves, foxes, and wild dogs. Bears
live in the foothills of the Himalayas and a few are scattered through the mainland.

India sports great populations of birds, which share the air with numerous species of bat. The variety
of birds in India is extremely broad but the most impressive of them all is the peacock, the national
bird.

India too swarms and crawls with insects. The malaria carrying mosquito being the most
conspicuous.

Until recently, animals ruled India, not humans. Humans preyed on animals, it is true, but most of
the animal population was free to live its animal life. The jungle extended right up to the doorstep
(and was an ever-present motif in Indian literature and thought); it was possible to see herds of
elephants living within sight of major cities and nervous sleepers would be kept awake at night by
the howling of jackals.

As the population of humans has grown the natural habitats of many animals are being lost and
populations of many animals have dwindled. However some species have adapted to living with
humans, in fact, cities contain a greater density of wildlife than the wilderness. Ubiquitous in Indian
cities is the pariah or "pi" dog, emaciated, lice-ridden, and sometimes rabid mongrels that share the
cities rubbish heaps with wire-haired pigs. Troupes of monkeys also live in the cities, generally
making nuisances of themselves, thieving and vandalizing. Cows and water buffalo proliferate in
cities nearly as much as they do in the countryside, lying where they wish and grazing any open
grass they can get to, such as cricket fields and the gardens of palaces or office blocks. Camels are
another domestic animal often seen in Indian cites. Many different types of birds can also be found,
scavenging vultures and kite hawks notably. Snakes are less commonly found in cities but there are
many small lizards (about 1/2' long). The other animals that live in Indian cities in huge numbers are
rats and cockroaches.

India was once covered in jungles of teak and sal trees, but the forest covering has reduced to about
10% of the land. The amount of forest covering has decreased over India's history but particularly so
in the last few decades, and even the last generation. There are a number of trees in India worth
noting. The mango tree is important in India, not only because its fruit, which comes in so many
different varieties, is so loved, but also because it is so important to social life. Mango trees are often
found at the center of many villages. Neem and tulsi trees are two of the more sacred trees. Tulsi is
looked after by the women of a household. Banyan trees are one of the most impressive plants one is
likely to see. A fully-grown tree stands about 20' tall with a twisted and corded trunk and a thick
canopy. Thick vines grow down from the canopy and when they reach the ground they sprout roots
and become secondary trunks. A mature tree then has a thick trunk and a ring of secondary trunks
about 20' out from the central trunk. The banyan tree is a greedy plant and sucks up all the goodness
from around it -- nothing grows under a banyan tree.

The huge variety of plants in India has been made use of by Indians in food and medicine. All
Indians know a myriad of folk remedies using spices and other plants.

The People of India

"Unity through diversity" is the catch-cry of modern India -- and India certainly is diverse. The
variety in the peoples of the four corners of India is huge; that this might not be so obvious to an
outsider is paralleled in the Indian view of Europe as being homogeneous.

While the variety across the land is undeniably impressive, it is the variety within regions that is a
standout feature of India. In any region one finds people of different religions, castes, and tribes
intermingling yet keeping themselves distinct. This communalism is a driving force of India. It is
expressed most strongly in the caste system (see below), but also works to keep religions and ethnic
groups distinct. The most evident difference in communities is between the religions. However, this
is rivaled by the differences between the more dissimilar Hindu castes. The different communities
within a region are distinguished by having different customs, differences that extend beyond
religious customs to include differences in dowry traditions for example, and even differences in
dress, the way a woman wears her shawl for instance. This makes the different communities easily
identifiable; one's religion and caste are reasonably apparent to others, though there is plenty of
scope for error and anyone sufficiently clued up could disguise themselves as a members of another
community.

The greatest separation between communities is physical; in a city or village the different religions
will, by tradition, largely live in separate districts of the city. This is true of castes in villages but
since caste consciousness has begun to decrease, separation of castes has become less evident in the
cities.

It is scarcely worth mentioning that the vast majority of Indians are brown skinned with black hair
and dark brown eyes. However, it must be said that the fact that all Indians share this general
complexion does not imply in the slightest that they look alike. To compare a Rajasthani, say, with a
Bengali, would make this abundantly clear. In general, those in the north-west (such as Rajasthanis)
are fairer than those in the south and east (such as Benjalis). Also, it is often possible to detect
Persian ancestry in some north Indians. India is vast enough to include several different racial types,
including Tibetans in the eastern parts of Jammu and Kashmir, and other Asian types in the north-
west.

One remarkable fact about India is that throughout its history, many different tech levels have
existed alongside each other. Even today, TL0 stone-age hunter-gatherer tribes live in a TL7 India
that contributes to the cutting edge of the information age. These tribes, called Adivasi or, slightly
derogatorily, junglis live a relatively simple existence in the wildernesses of India.

Language

An abundance of language is one of India's prime attributes. Modern India has an uncountable
number of languages, but one estimate puts the number at 1,652. These languages come from a
number of language families, the most prevalent being Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, and Persian.
(Ignoring English, which is widespread during and after the British rule, but known only by a small
fraction of the population.)

The oldest language of India is the untranslated language of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is
assumed to be Dravidian. Dravidian languages are now largely found only in the south of India. The
four main Dravidian languages are Tamil, Malayam, Telugu, and Kanada, spoken respectively in the
modern states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.

Indo-Aryan languages entered India in about 1500 B.C. and are now the main languages of North
India. Hindi is the most widespread, its dialects being spoken in the states of Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh. Other Indo-European languages are
Gujarati, Punjabi, Bengali, Sindhi, Marathi, and Oriya, spoken respectively in the states of Gujarat,
Punjab (both in India and Pakistan), Bengal, Sind, Maharashtra, and Orissa. Also included in this
language family is the dead language Sanskrit (see below).

The arrival of Islam to India brought new languages to the land. Muslim rulers generally spoke
Persian, or less commonly Afghani. Persian therefore became a popular language for the ruling class.
Persian fused with local languages to become Urdu, a language used initially by the army. Urdu
takes the grammar of Hindi but uses the vocabulary of Persian. There was a greater melding of
languages in time with Hindi and Urdu converging to create Hindustani. With partition, efforts were
made to purify languages with Hindustani being Sanskritized in India to form a pure Hindi, and in
Pakistan Persianized into Urdu, the official language of that country.

The script of Indian languages has evolved through the centuries. The contemporary script for
Sanskrit, Hindi, and a number of other Indo-Aryan languages, looking like washing hanging out to
dry, is called Devanagari, the "language of the city of the gods," and dates back to about 100-200
AD. Indo-Aryan and Dravidian scripts are phonetic, including symbols for all possible sounds in the
language, and read from left to right. They are not alphabets, it should be noted, but rather are
syllabaries. Persian, Urdu, Kashmiri, and other Persian based languages use Arabic script, read from
right to left.

Sankrit

The language of religious and classical Hindu literature is Sanskrit. It has long stopped being used by
the common populace and is to Indian vernaculars (known as prakrits) as Latin is to European
languages. It is the language of priests and scholars and only sometimes of the ruling class.

Sanskrit is a very complex language with an elaborate grammar a massive vocabulary. It has a
tendency to create enormous compound words, with as many as 20 elements.

It is also a holy language, with each syllable, provided it is pronounced properly, being a powerful
invocation.

Society and Lifestyle

Caste

In theory, Hindu society is divided into four classes called varna. These classes determine one's role
as well as position in society. The classes are brahmins (priests, teachers), kshatriyas (warriors),
vaishyas (merchants, tradesmen), and shudras (peasants}. The first three are so-called "twice-born"
classes, referring to the upanayana coming of age ceremony celebrated by people of these classes
wherein the celebrant receives a sacred thread (worn looped over one shoulder and across the torso).
The varna system is an incontrovertible and undeniable divinely ordained division of society. It is
not just a classification, however, as the varna are exclusive divisions, expressed most strongly in
rules of "pollution," which as well as contact with spiritually polluting objects such as dead bodies,
also refers to certain types of contact with other varna. Brahmins face the strictest of pollution
restrictions to the extent that a brahmin can only eat food prepared by another brahmin.

This system of varna is often referred to the "caste system." However, caste, as the term is used in
India, refers to the related system of "jati," ("birth"), and is what is referred to when "caste" is used
in this book. With thousands of different castes, jati is a far more precise classification than varna.
At its simplest level, jati is one's occupation. It is what one's father did, and his father, and his father.
An example jati might be "fisherman." However, there are a number of "fisherman" castes as jati is
in fact more than just occupation. Each jati can be seen as a miniature nation imbedded within
greater Indian society, with its own community and inviolate traditions. In some ways a jati is like an
enormous extended family, one is obliged to one's fellow jati members as if they were distant
relatives; one can normally expect hospitality from a fellow jati member (though it may be given
grudgingly) and members of a jati will look after less fortunate members by finding them jobs for
example (nepotism being a vilified but firmly established institution in India). However, members of
a jati are not necessarily related, or are related so distantly that connections cannot be traced. In fact,
when arranging a marriage (endogamy being one of the salient aspects of the caste system), great
pains are made to ensure there can be no possible ties of blood between the bride and groom.

Jatis are identified by surnames, "Patel" for example, the ubiquitous non-resident Indian name, is a
name of a Gujarati farming caste. One jati might have half a dozen different family names. This
helps in identifying a person's caste, but is not a certain identification as jatis can have names in
common. (This sharing of surnames can be simply coincidence but might also have some history
behind it. For example, the Rohit caste shares Rajput names and there is a belief within the caste that
the community was once Rajput but "lost" caste for some forgotten reason.) Jatis vary in size but can
extend over wide areas; the Yadav farming caste (descendents of the Yadu tribe) for example,
extends across north India and is so large as to be the main political power-bloc in the states of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.

There is great variety in the organization within a jati. Most are tribal in some respects, having its
own customs and local headmen. A well organized jati provides facilities for its members; guest
houses throughout the country, for example. It is vitally important to maintain good contacts with
one's jati community, particularly by the head of the household. Of the main benefits of having
strong caste contacts is in finding matches for one's children, as not only is arranging good marriages
for one's children an important responsibility of a father, it also brings respect to the family to have
arranged fortuitous matches.
The two types of "caste," varna and jati, are different but not separate as every jati fits into a varna,
with jati being in some sense a subdivision of varna. The two castes have different origins and
different effects. One's jati determines where one is in society whereas one's varna determines how
one interacts with others; most significantly it determines what one finds "polluting." Just like the
varnas, the different jatis are ranked hierarchically, but there are innumerable complications as
certain jatis have particular relations with some jatis and jatis have subdivisions which are also
ranked.

Without a religious basis, non-Hindus have caste as well that works in a similar manner to the Hindu
jati system.

Caste in Society

The two biggest effects on society of the caste system is to give every person a broad community to
which they belong and to a pigeonhole into which they fit.

Having a community means that everyone has a bunch of people they can rely on and are obliged to
succor. Foremost in most Indian's minds when making decisions is how their caste will react.

Caste is used as a way of measuring a person. One of the first questions asked of a stranger is
commonly, "What is your caste?" Knowing a person's caste, an (entirely preconceived) estimate of
their personality might be made, with those of "high" caste being expected to be "better" people. It is
also of interest to know that a person comes from a caste similar to your own as they might be
expected to be similar in character to you.

Caste is also a way of segregating society, with higher castes tending not to associate with those of
lower castes. In pre-modern times this was observed more rigorously.

Untouchability

Beyond the four varnas there is a fifth division of Hindu society, known variously as
"untouchables," "harijans" ("children of God," a name given to the caste by Mahatma Gandhi),
"dalits" ("disadvantaged"), and "B.C.'s" ("backward castes," a bureaucratic term that along with
"scheduled castes" and "scheduled tribes" refers to the groups for which government quotas are
reserved).

Untouchables have all the appearance of a fifth varna, for example, there are innumerable
untouchable jatis, however, untouchables are in fact outside the varna system (though still Hindu
and part of Hindu society). For this reason Hindus of the four varnas must minimize, or preferably
completely avoid, contact with untouchables. The worst "pollution" comes from contact with
untouchables, particularly for brahmins, where the contact even with the shadow of an untouchable
is enough to require ritual ablutions to wash away the pollution.

Untouchables have traditionally had jobs too debased for good Hindus to perform, such as leather
working and cleaning human waste.

Avoiding pollution of varna Hindus by untouchables is the responsibility of the untouchables, not of
those who would be polluted. Untouchables have traditionally lived on the outskirts of towns or
villages. They have had to live under a great list of restrictions so that they are less likely to pollute
varna Hindus. These include taking water downstream and not sharing wells with varna Hindus,
being forbidden to enter Hindu temples, beating a gong when entering a town to alert others, and
spitting into a pouch tied around their neck so as not to leave their polluting sputum for others to
accidentally touch (voiding one's rheum being a right of all Indians, even untouchables).
Outcast from normal society, restricted to menial poorly-paid jobs, prejudiced against in law, and
subject to degrading and humiliating prohibitions, the life of an untouchable is cruel and harsh and
often abjectly wretched. For those not party to the intricacies of the caste system or the mechanics of
karma and samsara (see Universal Truths, p. xx), untouchability seems inhuman and unjust.
However, a Hindu would defend the practice by pointing out that the unfortunate untouchable had
brought their lowly status upon themselves through sins in a former life.

Though a devout Hindu, Mahatma Gandhi did not take to this theory. He made it one of his life's
works to abolish untouchability. He referred to untouchables as "harijans" ("children of God"), and
attempted to reform Hinduism's treatment of untouchables. Dr B. R. Ambedkar, the writer of the
Indian constitution and an untouchable himself, worked harder to emancipate untouchables by
refusing to consider the unity of Hinduism as a necessity. In fact, he advocated conversion to
Buddhism as an escape from inequitable treatment in Hinduism.

The work of Gandhi, Ambedkar, and other social reformers has done much to improve the position
of untouchables in Indian society, and indeed to break down caste prejudices in general and bring the
castes closer together. However, despite it being illegal in modern India, discrimination against
untouchables is still evident and in parts of the country it continues unchecked. In order to promote a
social uplifting of "backward castes," the Indian government assigns quotas in government jobs and
university seats. Now, rather than looking for historical justification for not being classified as
untouchable or recognition as a martial caste (see Martial Races, p. xx), castes argue to be classified
as "backward" in order to qualify for quotas, scholarships, and other such benefits.

Slavery

Slavery is an ancient tradition in India, dating back to the enslavement of dasas by the Aryans (see
Aryans, p. xx), if not earlier, and lasting until the modern day in the practice of bonded debt labor.
Enslavement could come about through war, punishment for crime, bondage for debt non-payment, a
family selling its members during times of famine, a person unable to support themselves selling
their labor and freedom, or any number of less common manners such as losing one's freedom in a
wager. Furthermore, children born to slaves are themselves slaves unless the master decides
otherwise.

Though prevalent in India, slavery was never a vital industry as it was in other civilizations, Rome
for instance. However, it formed an institution fully knitted into Indian society; slaves in a household
were treated like family and slaves of rich landholders were often given their own land at a reduced
rent. Slavery played a somewhat important role in Indian society as it was an alternative to other
forms of punishment including death. Also, it was a rather tragic way for a family to buy off
starvation.

Slavery was abolished by the British in 1843 after much consternation over interfering with
entrenched local customs. However, slavery of a sort continues in parts of India where heavily
indebted peasants are forced into bonded labor when their debts cannot be paid.

Misogyny

The position of women in Indian society has changed considerably over the years but women have
consistently been considered inferior to men.

In the earliest times of ancient India, women were afforded considerable freedoms, which they are
not now. Before marriage, young women were permitted as much independence as young men and
married women were not excessively restricted. A number of important sacrifices required the
presence of a woman or had to be performed by a woman alone. However, early into the classical
period, women lost status. The law books of this time, being as much social instructions as legal
decrees, acclaimed the status of a woman under law to be no greater than that of a shudra.

Throughout her life a woman is considered property, or at best, is under guardianship. Before she is
married she is under the guardianship of her father and after marriage under that of her husband --
even as a widow she is not free, being in this case the responsibility of her sons. Before marriage it is
the duty of a young woman to prepare for marriage. After marriage it is the duty of a woman to serve
her husband and bear sons, a point made repeatedly in classical literature.

According to the ancient Hindu law books, a girl should be married before her first menstruation. If
not, being licentious (according to these books), she will find a lover. Child marriage therefore,
though unknown in the early times, became common. In marriage, a woman is given a dowry from
her father, which is an amount of wealth for her upkeep should things go wrong in her marriage.
However, the dowry often included a generous gift for the husband. Adding the cost of hosting the
wedding, the responsibility of the bride's family, to the dowry makes girls expensive burdens. For
this reason it is considered quite unfortunate to give birth to a girl. It is not unknown for unborn girls
to be aborted or even for female infants to be murdered when their sex is discovered after birth.
There are villages in parts of India where no girl has officially been born for many years.

Dowry payouts do not necessarily stop when the woman is married. Often the husband will demand
that his wife's family supply more money and if not he will sometimes take revenge on his wife,
which in the worst case could lead to what is known as a "dowry death." There are, tragically, an
unfeasibly large number of deaths or near deaths supposedly caused by clothes catching fire.

The liberty of women was impaired further in Muslim times. During this time developed the system
of pardah, wherein women are forbidden to be seen outside their home. Even inside the home it was
common for a section of the house to be demarcated for the use of the women of the household,
called the zenana. The restrictions are greater in general for Muslim women but it is only the most
strict of Muslims that demand a woman cover herself from head to foot, a tradition called burqa. All
Indian women must always be modest in dressing and will often try to cover their faces with shawls
or their sari (see below for a description of this item of clothing) if one is likely to look at their faces.

Queens and concubines of a royal household were confined to the harem, a huge zenana of sorts
where only women and their children are permitted to enter other than their husband. These were
guarded by eunuchs.

Quite possibly the most abject person in India is the widow. It is almost as if a widow is considered
responsible for her husband's death. A widow must wear white and no jewelry, she will eat only a
small meal everyday, and is excluded from religious ceremonies. The practice of sati was the most
appalling fate of a widow. This custom involved the widow throwing herself on her husband's
funeral pyre. Sati was once considered the most noble act a woman could perform but is now no
longer practiced, the last recorded sati having taken place with much alarm and controversy in 1987.

All told, the life of a woman in India could be harsh and unfair. In no way can a woman have been
said to be equally as advantaged as a man. In truth though, few women must suffer all of these
depravations. In fact, women sometimes exhibited surprising freedoms, for example, it was not
unknown for women to join men on the battle field.

Marriage

Marriage remains a sacred institution in India and is perhaps the pivotal event of an Indian's life. It is
taken very seriously and the prospective bride and groom are not given the critical responsibility of
finding their future partner; almost all marriages in India are arranged by the parents.

In arranging the marriage, the father of the prospective bride or groom will make known his
intention to marry off his child within his caste. The prospective groom and his father will then visit
prospective bride's home and the two families will size each other up. Sometimes the boy or girl will
have no say as to whether or not the other is appropriate, but usually if they violently disapprove of a
suitor then a marriage with them will not be arranged.

It has been common in India for children to be married when they are very young. The optimum ages
were 16 for the groom and 13 for the bride though it was common for girls to be married off before
they are 12. Children can be betrothed even before they are born. Modern Indian law prohibits child
marriage.

"Love marriages" are not unknown but are deeply shameful to a family. Children reckless enough to
marry for love rather than family loyalty are sometimes disowned (at least until they have their first
child).

An Indian marriage is a staggeringly overwrought affair. The full ritual takes several days. It
includes preliminary rites and sacrifices, the arrival of the groom's family, the convoluted ceremony
itself (including most importantly a circumambulation of a fire by the couple and seven steps taken
together), a reception, and the farewells to the bride as she goes to her new home.

Divorce is now possible in India but is a scandal of the highest order.

India has some traditions of polygamy and polyandry. Under Islamic law, a man may take as many
as four wives, if he may support them equally. Hinduism also once allowed for multiple married
partners; famously, Draupadi of the epic tale the Mahabharata married the five Pandava heroes. In
modern India a Muslim man may take more than one wife if he chooses but it is extraordinarily rare.

Life in the Cities

India has a grand urban tradition, having one of the earliest urban civilizations and in many way the
most sophisticated of early times. However, this fine tradition has not been maintained to the same
high standards and while Indian cities of later times, particularly during Gupta and Moghul times,
could be every bit as fine as cities in contemporary civilizations, the unique planning and concern for
civic sanitation of the Indus Valley civilization (see p. xx) has been lost.

Many cities in India began as trading posts, though they might also have grown up around fortresses
or important temples. They will usually still have an identifiable "old city" consistent with their
origins, e.g. the old section of trading cities will typically consist of a large crossroads. As the city
grows, the old city walls may be demolished but often still leaving the old city gates as useful
landmarks. Later additions to the city are usually haphazard aggregations, differing to the old city in
that its roads will be larger carriageways rather than narrow lanes. Often cities will feature a massive
tank or artificial lake to supply the city with water; though in modern times reservoirs are located
outside cities (and may be natural or artificial but will almost certainly contain crocodiles), with the
water being piped to the city. Trading cities will sport a caravanserai on the city's verge. Important
cities will inevitably acquire a maharaja (king) and therefore a palace. In British times the city will
gain a train station, maybe a residency (the "resident" being the British governor/envoy of the
region), and a cantonment for the British army. Industry, which will range from textile mills to
petrochemical refineries, is built closer to the city proper than is common in other countries.

The different communities live apart in Indian cities (by tradition, not law) and during times of inter-
communal friction areas of the city are fortified by its residents. This is true even in modern India,
though there is now far more mixing of the communities. A recent urban feature of Indian cities is
the dedicated residential neighborhood, called a "society." They are often built by a company or
government department to house its workers and may include a school and subsidized shops. The
most conspicuous residential section in Indian cities is the slum. Inhabited mostly by refugees from
the countryside, the burgeoning Indian slums can be vast. Slum houses are normally built initially
from scrap iron but as they become more permanent they are usually rebuilt from wattle. Slums are
rife with violent crime and unsanitary diseases.

Indian cities have for long been populated beyond their ability to manage themselves. In modern
times, the overpopulation has become positively comical, demonstrated most vividly by passengers
clinging to the outside of overflowing commuter train carriages in Mumbai. A rundown in civic
amenities is a hallmark of the Indian city. Garbage collection is usually inadequate. Water and
sewage services regularly fail, but not as often as the electricity supply, particularly during summer
when daily failures are not uncommon; in fact, most Indian cities have voluntary "load shedding"
half days.

Spending time in an Indian city, one is certain to have to deal with two salient themes of urban India,
corrupt officialdom and gangsterism.

Life in the Villages

Despite having some of the world's largest cities, India is largely a rural country. However, despite
being the backbone of the country's economy, Indian farming is rudimentary and Indian villages are
poor. In times gone by when the population was smaller and the soil more fertile, Indians of the
villages were better off and could almost be called proud. Basically however, Indian farming has not
advanced much through the centuries.

Houses in Indian villages typically have one or two rooms with a kitchen. The floors of older houses
are made from packed cow dung. Richer houses may have a second story used for storage and
keeping the lower story cooler. Even though there is more space available, houses in Indian villages
are packed together as in the cities and with no drainage the streets turn to mud in the rainy periods.

Communities in villages are even more insular than in cities. Only a limited number of castes will
live in a particular village and each caste restricts itself to a certain section of the village.

People in villages are always more traditional in culture than those in cities. They are also more
superstitious; the population of people in villages is outnumbered by ghosts, spirits, and gods.

Everyday Life

Food

Generalizing outrageously, an Indian meal consists of a curry dish and a serving of a lentil curry
(dhal), accompanied by rice (and also unleavened bread in the north) and any number of
accompaniments such as pickles and curd. This dietary tradition has held in India for millennia.

"Curry" is not an Indian word and as it is used describes a wide range of dishes, all of them spiced.
India is renowned for its love of hot food, but this was less the case before chilli was first imported
from the New World. A great number of spices are native to India and still more are imported. A
dish is likely to have a good number of spices added to it and mixtures of spices, called masalas, are
prepared beforehand. As well as their use in flavoring, spices are used for their health properties, of
which there is considerable lore in India relating also to which food should be eaten at which times
of the year (based on ayurveda in part, see sidebar). Almost all food in India is seasoned in some
way, even fruit is likely to be sprinkled with masala before eating.

Beyond the staple meals, the various regions of India have many, many types of snacks and sweets --
far too many to detail here.
From the earliest times cooking has been an art in India and given the name of supashastra. While
the most masterly of culinary ability is found in chefing castes (brahmins typically -- one reason
being that one should never eat food cooked by a caste lower than oneself), any worker in an Indian
kitchen, including housewives, is extraordinarily knowledgeable about spices and preparation
techniques; with every kitchen looking like an apothecary's laboratory. The Muslims brought their
own culinary traditions to India and wedded them with local cuisine to create what became known as
Mughlai cuisine.

Eating meat is now uncommon in India but the practice of vegetarianism only dates from Buddhist
times when Buddha, Mahavira, and certain Upanishads advocated extreme nonviolence (see History
of Religions in India, p. xx). There is perhaps more eating of meat in India than most Hindus would
like to believe, but it is undeniable that vegetarianism is a fundamental Indian custom. Muslims in
India eat meat and consider with some pride that it distinguishes them from Hindus -- interestingly
this was the same attitude Hindus had in early Buddhist times.

Tea is the most common beverage in India since it was stolen from China by the British. In India it is
generally drunk with milk, and will certainly be highly sweetened. Yogurt drinks called lassi and
sugarcane, coconut, and mango juice are other popular drinks. Drinking alcohol, once an important
part of India culture, is now frowned upon by Hindu and Muslim alike. Some states of India, Gujarat
notably, prohibit the buying of alcohol.

Sharing food that has touched another's mouth is considered unsanitary in India and when drinking
from a shared glass an Indian will pour the liquid into their mouth without letting it touch their lips.
Some people will not eat in the presence of others, particular those of high caste.

Clothing

Indians don't always wear a lot of clothes, it being hot and all. It is no surprise then that the oldest
costume in India consisted of little more than a single cloth hung from the waist, for both men and
women. From this simple garment was developed the range of non-tailored outfits peculiar to India.
For women, the sari became by far the most common apparel. The sari consists of several yards of
cloth worn wrapped around the waist several times then tossed over the shoulder. There are
numerous regional differences; the Gujarati sari for example differs from the "cosmopolitan" style in
that it tosses the last length of cloth over the shoulder from the back to the front. The sari is typically
worn with a tight, cropped blouse. Traditional men's clothing are various types of loin cloth, ranging
from a simple lungi where a length of cloth is simply wrapped around the waist to cover most of the
legs, to the more elaborate styles of dhoti where the cloth is looped and tucked around the loins.

Turbans also have a long tradition of use in India, though they are now only seen on villagers and
Sikhs. Many different styles of turban are in use in India ranging in complexity and length of cloth
used. Different castes will often have their own styles of wearing turbans.

Cotton was first woven in India though wool was also worn in the colder months. Silk was imported
and in time also woven.

Over time, Indian began to wear tailored clothes such as trousers and skirts and adopted a great
number of foreign clothing styles.

The simplest Muslim costume adopted in India is the kurta-pyjama consisting of loose trousers, the
pyjamas, and a long shirt, the kurta, which is often worn longer by women and with a shawl. Formal
clothes adopted in India include the button up collarless coat and tight breeches.

Western style clothes are now most common for men in India. Indian men dress semi-formally for
all occasions, the difference being that for a formal occasion newer or more colorful clothes will be
worn. A suit is worn only for marriage. Women are still expected to wear traditional Indian clothes,
kurta-pajama before marriage and a sari for married women.

Indian Values

Like other Asian cultures, India is more sympathetic to the group than to the individual. The greatest
loyalty an Indian feels is towards their family. An Indian is in principle as close to the members of
their extended family as to their nuclear family -- first cousins are in fact referred to as if they were
siblings. Beyond the family there is a hierarchy of loyalty, beginning with the caste and ending with
the nation.

Tied up with this favoring of groups over individuals, Indians have a sharp sense of respect. Those
belonging to one's group or of a perceived higher status are given respect that their character might
not necessarily warrant. This is manifest in the family with the father being the overlord of the
house. Similar to this is the great respect Indians give to their teachers, or gurus. An Indian simply
cannot question his teacher. Religious teachers are respected beyond even this and are practically
worshipped.

Religion is more important to an Indian than it is in many other countries. There is no secular
tradition in India; all activity is considered a religious pursuit. Secularism, as the term is known in
India, is simply the right not to have other's beliefs forced on one; the right to worship in one's own
way. It has nothing explicitly to do with separation of religion and other institutions.

Many of India's views of the world come from its religions. To wit:

From Hinduism comes the concept of dharma, that everyone is born to fill a particular niche and has
a personal responsibility to fulfill one's role in life. Also Hindu is the idea of spiritual pollution,
wherein it is more important for a Hindu to avoid contact with those things that will contaminate the
soul than those things that pollute the body.

Muslims see the world differently as they see every action of theirs as being some worship of God.

Buddhism and Jainism, along with Hinduism, devised ideas of extreme nonviolence, or ahimsa. This
nonviolence and respect for life, expressed most clearly in vegetarianism, has become a defining trait
of India. Indian history has shown that this attitude has become deeply ingrained into the Indian
ethos. Despite seeing as much war, invasion, and depravity as any other land, India has seen far
fewer tyrants and far more benevolence in its rulers. India has produced some of the world's greatest
advocates of nonviolence and charity, notably Ashoka and Mahatma Gandhi.

A Fulfilled Indian Life

According to Hindu teaching, there are four goals in life: artha, the acquisition of material wealth;
kama, the enjoyment of physical pleasure; dharma, a righteous life; and moksha, the eventual
deliverance from the material world. A fulfilled life then includes both the worldly and the spiritual.

In theory, a complete life for a twice-born Hindu goes through four stages, called ashramas. In the
brahmacharya ashrama the Hindu is a student, beholden to their guru. This stage of life lasts
typically 12 years but may be longer. The grihastha ashrama is the homemaker phase when one
marries and raises a family. In the vanaprastha ashrama or forest stage, the Hindu retires to the
forest to meditate. This phase typically begins at 50 or when the first grandchild is born. In the
sannyasa ashrama, the Hindu gives up their old life entirely and becomes a wandering mendicant.

The ashramas are rarely followed, apart from the first two naturally enough. However, they are still
considered one of the pillars of Hinduism. In modern times they are almost entirely irrelevant and
don't fit into modern life. It has been known, however, for an old couple to live in a tent on the back
lawn of their children's house, thus fulfilling in part the requirements of the vanaprastha ashrama.

Religious Devotion

Indian religion is treated in full in the next chapter. It is important to note however just how
important religion is in the everyday life of Indians.

The day of every good religious Indian is a cycle of devotions. After morning ablutions prayers are
said. For the Hindu this is done at the household shrine, for the Muslim it involves genuflections
towards Mecca. During the day, further acts of devotion are required. For the Muslim there are
another four prayers to be said. For the Hindu, small rituals are required throughout the day. The
shop-owner must seek the blessing of his god before opening his business and a prayer is said over
the first money received for the day. The food-stall-owner offers the first meal from his stove to his
god. In the evening a Hindu may chose to make a visit to the local shrine (which is likely to be
advertising itself by the loud and incessant ringing of a bell) and make a small offering.

Note that although a Hindu will have a preferred deity, their religious rituals will not be confined to
that particular god, and may be directed at any of the gods, depending on the context, or may simply
be to God.

The year too is a cycle, with religious observances arriving with regularity. All religions having
reason to fast for a period. For Muslims, Ramadan is the most important religious time of the year
when no food can be eaten during the day, lasting a month until broken by the Id moon. Hindus fast
for a number of reasons, one well-observed fast being Karva Chouth where a dutiful wife fasts for a
day for her husband's well-being.

Hindu religious festivals come in many varieties, some moderate and some extravagant; including
Kite-Flying Day; Holi, where mischievousness is mandatory; and Ganesh Chaturti, where colorful
statues of the elephant-headed god Ganesh are paraded.

Hindu temples are equally as varied. They range from giant city-sized complexes through grand
buildings and humble shrine to the simplest of altars, consisting perhaps of no more than a shapeless
rock painted saffron. Temples are typically devoted to just one deity or a couple.

Philosophy and Culture

Philosophy

Thought is India's forte. India is famous for its philosophy. Through the thousands of years of India's
civilization, Indians have speculated and conjectured themselves into a frenzy, amassing a corpus of
philosophy of such bulk, such complexity, that the initial simple concepts are hidden beneath
convoluted accretions and commentaries and a melange of contradicting points of view compete to
answer the same questions. However, within this farrago can be seen a unique Indian worldview that
runs through all its branches of philosophy, including amongst other topics, metaphysics, logic,
ethics, theology, aesthetics, and epistemology.

A considerable amount of Indian philosophy deals directly with metaphysical and eschatological
issues and is reflected in their religion (considered in great depth in the chapter Religious India, p.
xx); the Hindu religious texts, the Vedas and Upanishads in particular, are highly philosophical
works. Although it lost favor in time, non-religious philosophy, or nastika philosophies (as opposed
to orthodox astika thought), flourished before the time of Buddha -- and in fact Buddhism and
Jainism (see Religous India) are born from nastika thought. The period before and during the time of
the Buddha is one of India's two most productive philosophical periods; the other coincides with the
great period of Greek thought.

Hinduism has conceived of six orthodox philosophies (and any number of non-orthodox systems),
called darshanas (views). These six darshanas are not complementary and are often irreconcilable
but all six are simultaneously valid regardless. (Those who believe that only one view can be valid
will be further appalled by Jains who hold that 353 points of view are valid.) They were all
developed in their final forms in the period between Buddha and Ashoka and in some ways were a
reaction to Buddhism. The six, detailed below, are generally grouped in pairs, nyaya and
vaisheshika, sankhya and yoga, and mimamsa and vedanta. In recent times some of the darshanas
have decreased in relevance and only sankhya, yoga, and vedanta are living philosophies.

The darshanas have a greater importance than philosophy might in other cultures. Their study is a
path to knowledge, but far more than that their study and mastery is a path to deliverance from the
tortuous cycle of birth and rebirth (see Universal Truths, p. xx).

Nyaya

Nyaya, founded sometime between 450 B.C. and A.D. 100 by the sage Gautama, is largely
concerned with analysis and debate; it is a science of logic. Important in nyaya is eliminating error,
hence a heavy emphasis on logic. Included in the philosophy of nyaya is a system of logic, 16
categories of reasoning, a means to avoid fallacies, and a list of common fallacies.

Indian logic has five deductive steps (avayava): (1) proposition, (2) reasoning, (3) example, (4)
application (casting the example to the case in question), and (5) conclusion. The typically quoted
example considers a fire on a hill. The five steps in this example are then: (1) There is a fire on the
hill because (2) there is smoke coming from the hill; (3) when there is a fire in the hearth it smokes
so since (4) the hill is smoking, (5) there is a fire on the hill. (Other systems of logic have as few as 3
steps or as many as 10.)

Nyaya is a spiritual system as well as a science in that it is believed that enlightenment can be
achieved through a complete eradication of error. However, it is hard to find a place for God in
nyaya philosophy and it is essentially atheistic.

Vaisheshika

Established by the sage Kanada some time between 250 B.C. and A.D. 100, vaisheshika is a
essentially a system of physics, based largely on the Indian atomic theory. Under vaisheshika there
are four atoms of matter, earth, fire, water, and air, and five other realities, ether, time, space, soul,
and mind. Combined with the 24 possible attributes or gunas, all substances can be produced. As in
nyaya, the philosophy is complete without requiring a god except as the creator of the world from the
atoms.

Sankhya

Sankhya is probably the oldest of the darshanas (ignoring the more ancient traditions of yoga)
having been founded by Kapila in 500 B.C.

The metaphysical system of sankhya divides the world into 25 principles or tattva.

Firstly there are two prime realities, (1) purusha, soul and (2) prakriti, matter. Each purusha is equal
and distinguished only in how it interacts with prakriti. Prakriti on the other hand comes in myriad
forms depending on its constituent "qualities" or gunas. There are three gunas and prakriti can have
any amount of each of them, their proportions determining its nature. Sattva is the guna of goodness;
it is the manifestation of light, virtue, and wisdom. Furthermore it is the manifestation of reality as
opposed to illusion, maya. Rajas is passion and is the guna of activity and force. Tamas is darkness,
inertia, and ignorance.

From the interactions of the three gunas and prakriti the remaining principles are formed, (3) mahat,
intelligence, (4) ahangkara, self-consciousness, (5) manas, mind, (6-10) the five subtle or potential
elements, ether, air, fire, water, and earth, (11-15) the five senses, (16-20) the five actions of the
senses, and (21-25) the five manifest elements (the manifest elements are the combination of the
subtle elements, senses, and actions; see Elements, p. xx in the Magical India chapter).

Sankhya is similar to vaisheshika in its description of the physical world being made up from
elements but does not predicate the existence of atoms and has a different number of elements,
adding the ether to the list of physical elements. The system is also atheistic as it describes a method
wherein reality is manifest without an external agency.

Yoga

The philosophical school of yoga is in some respects a way of realizing the philosophy of sankhya
though it takes the form of system of physical training and meditation, identified by the practice of
complex and demanding bodily postures. Yoga in this form was outlined by the sage Patanjali in the
Yoga Sutras in the 2nd century B.C. Patanjali outlined what is now generally known as raja yoga, a
system of spiritual development through mental and physical discipline. There are eight techniques
in raja-yoga: (1) Yama, restraint: non-violence, honesty, chastity, no stealing, freedom from greed.
(2) Niyama, control: actually realizing yama and achieving inner tranquillity. (3) Asanas, body
positions. (4) Pranayama, breath control. (5) Pratyahara, sense control. (6) Dharana, concentration:
a step toward meditation. (7) Dhyana, meditation: when one's concentration fills the whole mind. (8)
Samadhi, realization: when one is super-aware and merged with God.

A variant form of yoga is hatha yoga, which consists only of the physical part of raja yoga, up to
technique 5. Practitioners of hatha yoga believe that by becoming master over the body, the mind
and spirit are freed without the need to seek enlightenment through meditation. By perfecting the
physical exercises of yoga, great physical and mental abilities can be trained or activated.

A mystical development of yoga is laya yoga where one's spiritual awakening is manifest as a
serpent-like kundalini that is induced to rise through the body from the base of the spine through a
series of critical points or chakra. As one progresses in laya yoga, magical abilities become available
to the yogi. It is described in detail in the chapter Magical India.

Although raja yoga was established by Patanjali, the exercises of yoga were practiced as long ago as
the Indus Valley civilization. As well as the hatha and laya traditions, yoga has developed in many
different directions and in fact the word is now applied to any path towards spiritual enlightenment.

Purva-mimansa

The "early enquiry" -- the study of the Vedas (see Sources of Hinduism, p. xx).

Vedanta

Vedanta, also called uttara-mimansa, the "later inquiry," means the end of the Vedas and is the study
of the Upanishads (see Sources of Hinduism). As vedanta is a religious philosophy it is dealt with in
greater detail in the Religious India chapter.

Science
Many bold claims have been made about ancient Indian science, and while many of the examples do
not hold up, it is true that India was a fertile scientific think-tank. Indians are naturally speculative,
with a love of categorizing and systematizing, and also possess considerable technical aptitude,
exhibited in the modern day in India's information technology industry.

Ancient Indian science is most famed for its mathematics, which is renown for inventing the use of a
numerical symbol for zero and the place-value system. It is a matter of debate as to where these
concepts were in fact invented, but it is true that India adopted them early. India was using a great
many mathematical concepts early in its history, well before the lives of those to whom they are
attributed, Pascal and his triangle for example. Scriptures from India's earliest times include
descriptions of domestic altars, the construction of which required knowledge of geometry.
Aryabhata, writing in the early 5th century, was one of history's great mathematicians. He was
already working with algebra and calculated pi to impressive accuracy, 3.1416. The Jains, lovers of
absurdly huge numbers, were particularly good mathematicians.

A good deal of Indian science was related to religion, as in the geometry example above. Astronomy
was an active science because of the need to calculate the dates of religious ceremonies. With their
mathematical knowledge, Indians were able to develop the astronomy that came to India from the
west and improved its accuracy considerably. A heliocentric model was known in India since
Aryabhata (who was able to explain solar and lunar eclipses), but the received view was geocentric.
Astronomy was reinvigorated in India by Jai Singh of Jaipur in the early 18th century. He built a
series of observatories, notably in Jaipur and Delhi. These observatories consist of a number of giant
observational apparatuses including a massive gnomon, charts of the heavens, and maps of all 12
zodiacal signs.

In metallurgy India is justly famous; Indian metallurgist were greatly proficient. They were smelting
gold, silver, bronze, and lead from the earliest times, iron by 900 B.C., and steel by 500 B.C. India's
skill in and capacity for producing high quality metals is demonstrated by the Iron Pillar of
Meharauli at Delhi. This 23 foot high pillar has stood without rusting since the 4th century. Though
it is good quality iron, its lack of rust is due largely to Delhi's dry atmosphere. Even so, it is
remarkable for the fact that it is such a huge mass of iron, some 6 tons, a great quantity of refined
metal. Indian techniques for producing hardened steel were superior and the so-called "Damascus
steel" used Indian techniques for its production.

Other fields produced interesting and/or unique sciences, such as medicine (see sidebar), atomic
theory, and alchemy (see Magical India, p. xx).

The Arts

India's culture is rich and deep, and likewise is India's artistic heritage. It is far beyond the capacity
of this book to treat in any detail the arts of India, so rich are they and so varied across time and
geographical region. India's literature, painting, sculpture, architecture, poetry, music, drama,
jewelry, and dance were all developed to be rich and uniquely Indian. All of these arts are
distinguished in their Indian manifestations by being underpinned by complex theories of form and
aesthetics, the appreciation of which reveals new layers of meaning and beauty. The arts in India
have a great religious content and performance is a form of prayer.

Sculpture and architecture, with the Taj Mahal its greatest monument, were two arts developed to the
highest order in India. Dance, with each state having its own tradition, is particularly alive in India.
Names of India

The name India given in English to the largest country of the subcontinent comes from the Persian
name for the land of the Indus river; unable to pronounce the Indian name for the river, "Sindhu,"
they called their neighbor "Hindu." The ancient Indians knew of their land as "Bharatavarsha," the
land of the descendants of Bharat an ancient ruler in India, and from this comes the official name of
the country of India, " Republic of Bharat." Another ancient name of India is "Jambudvipa," the
continent of the jambu tree. Muslims, since their first contact of the land, have known India as
Hindustan, originally the land of the Indus River, but now the land of Hindus. The names of the
other modern day countries of the region are Bangladesh, the Country of Bengalis; Pakistan, the
Land of the Pure; and Sri Lanka, "Lanka" being the most ancient name of the island and "Sri" being
an exaltation.

Holy Rivers

Rivers, vitally important to civilization, are all sacred in India and are treated as living gods. Seven
rivers are particularly holy.

Ganga

The Ganga, known as the Ganges in the West, is the most holy of rivers. Its waters are a magical
elixir that bring purity to those who drink it and heaven to those that drown in it or are interred in its
waters. The holy cities of Hardwar, Allahabad, and Varanasi are on its banks.

Ganga the river and goddess was once confined to the heavens but was enticed to flow over the
earth. In her flow from heaven she passes through Shiva's hair to soften her impact on the earth.

Jamuna

Second only to the Ganga.

Saraswati

The Saraswati once flowed through Rajasthan but has dried up leaving the land a desert. It is
believed by some that the river flows underground, emerging from the ground at Allahabad.
Alternatively it is believed to exist only in the spiritual plane.

Narmada

The Narmada is generally not considered as sacred in itself as the above three rivers, but its waters
are the most potent. Bathing in the waters of the Ganga removes sin as soon as one bathes in or
drinks it, the waters of the Saraswati do the same in three days and the waters of the Jamuna in seven
days, but the mere sight of the waters of the Narmada are purifying.

Indus, Godaveri, and Kaveri

Delhi

Delhi is a city with a load of history. Indraprashtha, the Pandava city of the Mahabharata (see
Mahabharata, p. xx) was the first Delhi. A series of cities have been built on this site. The latest,
New Delhi, federal capital of India, was built by the British as their capital, completed in 1931,
abutting Old Delhi or Shahjahanabad.
Since the time of Qutb-ud-din Aibak (see Delhi Sultanate, p. xx), Delhi has been the political center
of north India, with the Delhi Sultanate, the Moghuls, and the British having Delhi, at least
intermittently, as their capital.

Delhi is situated on the Jamuna river. Being perpetually an important city for one dynasty or another,
Delhi is a sumptuous city full of palaces and rich bazaars, particularly under the Moghuls when it
was the city of cities of the wealthiest empire. New Delhi today is a bustling metropolis, a city of
scheming politics, high finance, and deluxe international hotels as well as an unequal share of
beggars and India's worst air pollution.

Varanasi

Varanasi is India's most holy city. Here a string of temples line the west bank of the Ganga and a
series of steps lead down to the river where the faithful bathe and have their sins washed away by the
holy waters. It is said that any one who dies at Varanasi achieves moksha and is released from the
cycle of birth and rebirth (see Univeral Truths, p. xx).

The city is one of the world's oldest continually inhabited settlements. It was formally known as
Kashi and called Benares by the British. It has long been the site of Hindu schools and brahmin
students would come from all over India to study here. The city is filled with all manner of Hindu
spectacles, including marvels and banalities. Yogis and sadhus flock to Varanasi.

Nearby to the north is Sarnath where Buddha gave his first sermon.

Calcutta

Calcutta is a young city in a land of ancient cities. Calcutta was built by the British and became their
first capital when they acquired an empire in India. They built a cute little city on the banks of the
Hooghly, a tributary of the Ganga. However, as the city gained importance, its population grew
sharply, beyond its ability to absorb increases. This is Kipling's "City of the Dreadful Night," where
he observed the grossest extremes of wealth and poverty. After partition, refugees swelled the city
even further, turning it into an urban nightmare. The population of Calcutta far outstrips the capacity
of the municipality to run the place; the power is intermittent at best, the water is poor, and sanitation
is near disastrous. Despair lives on the buckled streets of Calcutta. Here the beggars howl, a practice
they have given up in the rest of the country.

To be fair, all cities in India suffer the same problems as Calcutta, but none of them to the same
catastrophic extent. For all this, Calcutta is the home to Indian intellectualism. The Indian Coffee
House on College Street can ring to the sound of intellectual discussion. It is also home to Indian
communism. A landmark of Calcutta is the Kali temple, which now sacrifices great numbers of
goats, having given up human sacrifice.

Mumbai

In 1996 the city of Bombay was renamed Mumbai. To the Portuguese it was known as "Buan
Bahia," the "Good Bay," an inappropriate name for the marshy and malarial islands they acquired
from the Sultan of Gujarat in 1543. The islands were given to the British in 1662 as part of the
dowry of Charles II's marriage to Catherine of Braganza. In 1668 they were leased to the East India
Company to make something of. In time the islands were turned into a peninsula by an extensive
reclamation project. Since the time of the East India Company, Mumbai has been an important
business center, now it is India's financial powerhouse. The economic success of Mumbai has drawn
millions of immigrants from across the country. Mumbai is now India's largest city, with a
population mixed like no other city in India. The majority of Mumbaites are Maharashtrian or
Gujarati but all groups are represented in Mumbai's population, including most of India's Parsis.
Mumbai was once celebrated for its cosmopolitan friendliness, but this has been marred somewhat
by sectarian riots in the wake of the destruction of the Babri Masjid and Muslim retaliatory terrorist
bombings (see India Today, p. xx).

Kumbha Mela

The Kumbha Mela is India's largest religious festival. Occurring every 3 years at Allahabad,
Hardwar, Ujjain, and Nasik in turn, the festival attracts millions upon millions of devotees. The
largest mela is at Allahabad where the Ganga, Jamuna, and Saraswati join. Most of India's Hindu
religious leaders and teachers gather for a giant religious conference.

The festival celebrates a battle between the gods and demons over amrit, the elixir of immortality
(see Amrit, p. xx), four drops of which landed at each of the locations of the mela during the battle.

Bangalore

Bangalore is home to India's modestly impressive software industry and the leader in the rush to
Westernization. Long an important research city, Bangalore has attracted several foreign companies
to establish offices. Here the mathematical proficiency of the Indian mind is exercised in the name of
commerce. While America sleeps, Bangalore solves its computing problems.

Sacred Sites of India

One thing India is more than it is anything else is holy. The land of India itself is the body of the
goddess Bharat Mata. To say that India abounds in sacred sites understates their profusion. Every
city or town has a pilgrimage site within a day's journey.

Some sites are more holy than others and here are a few examples.

Varanasi

See above.

The Four Dhams

Representing the four corners of India, Dwarka in the west, Puri in the east, Badrinath in the north,
and Rameswaram in the south are some of India's most holy Hindu temples.

Somnath

In the 10th century, the temple city of Somnath was the grandest of Hindu temples. The temple itself
was of a massive size with a giant steeple surrounded by fourteen golden domes. At the temple's
heart was a huge stone lingam (graven phallus), over seven feet tall. The temple was managed by
over 1,000 brahmins and more than 1,000 other attendants, with 10,000 villages providing revenue
for the temple's support.

In 1025 Mahmoud of Ghazni sacked the fortified city, massacred thousands of devotees, destroyed
the temple, and carried away tons of gold and riches in a huge train of camels and elephants.
According to Al Kazwini, a Muslim historian, the lingam that Mahmoud discovered in the core of
the temple was of iron, levitated by magnets above and below. The wonder of this was not enough to
dissuade Mahmoud from destroying the lingam.

After Mahmoud's razing, the temple was rebuilt four more times, with three of those temples being
destroyed by zealous Muslims, making the tally of temples to stand at the sight rather large. The first
temple was built by Somnath, the God of the Moon, at the dawn of creation out of gold. It was
rebuilt in silver by Rawana, in wood by Krishna, and in stone by Bhimdev.

Golden Temple

In the city of Amritsar is Sikhism's most holy temple. The temple itself, called Hari Mandir, is a two
story decorated marble building with a roof gilded with 100kg of gold sits in the center of a square
pool and is reached by the Gurus' Bridge. The Sikh holy book, the Granth (see Sikhism, p. xx) is kept
in the Hari Mandir during the day, being carried there at 4 a.m. (5 a.m. in winter) and returned to the
Sikh parliament building at 10 p.m.

Jagganath

At the temple of Jagganath at Puri is said to reside the last benevolent incarnation of Vishnu. In an
annual festival, the idol that is Vishnu is installed into a giant chariot (from whence comes the
English word "juggernaut") and transported across the city, requiring over 4000 men to pull the
chariot. It has been known for faithful to throw themselves to their deaths under the wheels of the
chariot.

Amarnath

In the coldest period of winter, an ice lingam grows in a cave above Kashmir. Amarnath is a
pilgrimage destination without equal. Every year hundreds of pilgrims travel thousands of miles
from their homes to brave the snows of the Himalayas to see a miracle.

Shatrunjaya

On the hill of Shatrunjaya there are 863 Jain temples. This is not the only hill overladen with Jain
temples and demonstrates the extent to which Jains take the creed wherein merit is acquired through
building ornate temples.

Bodhgaya

The four most holy Buddhist sites in India are Lumbini (in Nepal), where the Buddha was born;
Bodhgaya, where he reached enlightenment; Sarnath, where he first preached the truth; and
Kushinagar, where he died.

At Bodhgaya there is a descendent of the original tree under which Buddha found enlightenment.

Basilica of Bom Jesus

The Basilica is home to the body of St Francis Xavier, patron saint of Goa. A Portuguese Jesuit
missionary, St Francis spent 10 years spreading Christianity through India and South-East Asia.
When he died in 1552 his body was transported back to Goa. Miraculously it was found to not have
decomposed even though the journey to Goa had taken a year, and had still not decayed when
examined for the church's department of canonization. In 1622 he was canonized.

Within the Basilica, which was completed in 1605, the saint's body lies in an airtight glass casket.
Despite the miracle, all that is left of the body is a skeleton. Parts of the body had earlier been
scavenged and scattered through Jesuit communities through Asia. The body is put on public display
for pilgrims every 10 years.
Mad Dogs and Englishmen

It is said that only mad dogs and Englishmen would go out in the midday sun -- and for good reason.
In summer the temperature is generally hot enough to cause fatigue (see Heat, p. B130 and Extreme
Heat, p. CII140) and prolonged exposure to the direct sun can kill.

Avoiding the dangerous effects of excessive temperatures is a constant concern in India. It is an

over-riding priority for military commanders to avoid conducting campaigns in the hot season; if
forced to do so they will certainly lose men to the heat.

Adivasi

There are many different Adivasi tribes, each having cultures that differ form each other as much as
from the culture of mainstream India. They may practice a local form of Hinduism with their own
gods but they may also worship in their own peculiar way.

At some times, Adivasi would practice banditry or be recruited by gangs of brigands.

Language in Play

Tracking the history of language in India is more effort than it is worth for gaming purposes.
Therefore the following guidelines are suggested for using language in a campaign set in India.
(Note, one should perhaps read the chapters on India's history before trying to understand the rest of
what follows.)

In pre-Aryan times, the whole of India speaks various Dravidian languages or other, now fringe,
languages. After the Aryans come to dominate north India the spread of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian
languages should follow that of the modern languages as described in the main text, though the
actual languages in use will be ancestral tongues of the modern languages. Priests and some rulers
will know Sanskrit.

The Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages do not change after the arrival of the Muslims but now
Persian, Urdu, and later Hindustani are available over most of the subcontinent. After the British
consolidate their rule of India, English becomes widespread, remaining even after the British leave.

Language in GURPS India

With some 40 different characters, devanagari does not translate directly into English. Standard
transliterations often make use of various dialectical marks, such as dots above or below letters.
These add little of use for our purposes and a simplified transliteration approach has been used.

Indian words in GURPS India should be pronounced as they are written, but a few possible
difficulties ought to be noted. The letter combinations "ch" and "sh" are pronounced as they are in
English, e.g. "churlish." However, "h"'s appearing in any other combinations (including "chh"), e.g.
"kh," must be pronounced (these consonants are known as aspirated consonants). Hence "th" and
"ph" are not pronounced as in "theatre" and "physics," but rather as in "outhouse" and "flophouse."
One non-obvious pronunciation is the consonant combination "jn," which should be pronounced
"gy"; hence "jnana" is pronounced "gyana." The vowel "a" should be pronounced as the vowel in
"pun," and never as that in "cat." The vowel "u" is pronounced as in "shoe" (note however that the
entrenched customary spelling "Punjab" has been used though the pronunciation should be as if it
had been spelt "Panjab"). The vowel "i" is pronounced as in "plea."

Each syllable in an Indian word should be given an equal emphasis and a fair pronunciation of even
the most formidable Indian word should be achieved by simply chanting each syllable.

Names of cities and most other locations in India follow the usage in India today, hence "Mumbai"
and "Varanasi" rather than "Bombay" and "Benares." However, efforts have been made to note the
alternative names and when they were in use.

Panini

Sanskrit is a sacred language; it is the language spoken by the gods. It is essential that it be
pronounced and intoned properly during religious rites. For this reason a good amount of work has
gone into defining the grammar of Sanskrit. The most complete grammar for Sanskrit, and indeed for
any language, was compiled by Panini around 300 B.C. His work consists of some 4000 rules for the
grammatical construction of Sanskrit. Panini's grammar is a masterpiece and a wonder of ancient
Indian scholarship. After Panini Sanskrit was forever stabilized, the very name of the language
means "refined."

Varna

In the primordial sacrifice the body of Purusha, the primal man, was divided into quarters and from
them were made the four varnas. From his mouth came the brahmins, from his arms the kshatriyas,
from his thighs the vaishyas, and from his feet the shudras.

The word varna means "color" and may refer to the difference in complexion between the Aryans,
who formed the upper three classes, and the indigenous Indians who make up the fourth (see Aryans,
p. xx).

The Bazaar

India's color, vibrancy, bustle, and gaudiness all find their greatest expression in the Indian bazaar.

The bazaar is the main market place of a city. Most likely found in the oldest section of the city, it
invariably features narrow lanes, crowded by hawkers and food-sellers.

Different sections of the bazaar are dedicated to certain products (as a general rule). Hence, there is a
spice bazaar, a clothing bazaar, a silver bazaar, etc. It is hard to tell whether any shop is superior, so
shop-owners call out to potential customers to entice them into their shop.

Calendar

The Hindu calendar is based on the moon rather than the sun (though the solar calendar has been
known in India since Gupta times). In fact it is based on the lunar day (tithi), thirty of which make up
a lunar month (one complete cycle of moon phases) of 29 1/2 solar days. The beginning of the month
is reckoned differently in the north and south, with the full and new moons respectively beginning
the month. The twelve lunar months, beginning in March-April are Chaitra, Vaishakha, Jyetshtha,
Ashadha, Shravana, Bhadrapada, Ashvina, Karttika, Margashirsha, Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna.
The lunar year is 354 days long so to keep it in line with the solar calendar an extra month is added
every 30 months (after Ashadha or Shravana).

It is now more common to keep track of dates by the solar calendar but the lunar calendar is still
used for religious reckoning and all religious holidays are tracked by the lunar calendar and hence
fall on a different day every solar year.

There are a number of systems of reckoning the year, though dates are now generally recorded in
A.D. The most common is the Vikrama system which begins in 58 B.C. It reputedly dates from the
reign of Chandra Gupta II though he in fact reigned some 400 years after the Vikrama year 0.

The Ancient Land

Indians have a tendency for fulsome exaggeration and have a great attachment to extremes,
evidenced by their interest in the Guinness Book of Records.

In India there appears to be a diminished sense of time and history. Large parts of India's history are
simply not documented and accounts of ancient India have to be constructed from the writings of
foreigners. Paradoxically, Indians do have a powerful perception of the importance of ancientness.
The value of antiquity is encapsulated in the word sanatva. Traditions are not defended by their
intrinsic merit but by their age. This explains the Indian tendency to exaggeration. It is undeniable
that India is one of the world's oldest civilizations; the civilization's origins in the Indus Valley are
not predated by any other and during the Gupta Empire, Hindu India's cultural golden age, the
cultural peak of Islam was centuries off and the Anglo-Saxons were living in the northern forests.
However, Indians are not content in believing that their civilization is merely thousands of years old
and measure ancientness instead in millions of years. The Ramayana, one of Hinduism two epics
believed to have been written no earlier than 200 B.C., has been claimed to be 60 million years old,
and the Surya Siddhanta, a mathematical work of the 6th century A.D. is believed to be 2 million
years old.

This tendency to exaggerate ancientness is most often encountered by common Indians confusing
A.D. and B.C. For example, the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai, were crafted in A.D. 600 (or there
abouts), but one is likely to be told 600 B.C. instead. Another common error, quaint in a way, is a
tendency to ascribe ruins to mythical stories. For example, the ruins of a fortress are liable to be
claimed be to homes of the Pandava heroes from the Mahabharata (the other of the two epics) rather
than more recent constructions.

Being so incredibly old, Indian civilization has enriched the world. Many great advances in science
and philosophy were formulated first in India, then spread to the world. While India has given the
world much, an equal amount of knowledge has come to India from China, Mesopotamia, Greece,
Rome, and later Islam and the West, of which no debt is acknowledged by Indian sources.

Medicine

Indian medicine, known as the science of ayurveda, "life knowlege," is a mixture of primitive
herbalism, imported Greek humourific physic, yoga, mysticism, sankhya, and vashaisheka.

The body is believed to be made up of seven substances. The first, chyle (rasa), is produced by the
digestion of food. This then transforms into the other six substances, in order, blood (rakta), flesh
(mansa), fat (meda), bone (asthi), marrow (majja), and semen (shukra), in a process that takes 30
days. It is then transmuted into energy (oja) which powers the body.

Health is maintained by the balance of three "humours" ("dosha"), each of which has an associated
guna. They are bile (pitta), being sattvic in character and produced in the liver; wind (vayu), being
rajasic and produced in the heart; and phlegm (kapha), which is tamasic and produced in the lungs.
The amount of a particular humour in the body is affected by one's activity and excess or surfeit of
any humour causes disease. Hence, one method of diagnosis and treatment of illness is to examine
and modify lifestyle.

At its best, ayurveda is holistic and sympathetic; at its worst it is superstitious and dangerous.

A sample of other methods of disease treatment common in India include herbal therapy, prayer,
exercise (particularly yoga), aromatherapy, sauna, massage, and purging. In recent times Indians
have been ready converts to homeopathy.

Indian surgery has always been particularly advanced. One area Indian surgeons have been
particularly good at is rhinoplasty and otoplasty.
Indians
Beginning Point Levels
In an Indian campaign, regardless of the level of realism or magic, the average person has a point
value of about 25 points. Player characters, as exceptional people, a notch or two above the
commonality, might have any amount of points.

For a realistic historical or modern-day campaign or a campaign with magic but played at a level not
too removed from reality, 100 would be a good average number of character points for a beginning
player character (but see next section), with a maximum of 40 points spent on disadvantages and 5
on quirks. This makes player characters superior to regular people but not excessively so -- gifted but
not extraordinary. However, Indians generally consider their heroes to be larger than life; celebrated
individuals are usually taken as being paragons and stories of famous historical figures are often
rather exaggerated. In a campaign conforming to this point of view it would be appropriate for player
characters to have more points to spend, perhaps 150 to 200 (an amount usually found only in
cinematic style campaigns, though the campaign needn't be run in such a style). A good amount of
these points ought to be spent on attributes and skills rather than advantages and players are
encouraged to tend towards immoderation in generating their characters, for example, codes of honor
and the like should be stricter than usual.

In fantasy or epic campaigns, the GM should not be hesitant in giving players a large number of
points with which to create their characters. While campaigns can be run with modest point levels,
authentic Indian fantasy is highly powered. In a campaign where the PCs are expected to lock
swords, wits, and dharma with rakshasa, 400 might be a reasonable starting value. With so many
points to be spent the GM should pay due attention during character generation to ensure balance and
consistency with the campaign background, but is encouraged to be liberal. Players, for their part,
are encouraged to spend a good amount on advantages, the more esoteric the better as a general rule.
Skills and attributes should not be neglected however and it is highly recommended that a character
have at least one ability or characteristic for which they are exceedingly good, peerless if possible.

Inequity

In GURPS it is normal to assume that all characters are created equal, or equivalent at any rate, i.e.
all players have the same number of points to spend on designing their characters. For a campaign in
India there are reasons why this strategy might not be entirely appropriate.

The modern Indian constitution aside, equality does not feature prominently in India, in practice or
in theory. The ineffable wheel of dharma engenders people who are demonstrably better or less
fortunate than others. The system is not arbitrary it is true, one's birth is a consequence of one's
karmic cache, but someone whose karma warrants a lowly birth is undeniably a lesser person.

There is a huge variety of privilege in India. Contrast the illiterate low-caste street urchin with the
young son of a maharaja. The one: starved and crippled by polio; streetsmart for sure, but illiterate
and with no prospects of getting anything better from life. The other: wealthy and respected; a
cultured aesthete, learned in Persian poetry, with access to the best education and a horde of fawning
retainers. A campaign might very well see such a range. Consider this example: one character, an
Eton educated British officer, distinguished member of the Ballygunge Club, possessed of great
soldiering and leadership skills, and with access to the resources and edification British Empire, has
it over the next character, the officer's manservant, who's acute organizational skills, photographic
memory, and skill at mimicry, do not make up for his lack of status and his army of querulous
dependents <\@208> there is not the same variance between an English lord and his butler, an
analogous comparison.

While it is still recommended that starting characters begin with the same number of points, as this is
the GURPS way, a brave GM might want to consider options where characters begin with a random
number of points, to model the vagaries of karma. For example, in a campaign with an average of
100 points per player character, the actual number of points available to a character might be
determined by the equation 65+2d--5, giving a range of 75-125 points. An even greater range, 50 to
150 points, about the same average is achieved through 30+4d--5. A concomitant option would be to
relax the 40 point limitation on disadvantages and instead make a character's limit be determined by
the number of character points rolled up, perhaps equal to 40 plus or minus the difference from the
average. For example, a character unfortunate enough to roll up only 80 points in a campaign where
100 is the standard would be permitted to spend 60 points on disadvantages.

Appearance
While brown or blond hair and even blue eyes are not unknown in India, particularly in the far north,
the vast majority of Indians have black hair and brown skin. Many different hues of brown skin are
possible, in particular there are a regional differences in skin color, people from the south and east
are somewhat darker than those in the north and west, and there is variety even within a region. Fair
skin is generally thought to be attractive and some even resort to using herbal and chemical
concoctions to lighten their skin. (The desirability of fair skin only applies to Indians. Caucasians are
not necessarily considered more attractive for their pale skin.)

Beauty can be important in India; Indians are quite candid about judging people on their appearance.
Indians make efforts to appear neat and are very conservative about dressing; it is not considered
desirable to be different. Ostentation is seen as being handsome and both men and women try to
wear a good amount of gold and silver, though for men this is pretty much restricted to gold rings (it
is no longer fashionable for men to wear earrings). Women's jewelry reserved for special occasions
is particularly ornate; a woman at her wedding or a princess in her finery will wear a number of
elaborately carved bangles, ear-rings, and nose-rings of grand size, a nose-ring, for example, could
be 3 inches in diameter. Women are also conscientious about wearing make-up and there are a
number of make-up customs, some which distinguish married and unmarried women. A very
common fashion is the bindi, a spot, teardrop, or tiny design worn on the brow. On special occasions
or when feeling extravagant, a woman will decorate her hands or feet with henna stains. Other make-
up fashions for women go in and out of vogue and might encountered at any time, such as a tattooed
dot on the chin or red-colored teeth. Hindu men might also wear a bindi though this is very
uncommon and will be for religious purposes. The tilak, a smear of paste on the brow, is more
clearly a Hindu religious mark and is often made during a puja, but might also be worn as make-up
in an effort to appear more pious. The truly devout will on occasion wear more elaborate sect marks,
of which there are several designs, two common examples being an elongated "U" with a dot inside
for Vaishnavites and three horizontal lines for a Shaivite.

Even in modern times, Indians are fairly short on average and 3" should be subtracted from the
average height given in the Height/Weight table on page B15, as for pre-19th-century characters. It
is possible for characters to be quite a bit taller than average, Punjabis for example are renown for
being larger than average. Typically poorer Indians are slighter than average, as might be expected,
and richer Indians are quite often fatter than average, sometimes deliberately so in order to
emphasize their wealth. It was once the case that plumpness was seen as being attractive, but this is
less the case now, though the desire to be slim is by no means great.

Background and Status

Character creation in GURPS is an involved process; far more than just deciding on a character's
abilities, creating a character requires deciding on a character's background. For any GURPS
character this is essential as a character's background determines almost all other aspects of the
character, what advantages, disadvantages, and skills are available or appropriate, where in the social
hierarchy the character sits, and what sort of personality the character is likely to have formed. A
character's background has influence beyond character generation however, it determines how others
see the character, in a more specific way than social status and a more general way than reputation,
and also how the character sees their place in the world and what ambitions they have. This is so
very true in India where a person's birth is as much a consequence of their nature as the reverse. In
generating a character in an Indian campaign, one must always be aware that the choices made
regarding the character's origins and personal history have great weight and enduring consequences.

Perhaps the first choice that must be made when drafting a background for an Indian character is
what religion the character belongs to. This is an important decision as it determines, to a greater or
lesser extent, the ethical code of the character. Far more than that however, a character's religion,
even if the character has no faith in it and does not follow its tenets, pigeonholes the character into a
community. Pretty much all religions in India have sub-sects and it is necessary to decide which sect
the character was born into. For a Hindu the possibilities are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism
(including Left Hand Tantrism, though this background is highly unusual and should not be chosen
lightly and requires an Unusual Background Advantage), or any of the innumerable minor sects. A
Muslim should decide whether they are a Sunni or a Shia. A Buddhist might be of the Greater or
Lesser Vehicle and Jains may be White or Sky Clad. Most Christians in India will be Syrian or
Anglican but almost all Christian faiths can be found due to the work of missionaries.

Once the character's religion has been chosen, the player should decide on a caste for the character.
While caste is an institution only in Hinduism, all other religions have de facto castes, as it is more a
social tradition than a religious one. Caste is based on vocation, so choosing a caste might mean as
little as deciding on what occupation one's father had. However, a caste is more than simply a
vocational tradition down a family line, a caste is a clan, the members of which share more traditions
than just their occupation. In putting a character into a caste a player may wish, or the GM may
demand, to devise fully the character's caste.

Generating a caste requires deciding which occupational niche the caste fills in society and devising
a suite of traditions and customs particular to the caste. A caste's occupation may be very specific,
particularly if the caste is small, or it can be more general, though there may be a list of jobs a caste
will not do for some reason or another, even if they are in the general purview of their occupation.
Some of the traditions of a caste are expressed as advantages and disadvantages if they significantly
impact on the character during play. One might also think up a history of the caste and explanations
as to why certain customs are held, particularly if these customs are out of sync with other castes in
the area.

Hindus must also decide on a varna, into which their caste fits. Belonging to a particular varna costs
a number of character points as the varna include a number of advantages or disadvantages. Also
listed are a number of common advantages and disadvantages that a caste of the varna may likely
have. The advantages or disadvantages of a varna apply to every member of the castes of that varna
and therefore do not include those which will apply only to individuals. For example, there are a
number of ecclesiastic brahmin castes, but Clerical Investment is not listed as a common advantage
as not every member of the caste would be a priest. Any of the advantages and disadvantages can be
bought off for particular castes if it can be justified.

Brahmin 14, 4, -1 points

Brahmin castes are traditionally the priestly and professorial castes. Certainly in the past they largely
worked as priests, performers of rituals, and in other religiously based jobs (e.g. ministrating to
pilgrims). Over time, the range of occupations undertaken by brahmins has broadened, though they
will never perform menial occupations, agriculture being the occupation of lowest status they will
perform. However, regardless of their vocation, brahmin castes are invariably relatively better off;
agricultural brahmin castes will have better irrigation facilities etc., brahmin office working castes
will hold the higher posts in an office, and brahmin artisans will work as religions sculptors or
similar noble crafts.

In Vedic thought, brahmins are the most pure of the varnas. They must therefore avoid contact with
the lower varnas, particularly shudras and untouchables. The onus is on the other varnas not to
pollute brahmins but it is still a restriction brahmins must live under. This is manifest in the Taboo
disadvantage, a -10 point disadvantage in the past, but a -5 point disadvantage in liberal post-
Gandhian times. The exaltation of brahmins can also give them legal privileges. According to the
Laws of Manu, brahmins are punished far less severely for their crimes, e.g. the murder of a shudra
by a brahmin was a crime no more serious than the killing of an animal. In classical times (and only
classical times), a 10 point Legal Immunity is gained.

The point cost of being from a brahmin caste is 10 points in classical times, -5 points in modern
times, and 0 points at all other times.

Advantages

Legal Immunity [10/0]; Literacy [10/0]; Status 1 [5]

Disadvantages

Taboo (Social Aloofness) [-10/-5]; Taboo (Vegetarianism) [-1]

Other Common Advantages

Wealth

Other Common Disadvantages

Disciplines of Faith (Ritualism), Taboos of various types

Kshatriya 10 points

The kshatriyas are the warriors and rulers of society. As with brahmins, the range of occupations
performed has increased greatly and now many kshatriyas are agriculturists (and many agricultural
castes claim kshatriya descent), though a good number of land owning castes are kshatriyas.
Regardless of their caste occupation, kshatriyas are respected.

Advantages
Status 1 [5]; Adventuring Background [5]

Other Common Advantages

Status, Wealth

Common Disadvantages

Code of Honor
Vaishya 0 points

In the early history of the varna system, the vaishyas were the commoners of society, serfs
essentially. As the shudra varna began to encroach on the territory of the vaishyas, the varna is now
associated more with mercantile and artisan occupations.

Common Advantages

Wealth

Shudra -5 points

The shudras are the servants of society. They fill the less affluent and less privileged strata of
society, quite often in menial positions and certainly low in status and wealth.

Some shudra castes could have occupations that give them some measure of respect or connections
with the upper castes, e.g. one that traditionally serves the military. Other castes are even lower in
status for some reason or another, e.g. a caste whose traditional trade has dried up may turn to
dishonorable pursuits such as prostitution.

Disadvantages

Status -1 [-5]

Other Common Disadvantages

Status, Poverty, Uneducated

Untouchable -30, -15 points

In truth the untouchable castes lie outside of the varna system as they perform those tasks considered
too debased and spiritually polluting for a Hindu to perform, including disposing of dead bodies and
working with leather. Some castes that were traditionally separate from society in some way, such as
bandit castes or non-Hindu tribes now integrated into mainstream society, are often untouchable.
There are a number of untouchable beggar castes.

As they are outside the varna system, their presence is a source of pollution. This is the basis for
their Social Stigma disadvantage, which is a -15 point disadvantage before Mahatma Gandhi's efforts
to reform the caste system, and -5 afterwards. Their status rises slightly in modern times (from Status
-3 to Status -2) but they still occupy the lowest levels of the social hierarchy. The boundary between
shudra and untouchable is sometimes blurred; a number of beggar and criminal castes claim to be
shudras and refuse to associate with untouchables.

Disadvantages

Status -3/-2 [-15/-10]; Social Stigma -3/-1 [-15/-5]

Other Common Disadvantages

Illiterate, Poverty, Uneducated

Example Caste: Sikligar 0 points

The Sikligar caste is a Rajasthani vaishya caste of steelworkers specializing in the making and
sharpening of swords and other instruments of war, and more recently of knifes and scissors.
Weapons and armor made by the Sikligar are recognizable by their elaborate engraved designs. They
have close relationships with warrior castes (and in fact claim kshatriya descent) and an enhanced
status due to their reputation as skilled swordsmiths -- they claim the caste name came from the
praise of a raja who said he could see the reflection of his face in his sword, so good was its polish.
They consider themselves superior to the iron working Lohar caste.

The caste worships the goddess Jagdamba Mata.

Disputes within the caste are dealt with by the caste council, with an hereditary head, though the
council has little influence. The caste is in general poor and uneducated.

Advantages

Allied Caste (Rajasthani warrior castes) [10]; Status +1 [5]

Disadvantages

Struggling [-5]; Uneducated [-5]

Example Caste: Pathyam 15 points (classical times)

The brahmin Pathyam caste is based in Hyderabad. Their traditional caste duty is to advise the
Andhra kings and they jealously guard the tradition wherein the king's prime minister must be a
Pathyam. Other members of the caste hold positions in the royal court and bureaucracy or are
landholders.

The caste is small and insular but marriages are allowed between Pathyam and a parcel of other local
brahmin castes.

Perhaps arising from an ancient responsibility as royal bards, the Pathyam caste has a strong tradition
of storytelling. This skill is used extensively within the caste with speeches at gatherings such as
weddings being ridden with stories.

Advantages

Status 1 [5] (in addition to that gained from the brahmin varna)

Choosing a caste means more to a character than simply supplying a number of advantages and
disadvantages, a caste is a community and a vocation. As a community, a caste gives a character
kinship to other caste members as well as forming a slight barrier to non-caste-members. As a
vocation, a caste determines what a character ought to be doing for an occupation and almost
certainly determines what a character was brought up to do. Of course, a character need not follow
the caste's profession, but not conforming may have significant dharmic ramifications or may elicit
negative reactions, particularly if one is seen to be trying to rise above one's caste.

In creating and playing a character, it is possible to take a poor, underprivileged character and make
them rich and famous -- some of the most dramatic and heroic stories are those of the poor boy or
girl made good. This is not entirely without precedent in India, a powerful example is the number of
great dynasties founded by shudras, but to an Indian, such a character would seem unnatural. In the
Indian mindset, one is born into one's destiny. Thus if a poor character is to succeed, they must in
fact have an auspicious birth somehow hidden by their apparent poor origins. For example, Krishna
was bought up as a cow-herd, but his shudra parents where only his foster parents as he was in fact
the son of a king. (His brother, Baldev, more extremely, was magically transplanted to his foster
mother's womb before birth.) One shouldn't be discouraged in playing disadvantaged characters with
the intention of gaining fame and fortune beyond that warranted by their birth, but one should be
aware that one is fighting not only people's expectations but also the Indian dramatic tradition.

Social Status

Few things are more important to an Indian than status, both his own and that of others. An Indian in
a position of standing pays ceaseless attention to the amount of respect he receives and guards his
status fast. Even Indians of low status are greatly concerned with who has a status lower than their
own. Inversely, an Indian understands well who they must pay deference too and will generally pay
their superiors due respect, even if it is feigned.

India understands hierarchy, so the GURPS social level system goes a long way towards modeling
society. In theory the stratified caste system is the backbone onto which all of society is cast, with
each living person occupying a rung on the vast ladder of status. Every Indian is well aware of who
sits above or below them on the ladder. However, GURPS does not capture the intricacies and
confusions inherent in the relationships between and within castes, religions, families, government
departments, wealth levels, etc. One's status is determined by a number of factors including, among
many others, temporal power and the prestige of one's caste, all of which cumulatively add to form
one's final status.

For all its appropriateness to the Indian social landscape, the GURPS status system is not fine
enough to capture the more commonly encountered effects of status. Most of society is clustered
around social levels -1, 0, and 1, yet within these levels are an untold number of lesser divisions of as
much importance at this level as the differences between the different social levels. This matter is
treated in the next section on reaction rolls but the GM is advised to always be mindful of the
dynamics of status in any situation and to be ready to let their judgement supercede any rules.

Note that although religion may have an impact on one's status, it is treated as being neutral for
status. The relative statuses of the different religions vary so greatly over the years. For example,
Islam was the religion of the ruling class for a portion of India's history, but now Muslims are
generally poorer in India and treated as outsiders by some Hindus, whereas in Pakistan they are the
vast majority and subject to positive discrimination. If the effects of religion are important in a
campaign or isolated situation, they can be factored in by the GM.

Status Table

Status Example Descriptions of Social Position Monthly Cost of Living

8 Moghul, British, Gupta, and Maurya Emperors $200,000

7 Emperor of smaller realm and other great rulers, e.g. Nizam of Hyderabad, Andhra Emperors
$50,000

6 Maharaja of important land, e.g. Maharana of Mewar $15,000

5 Maharaja of smaller land, e.g. Maharaja of Baroda $8,000

4 Raja of small domain, governor of important province $4,000

3 Governor of minor province, official of royal court, senior army officer $1,000

2 Rajput, senior priest, army officer $500

1 Kshatriya, brahmin, local priest, policeman, senior bureaucrat $300

0 Vaishya, shopkeeper, clerk, artisan, respected shudra $150

-1 Shudra, auto-rikshaw driver $50

-2 Rikshaw puller $40

-3 Untouchable, slave $30

-4 Contemptible untouchable, beggar, garbage scavenger $25

High status attracts respect, almost always genuine, but affected at worst. A difference in status will
modify reaction rolls in most circumstances. Higher status will also be a positive bonus in most
influence rolls. With increased status also comes greater opportunity to make money through
profiteering, though this is related more closely to the power inherent in any particular position than
to the respect it draws. A character in a position of status might consider taking a level of Wealth (or
buying off a level of Poverty) to simulate the making of money through bribes, and also a Secret
disadvantage which represents not that the character has a secret to hide as such (as it will be clear to
all that the character taking bribes), but that they might eventually get their come-uppance. Another
advantage of status is a measure of license; status does not give one any legal immunity, but those of
high status can get away with indiscretions of greater severity. Misdeeds and crimes of the high in
status might not be actioned on, even by the police, and will not be spoken of. At the highest status,
one can even get away with murder if it can be justified in some way, e.g. killing someone who has
their eyes on one's throne is admissible in practice for a great emperor.

Reaction Rolls

India's communalism adds factors to reaction rolls. Generally, a -1 penalty to reaction rolls is applied
if the NPC is of a different community to the PC, which will generally simply mean religion, though
it might also apply for regional affiliations, e.g. two Bengalis in Delhi will be of the same
community regardless of religion. Hinduism is far too broad a community for this bonus to apply
generally between Hindus, though Hindus of the same varna should avoid the penalty. (Note though,
that this penalty should not be seen as a prejudice against other communities. Rather it is a
manifestation of the fact that the ties that bind within a community weaken those between
communities.) This penalty should also be applied if the PC is clearly acting contrary to his
community, e.g. a brahmin associating with shudra. In a situation where community is of particular
relevance (a communal riot being the most extreme example), the penalty might be greater.
Conversely, a bonus of +1 is gained if the NPC is of the same exact caste as the PC (or any closely
related or expressly friendly castes). These bonuses will apply for general reactions, potential combat
situations (but not morale checks), requests for aid or information, and loyalty checks. Indians are far
too canny as merchants to allow these influences to enter their commercial transactions (though they
might give the impression that they do). However, if the same-caste bonuses would change a
commercial transaction reaction from disastrous to very bad or very bad to bad, then it should be
applied.

This -1 penalty for interactions between different communities would be a very heavy handicap for
Indian society were it not for the fact that most interactions will in fact be within communities. All
the same, the GM should always be willing to offset the penalty if given any good reason to.

Status will usually be a factor in reaction rolls. If there is a difference in social level, the effect is
clear, but even between characters of the same social level, there is likely to be some influence due
to differences in status. On a case-by-case basis the GM should decide whether the NPC has a higher
fractional status than the PC, perhaps due to seniority or belonging to a more prestigious sub-caste. If
so the PC suffers a -1 penalty to reaction rolls; otherwise they gain a +1 bonus.

Female Characters
India's discrimination against women is infamous, exhibited most strikingly in the practice of female
infanticide, but the practices of sati (albeit now extinct) and dowry murder are further symptoms of a
zealous antipathy towards the whole of the female sex. The only period of India's history when
women were not treated as being inferior to men, with harshly restricted freedoms, was possibly
during the Vedic age, and even then their place in society as homekeepers was entrenched. After the
Vedic age, the status of women declined sharply and by the early classical age it had reached its
lowest point. Far more than being treated as second-class citizens, women were actively vilified and
even despised by the sages of the time, Manu and the compilers of the Mahabharata being ardent
misogynists. The arrival of Islam dealt a further blow to women's prestige.

Girls are seen as being a burden on a family. One significant reason for the low consideration given
to girls is their status as property that is entirely given away in marriage. There is little point in
educating them or helping them to find employment as they eventually leave to join their future
husband's family. In fact, some authorities consider it a sin to educate women or leave them
unmarried after they have their first period. In truth, Indian families love their daughters as much as
their sons and an educated woman could attract a better husband, thereby benefiting her family. On
balance, a young woman is very likely to be less educated, treated with less respect, trusted less,
considered less competent, and discouraged in having ambitions.

As adults, women bear considerable restrictions. Married, as they most certainly will be, they are the
property of their husbands. Women from richer families will be confined to pardah.

Playing a female character in India is therefore a challenge. A woman's upbringing is likely to be

disadvantaged and she will constantly be battling a society that will aggressively take offense at her
impertinence in following paths reserved for men. All women must take -5 point Social Stigma
disadvantage. They must also take a Status -1 disadvantage before any more character points are
spent on Status as an advantage or disadvantage, i.e. putting them one social level lower than a man
from an equivalent background. All female characters have the Uneducated disadvantage but may
buy it off if they take a 10 point Unusual Background, which also allows the character to take up
employment. Similarly, a female character cannot acquire advanced levels in athletic, combat, or
outdoor skills, or any other skills clearly the domain of men, e.g. gambling, without taking a 10 point
Unusual Background. This particular Unusual Background would cost more except that the character
must also take an additional -5 point Social Stigma disadvantage and the background is likely to be
one of diminished status, e.g. banditry. On the positive side, women gain +1 to reaction rolls for
requests for help, provided they are confirming to society's conventions for women.

Playing a female character might seem simply hopeless given all the restrictions they must suffer.
However, it is possible to play an interesting and successful female character. A woman of ability
with enough resolution can overcome the constraints that society places on her, offsetting her low
status with favorable reputations and setting her will against societies attempts to make her conform.
If the character operates outside of society, as many adventuring women will, many of the
limitations disappear. In the end, the challenge of playing a character under heavy restrictions may
require some shifting of expectations, but might prove more satisfying. Some illustrative examples
may encourage: Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, whose biography appears in the chapter British and
Modern India, p. xx, was India's Joan of Arc. An outstanding military leader, after her husband's
death she led the troops of Jhansi from horseback against the British in the Anglo-Indian War and
had many successes before falling in battle, sword in hand. Phoolan Devi, the Bandit Queen, forced
into banditry through the depravations and injustices of her untouchability, became one of India's
foremost bandit leaders. She evaded capture so adroitly and caused so much trouble the government
was forced to offer her amnesty to get her to leave the hills of Uttar Pradesh. Jahanara, Shah Jahan's
favorite daughter and ally of her brother Dara Shikoh, formulated court intrigues and fought off the
attacks to her court influence by her brothers and sisters, all without leaving the harem.

British Characters
The British are so removed from mainstream Indian society, even when they were ruling the country,
that their integration into an Indian campaign is slightly problematic.

In the early years of European contact with India, the British presence made so little difference to
Indian society. In this period of Indian history being British carries with it a -5 point Social Stigma
disadvantage to account for their foreignness. As untouchables, their level of Social Stigma might be
worse, but they were afforded a fair measure of respect, as sources of trade wealth if nothing else. In
later years, after the British come to rule the country (approximately the beginning of the 19th
century after they depose the King of Oudh), the British had a separate social scale. All British take a
Status 1 advantage, putting them 1 social level above an Indian nominally of the same social class.

The British form a community for the purposes of reaction rolls. Coupling the -1 reaction to non-
British with the higher status of a Briton effectively makes, to British eyes, the average Briton
superior to all of ordinary Indian society.

The British do not have castes as such though British society is every bit as prejudicial as Indian
society. Many occupations could carry a decrease in Status, private mercantile pursuits for example,
and an over familiarity with locals could attract a Social Stigma disadvantage.

Non-human Characters
(Refer to the Bestiary chapter for details on the various non-human races.)

Non-human heroes in Indian myth are uncommon, but not unknown -- Hanuman, the monkey
champion of the Ramayana, is the most prominent example. Vanara and nishada are two races that
could fit into a human-centered campaign with minimal difficulty. In a more uncommon fantasy
campaign, apsaras, gandharvas, hatakas, kimpurashas, kinnaras, and possibly even pramantha
might be playable as PC races but will suffer considerable discrimination among human society. Any
campaign which allows any of the other supernatural beings as PC races, rakshasa for example,
departs wildly from what would be acceptable in Indian myth.

Advantages
Administrative Rank see p. CI19

India has for long been a bureaucratic society; certainly as early as Mauryan times. Although a job in
the civil service is considered rather common, it is a source of a good deal of influence, both through
the authority of the administrative post itself and through the contacts and intelligence the post has
access to. In India, each 3 points of administrative rank gives the equivalent of a point of Status.

Autotrance see p. CI20

An ability to autotrance might manifest itself as a tendency to experience religious rapture. In this
case a character will need to work themselves up into some level of religious frenzy induce the
trance. This should not be difficult; it may require simply repeating "God is great," or reciting the
Gita. In moments of intense religious activity, such a religious festival, a character with such an
Autotrance advantage might enter a trance involuntarily if a Will roll is failed.
Bardic Immunity see p. CI21

There is no bardic immunity in India. Satirists must be careful that they do not offend powerful,
choleric magnates.

Charisma see p. B19

Charisma, as an innate personal magnetism, is unrecognized in India; respect and veneration are
largely given on the basis of status. Many who might be expected to have Charisma, such as
religious gurus, do not necessarily. Charisma is an effective facility all the same, either in
combination with or instead of status-based esteem. As natural charisma is not a recognized source
of esteem, it less enduring than legitimate sources such as status or tangible reputations and will not
be effective unless the character is in the presence of those he is trying to impress (or at least able to
interact with them in some way).

Claim to Hospitality see p. CI21

Most castes look after their members by providing shelter and assistance. Claim to Hospitality is a
common advantage, but some castes are better at looking after their members than others.

Members of the same caste will often, but not always, be of about the same level of wealth. The bare
fact is that if one is rather poor, one won't get as much hospitality as one ability to reciprocate is less.

Other groups will also offer hospitality, such as shreni guilds (see p. xx).

Clerical Investment 10 points/level of rank; see p. CI22

Clerical Investment is a required advantage for practicing priests.

Indians revere their religious ministers highly, a statement that applies between religions as well as
within them, hence a Hindu will respect a Muslim imam, knowing that the imam is a highly learned
and devoted sage. Hence, the effect of Clerical Investment is to raise status rather than just attract a
bonus to reaction rolls.

Being candidly general, it is possible to define two types of Hindu priests, those with the
responsibility to minister over the general populace, and those that work only within their caste.
There is quite a difference in the amount of respect each receives but both types are more highly
respected than the general populace. The caste priest has a Clerical Investment of rank 1-3 and gain a
bonus to their Status amongst all Indians of 1 level and a bonus to reaction rolls within their caste
equal to their rank. The generalist priest (always of the brahmin varna) is of rank 4-6 and gains a
bonus to their Status of 2 levels and a bonus equal to their rank to reaction rolls from all Indians.

Religions other than Hinduism have analogous divisions within their clergy, for example the
difference between Christian parish priests and metropolitan bishops. Note though that Hindu
Clerical Investment is genuinely different; a caste priest cannot become a general priest by
purchasing a higher rank. In fact, a Hindu or Jain can only take Clerical Investment during initial
character generation, as it requires a childhood of apprenticeship. A Christian or Muslim can take
Clerical Investment later in life, though it still requires extensive training.

Note that there are no ordained Muslims clerics, though imams can be considered the equivalent. The
closest Buddhism has to clerics are its monks, for whom Clerical Investment is an inappropriate
advantage. Buddhist monks attract a measured respect compared to the priests of other religions and
do not perform ceremonies for the laity. Use Monastic Rank (see below) instead.
Extra Life see p. CI36

Despite the fact that one is reincarnated when one dies, it is not unknown for people to get
resurrected. However, once the appropriate rituals are performed to send you to the next world (be
that heaven or your next incarnation), you cannot be brought back to life.

Legal Enforcement Powers see p. B21

In the less enlightened periods of India's history (including the modern day), the law does not have
the right to disregard civil rights, but can easily get away with it. The law is often underequipped but
makes up for it by often being able to draw on the community that is the police force (for personal
vendettas, etc.).

Police are generally feared in India and get a bonus of +1 to attempts to intimidate due to this.

Legal Immunity 10 points; see p. CI27

At periods of India's history, specifically those where the Laws of Manu are followed, brahims have
a measure of legal immunity. Characters with Legal Immunity can be tried by the temporal
authorities, but they are punished far less seriously for any crimes that they commit.

Lightning Calculator see p. B21

India has a long tradition of supernumeracy.

Literacy see p. B21 and B17

At no time in India's history is literacy a prevailing skill. In modern India, the literacy rate is not
much more than 50% and in Pakistan it is less than 50%. Literacy is a 10 point advantage in all pre-
modern historical settings. In modern campaigns, although literacy is not universal, as most PC are
likely to come from backgrounds where literacy is common, it is a free advantage for modern
campaigns.

It is generally common for the privileged to be literate, including the middle class of modern India.
The exceedingly privileged might get away with being illiterate; Akbar the Great, who was as
privileged as it is possible to get, was allegedly illiterate.

Luck see p. B21

Good luck is often ascribed to a surfeit of good karma from one's last birth.

Mathematical Ability see p. B22

Indians are remarkably good at mathematics and this advantage is relatively more common in India.

Merchant Rank 5 points/level of rank; see Rank, p. CI29

There are as many as 4 merchant ranks. Rank may translate into a position within a shreni guild, or it
may simply represent wealth and trade contacts.

Each 3 levels of rank translates into a point of Status.

Military Rank see p. B22

In the British Indian army, officer ranks were not open to Indians. As explained on page xx, there
were special ranks for Indians. These ranks were not parallel to the ranking of the rest of the army
but instead were all inferior to each of the British ranks, hence a lieutenant was superior even to a
subedar-major or rissaldar-major, the highest of the native ranks.

An additional hierarchy of military ranks, called Native Ranks, fit in within the "standard" Military
Ranks (as described below). In the following the infantry rank is listed first, followed by the cavalry
rank.

Native Rank 7: Subedar-major or rissaldar-major

Native Rank 6: Subedar or rissaldar

Native Rank 5: Jemadar

Native Rank 4: Havildar-major or daffadar-major

Native Rank 3: Havildar or daffadar

Native Rank 2: Naik or lance daffadar

Native Rank 1: Lance naik or unpaid lance daffadar

Native Rank 0: Sepoy or sowar

Native ranks 1 to 4 are inferior to a Military Rank 1 and Native Ranks 5 to 7 are inferior to a Military
Rank 3.

Military Rank confers status at a rate of 1 level of status for every 3 military ranks, applying equally
to Native and standard Military Ranks, hence a subedar gains two levels of status.

In the 19th century, the British army abandoned the selling of commissions, so the rules pertaining to
bought ranks given on page B22 should be followed for times prior to this.

Pitiable see p. CI29

Even the most abject of characters are unlikely to be pitied as one's situation is a consequence of
karma and hence deserved.

Power Investiture see p. CI42

Note that the magic wielding characters outlined in the next chapter are "self-made" and require
specifically the Magic Affinity advantage. In epic campaigns characters might be granted magical
abilities by their deities, Power Investiture is the appropriate advantage for this situation.

Semi-Literacy 5 points in pre-modern campaigns; see p. CI29

In pre-modern campaigns, where illiteracy is the norm, semi-literacy is a 5 point advantage. In

modern campaigns, where literacy is typical for PCs, it is a -5 point disadvantage.

Semi-literacy is quite uncommon in India; people are either educated or not, rarely are they partially
educated.

Shapeshifter see p. CI43

Shapeshifting is generally only possible through spell-casting. However, an idea that is original but
not out of place is a caste of shapeshifters.

New Advantages
Adventuring Background 5 points

You belong to a caste whose duties are consistent with "adventuring," i.e. during the course of play,
the character is unlikely to lose experience points for activities contrary to their dharma.

Exactly what "adventuring" means will vary between campaigns, as will the awarding of experience
points. Hence, the GM should consider whether and how to use this advantage after deciding the
theme of the campaign how experience points are to be awarded during play.

Allied Caste 5 points

Your caste has a close relationship with another caste (or castes, in which case the advantage is
worth 10 points). You gain the bonus to reaction rolls that normally apply only within a caste. If your
allied caste also has Claim to Hospitality, it is extended to your caste.

Avatara 20, 40 points

You are a god incarnate on Earth or the offspring of gods or rakshasas. However, you are not
generally aware of this fact. You may purchase a suite of supernatural powers at half point cost.
However, these powers are not available to you except under special circumstances and after a
successful Will roll. For example, you may only be aware of your supernatural origins when you are
in view of an idol of your divine incarnation.

If others can become aware of your true identity this advantage cost 40 points. This awareness is
only ever short-lived but temporarily elevates your status off the scale.

This advantage simulates the divine natures of Hanuman and Balarama but is a pale shadow of the
avataric nature of Krishna, who is fully aware of his divinity but chooses not to or is unable to draw
on its full power. Ambitious GMs might wish to tinker with this advantage to allow characters with
potentially overwhelming powers, but severe checks on their use.

Detached 20 points

You have come to realize the transitory nature of human life and the futility of its struggle. You now
understand your place in the universe and no longer feel bound by ties of society, being bound only
by your unity with the divine.

You do not fear death (as Imperturbable, CI 26), as death is only a transition, and feel no remorse, as
your morality is based on dharma rather than worldly human expectations.

It may be the case that you have seen right through the veil of maya, experienced the turiya state of
consciousness, or simply become comfortable with the idea of the unity of your self with God. You
are well on your way towards enlightenment.
Monastic Ranks 5 points/level of rank

Monasteries and orders of monks have ranks, as have some orders of sadhus (holy men). Often they
will be informal and based on seniority, but may be official gradations. For the purposes of GURPS
India, each order or monastery has 6 levels of rank. These ranks hold within a religion, not just
within a sect, hence the rank of a Mahayana monk is recognized by a Theravada monk, and vise
versa.

There are many, many different Shiva worshipping sadhu sects in India, some are tiny but some
range across all of India and command considerable political and social power. Members of a sects
will typically wear robes, have a forehead mark, such as three horizontal lines, and may carry a staff
or trident. The different sects can be identified by their raiments.

Each 3 levels of rank is equivalent to a level of status.

Acquiring advantages
Indians can be incredibly devoted, and this devotion extends to the acquiring of extraordinary
abilities. Ascetics willing to put themselves through egregious hardships are an example, but this
level of dedication is not limited to religious fanatics; even the desire to get into the Guinness Book
of World Records motivates Indians to exceptional levels of exertion. This level of discipline and a
lower sense of human limitation, mean that Indians are capable of training themselves to perform
superhuman feats. In game terms, Indians should be permitted to purchase advantages during play
that might normally only be available to beginning characters, advantages that might be seen as
being innate. Examples include Double-Jointed and Lightning Calculator.

These advantages may be purchased through "study" (practice in fact) at a rate of 1 points per 200
hours devoted to its increase, just as with skills.

They study of yoga and the practice of intense asceticism, if followed strictly, lead to the acquisition
of great abilities. Yogis and ascetics (including ascetic sadhus) may acquire exceptional advantages
through their practice; when a yogi increases their Yoga skill by a level they may acquire one of the
following advantages: Autotrance, Breath Holding, Double-Jointed, Extra Fatigue, High Pain
Threshold, and Less Sleep. The same is allowed of an ascetic who has satisfied the GM that they
have punished themselves sufficiently (which might perhaps require taking on a disadvantage as a
consequence of the austerities, e.g. Skinny or Reduced Move). In a cinematic campaign were the
claims of supernatural powers by yogis and sadhus are genuine, the following advantages might be
available for purchase: Disease-Resistant, Doesn't Eat or Drink, Doesn't Sleep, Faith Healing,
Immortality, Immunity to Disease, Immunity to Poison, Longevity, Metabolism Control, and
Unaging. The GM may also rule that other mythical advantages are available. (Note also that yogis
and sadhus may be able to use magic. See Magical India chapter.)

Characters devoting themselves to the path of enlightenment or moksha may acquire some
advantages if they are successfully keeping to their regimen. These advantages are bestowed upon
the character either by God or simply by dharma. If the GM accepts that the character is worthy of
them, the following advantages might be purchased if they are appropriate for the campaign:
Blessed, Detached, Divine Favor, Extraordinary Luck, Harmony with the Tao (Dharma),
Illuminated, Intuition, Luck, Reawakened, Sanctity, and True Faith. The state known as
enlightenment is not known, simply because it is not able to be understood by unenlightened minds.
Depending on how enlightenment is treated in a campaign, Being of Pure Thought may be an
approximation to this state. Characters who conscientiously follow their path may achieve this
moksha at death by making a successful roll of the skill appropriate to the character's path (e.g.
philosophy for jnana yoga) and by expending the requisite amount of character points gained in a
manner consistent with the path (requiring a little bit of extra bookwork), which may be earned
subsequent to purchasing of the advantage (GMs discretion).

Disadvantages
Code of Honor

While Indian society has established codes of conduct, including honesty and deference to those of
higher status, they are as often as not observed in the breach and do not amount to true codes of
honor. However, Indian society is broad and diverse and certain communities or castes may have
codes of honor of various levels of strictness. Furthermore, some individuals can develop very strong
principles, often in response to a perceived lack of morals in society. Players and GM should feel
free to define Codes of Honor for castes or communities as they feel fit.

Kshatriya Code of Honor: Willingly meet any challenge on the battlefield. Always maintain one's
dignity and avenge any insult to one's honor in kind. Protect one's vassals as one would protect
oneself. Assert the status of the kshatriya varna. -5 points.

The Kshatriya Code of Honor is only encountered in India's early history (it will only be encountered
amongst intensely principled kshatriya during and after Gupta times) or epic times.

Rajput Code of Honor: Never accept defeat. Suffer the greatest of losses, including the death of one's
family and people, rather than surrender. Avenge insults with death. -10 points.

The Rajput Code of Honor was widely held by Rajput warrior during the Rajput ascendancy (i.e.
during the time of Muslim incursions into India). Even Rajputs in the modern day may have this
Code of Honor, though it is now uncommon and largely confined to the military. Even if a Rajput
does not hold to this extreme code, they are likely to be proud and vengeful of insults to the level of
a -5 point disadvantage.

Disciplines of Faith see p. CI89

Disciplines of Faith are commonly adhered to by Indians. Even a common, secular Indian is likely to
have the Ritualism discipline.

In addition to the disciplines listed in Compendium I (all of which are available except Shinto
Priest), the following are followed in India.

Devout Jain (-10 points): A devout Jain has both a deep respect for life and a suspicion of
attachments, particularly to possessions. A Jain must refrain from killing anything deliberately,
including insects, and must only eat vegetarian food cultivated with little risk of killing even
microscopic life (which in practice excludes any vegetable taken from the ground). A devout Jain
must be honest, faithful in marriage, and not delight in accumulating personal possessions.

To use this discipline to an advantage, for example, in gaining magical powers (see Magical India
chapter) or practicing as a priest, the Pacifism (Total Non-violence), Honesty, Mendicant (see
below), and Vow (Chastity) disadvantages must be taken. Monastic or Religious Ranks can then be
acquired.

Strict Brahmin (-5 points): Brahmins must avoid contact with all things spiritually polluting. Dead
bodies and human waste are examples of spiritually pollutants that must be avoided. Contact allowed
with lower castes is proportional to the difference in caste, i.e. a brahmin can be in the company of a
kshatriya but cannot eat food prepared by a kshatriya, but cannot even be in the company of an
untouchable.

Satyagrahi (-30 points): The followers of Gandhian non-violent assertiveness must practice a form
of Pacifism that requires never lifting a hand in violence against another person, even if being
attacked. A satyagrahi will willingly submit to oppression, including imprisonment, no matter how
unjust it seems. It requires an absolute commitment to a cause, as the cause is the Truth, which has a
reparative force. Satyagrahis should also take the Honesty disadvantage.

Semi-Literacy -5 in modern campaigns, see p. CI29

See under Advantages.

Vow see p. B37

Indians will often make covenants with God to behave in a certain way. For the purposes of GURPS
India, vows are personal oaths, whereas Taboos (see below) are restrictions common to one's
community or caste.

A common vow to take is the performance of a small sacrifice, such as the offering of a coconut at a
particular temple.

New Disadvantages
Mendicant -5 points

You have made a great vow to rid yourself of attachments to material objects. You own nothing
except maybe a set of clothes and a walking stick; hence you must also take the Dead Broke
disadvantage.

You live only on alms and cannot take anything that is not given to you. Note however, that Indians
are very accepting of mendicants and will willingly give them food or other necessities. A mendicant
is unlikely to starve.

More Daughters Than Sons -5 points

You are due at some point in the not too distant future to spend a large sum of money (one year's
income) arranging marriages for your daughters.

Rank Limitation -5, -10 points

You are not able to achieve a rank greater than 3. If this limitation applies to each of Administrative,
Academic, Mercantile, Military, Monastic, and Native Ranks and Clerical Investment it is worth -10
points. If it applies only to some of these, it is worth -5 points.

This limitation is due to a prejudice, is usually directed against a group rather than an individual, and
is often a tacit limitation rather than official. It is typical for shudras and untouchables to have it at -
10 points. During British times, Indians were limited as to their Administrative Rank as well as
Military Rank (though Native Ranks were open to them).

Ranks Limitation can be bought off but it requires an appropriate Reputation.

Semi-Albinism -5 points
(C.f. Albinism, B27.) Some Indians have patches of pigment deficiency. This is seen as being
unattractive so must be combined with at least Unattractive. Characters with this condition are fairly
distinctive but are not unique and are not particularly susceptible to sunburn.

This disadvantage may be taken at a level of -10 points where the skin is more white than brown,
being functionally the same as the Albinism disadvantage.

Taboo Varies

This disadvantage is very broad, covering any prohibitions a character may have for personal,
religious, or caste reasons. It covers restrictions on behavior, diet, and relationships. The point cost
of the particular instance of the disadvantage depending on its strictness and its impact on a
characters life.

Vegetarianism is included as a taboo. Vegetarianism as practiced by Hindus, i.e. not eating meat or
eggs, is worth -1 points. Jain vegetarianism (outside of the Discipline of Faith), which also prohibits
eating vegetables taken from the ground such as onion and garlic, is worth -5 points.

Skills
Body Control see p. CI138

This skill covers the practice of yoga and the asceticism of sadhus.

Astrology see p. Astronomy, B60

This skill is not the same as Astronomy and both skills exist at all tech levels (defaulting to each
other at -2). Up until modern times astrology remains a somewhat respectable science and
astrologers are often consulted. At low tech levels (TL4 and below) Astronomy is used alongside
Astrology for the precise calculation of dates and to form models for the physical universe.

Chess see p. CI145

Chess (which incidentally originated in India) in India differs slightly from that played in the West.
In Indian chess the queen (actually the prime minister) can only move one step in any direction.

The difference changes tactics significantly enough that when the skill is taken seriously a -1 penalty
to the skill is applied when playing the less familiar version.

Dancing see p. B47

Each region of India has its own style of dancing. In modern times each state has an associated
dance, such as bangra in Punjab and kathkali in Kerala. Each dance itself must be learned separately
but the Dancing skill need only be learnt once and allows a character to pick up different dances.

Some dances began as performances for prostitutes, either nautch girls (professional courtesans) or
temple prostitutes. In time however, dances gain respectability. However, not everyone thinks dance
is the most modest of arts.

Heraldry see p. B58

While Indians are known to use banners and devices, no science of heraldry was ever developed. The
skill therefore is of no use and IQ (as a substitute for common knowledge) should be used instead.

Kite Flying see p. CI146

In India the strings of kites are coated in dye containing powdered glass. The skill in flying these
kites is not only to get them to rise but also to make them swoop and to rasp one's string against
another's in an effort to cut their kite free.

Mathematics see p. B61

With India's strong tradition in this science, it defaults to IQ-4.

Mechanic see p. B54

It is worth noting that Indian mechanics are accustomed to working with meager materials and hence
are experts at jerry-rigging. At the same time, workmanship is often less than perfect.

Philosophy see p. CI157

As well as the six darshana systems of philosophy (see Philosophy, p. xx), India has all possible
variations on philosophy, including any imported systems. Philosophy and Theology are closely
related or even indistinguishable (as in the case of vedanta), and should be considered two arms of
one knowledge.

Physician see p. B56

As there different sciences of medicine in India, it is necessary for physicians to specialize. Three
systems are in use in India, ayurveda, allopathy (traditional "Western" medicine), and homeopathy.
The first of which is available from the earliest times, the second from approximately British times,
and the latter only recently.

Each specialization defaults to the others at -5.

It is up to the GM to decide whether all three systems of medicine are fully effective.

Poetry

India has a great variety of poetry styles including native styles, often deriving from classical
Sanskrit forms, as well as Persian styles.

Indians are generally quite receptive to poetry and a critical success at poetry composition or
recitation will incite strong emotions in an audience.

Snake Charming see p. CI128

While snake charming is often performed with a musical pipe, snakes are in fact deaf. The
"charming" of the snake is effected by movement. Snakes are easily distracted by movement and will
ignore one movement if they are concentrating on another.

Swimming

Swimming is not seen as being an important skill. It is not a difficult skill to acquire for those living
near bodies of water but is uncommon outside of those occupations that make use of it.

Theology see p. B62

In taking the theology skill, a character must specialize in a particular sect, not just a religion.
However, sects or denominations of the same religion (e.g. Skyclad or Whiteclad Jainism) default to
the other sects at -2.

Wrestling see p. 136

Wrestling is a popular form of unarmed combat and sport practiced in India since antiquity. Skill in
wrestling is widespread amongst the warrior castes and there are some that make a career out of it.

India has a number of forms of wrestling, some of which can be quite brutal, such as vajra musti, in
which strikes with cestus armed fists are permitted.

New Skills
Driving (Rickshaw) (Physical/Easy) see p. B68

The ability to drive one of the several types of rickshaw.

The man-powered rickshaw is a two-person buggy, with two wheels and two long poles sticking out
the front to be held by the "diver." The driver, or "puller," physically drags the rickshaw. This
particular specialization uses HT rather than DX and defaults to IQ-5 or HT-5.

The cycle rickshaw replaces the puller with the front half of a bicycle, which the driver uses to pull
the buggy. This specialization also uses HT and defaults to IQ-5, HT-5, or Bicycle-2.

The autorickshaw is a motorized version. They are typically three-wheeled and with a covered
interior. Driving an autorickshaw is based on DX and defaults to IQ-5 or DX-5.

A rickshaw holds two passengers comfortably, three uncomfortably, and more with difficulty.

Genealogy Lore (Mental/Average) Defaults to IQ-7

This is the knowledge of the ancestry and descent of a particular family. It is not a difficult skill but
without any research, one is unlikely to know much about a family (hence the low default). For
exalted families, such as royal houses, bonuses may be applied for those with no specific skill.

Laya Yoga (Mental/Hard) No default; Prerequisite: Yoga

The skill of Laya Yoga covers the theory behind this form of yoga, with the physical application of it
being covered by the Yoga skill (see below).

Regurgitate (Physical/Hard) Defaults to Will-4

You are able to disgorge objects you have recently swallowed. This skill is HT based rather than
DX. The difficulty of success in this skill depends on the objects swallowed, liquids being the
easiest.

Stenography (Mental/Average) No default

Writing and understanding shorthand.

Tantra (Mental/Hard) No default

This skill covers the understanding of the teachings of the Tantric sect.

Hidden Lore (Vedic) (Mental/Very Hard) No default; Prerequisite: Language

(Sanskrit)

If one is willing to accept that the Vedas contain more than just hymns and ritual, then the Vedic
Lore skill is required. A specialization of Hidden Lore with a difficulty of Very Hard rather than
Average as it requires decoding the Vedas.

Note that this skill is very different from the Vedic Sacrifice skill, which is knowledge of the Vedas
as religious texts.

Vedic Sacrifice (Mental/Very Hard) No default; Prerequisite: Language (Sanskrit)

Knowledge of the teachings of the Vedas for use in religion.

The great difficulty in learning this skill is firstly that it is not simply the theology and philosophy of
the Vedas, but also the ability to recall hymns from the books, and secondly because the teaching is
always done orally.

Vedic Sacrifice is a form of ritual magic but is not a specialization of the Ritual Magic skill as it does
not default to any of the other specializations and has Sanskrit as a prerequisite.

Yoga (Mental/Hard) No default

The practice of yoga is a combination of eight different techniques as detailed on page xx. To
proceed in the practice of yoga requires developing these techniques. For the purposes of GURPS,
yoga is formed of a combination of the skills of Body Control, Breath Control, and Meditation. As a
character raises these skills, their understanding of Yoga can increase. A character cannot invest
more skill points into Yoga than they have in the lowest of the three above skills.

Languages
See India, p. xx, for a discussion on languages in India.

The languages of North India, being those of Sanskrit or Persian descent, are of average difficulty,
though Sanskrit itself is hard. The Dravidian languages of the south are hard. The languages of the
same family do not default to each other, however, learning another language from the same family
as one you already know is of only easy difficulty until you learn it to an equal level. For example,
knowing Malyalam makes Tamil an easy language to learn, even though it is hard for those who do
not know a Dravidian language.

Indians are generally polyglots, particularly in modern times. An Indian is likely to know their native
language, Hindi (or Hindustani), at least a bit of English, and smatterings of other languages they
may have heard their neighbors speak when they were young. For example, a Gujarati may have
Gujarati 13, Hindi 10, English 6, and Punjabi 3.

Character Development
It is through the awarding of bonus character points that the GM can reward players that are able to
understand and role-play Indian themes. A highly important consideration is how the character
played their dharma, that is, how they fulfilled their role as dictated by their caste. For example, a
member of any servile caste ought to be penalized should their character presume too much
leadership authority. Equally, a character who should be leading, a kshatriya for example, should be
penalized if they allow a servile character to take over their role.

Character Types
Professions in India tend to be very specific. A character can therefore be based around a single skill,
take the wrestler character type below as an example. Just as common are professions based around a
particular specialization of a skill, vets for example, who specialize in the treatment of a particular
type of animal.

The following list of character types concentrates on those that are more suited as PCs or NPCs and
are not a representative cross-section of Indian society. In a land where there are professional
suicides, it is not feasible to list all possible professions.

Barbarian

Playing a foreigner to India or a person not of the dominant culture requires some consideration
about how they fit into society. Before a people are assimilated into Indian society and adopt the
caste system they are considered pariahs, even if they are politically dominant in areas. Examples
include the British, Muslims, Kushans, Bactrian Greeks, and Shakas.

The Indian word for foreigner is "mlechchha," though the word "barbarian" is related to the Sanskrit
barbara, meaning "stammerer."

Typical disadvantages: Social Stigma

Bard

Keeping track of lineage is important to Indian castes and very important for royal families. As well
as this duty, bards of rajas would keep alive story telling traditions. Often the raja's bard would also
be his chariot driver.

Typical advantages: Patron, Claim to Hospitality, Voice

Typical skills: Bard, Bardic Lore, Genealogy Lore, History, Oral Literature, Poetry. A bard might be
a fixture in a royal court, in which case a number of courtly skills will come in handy, Savoir-Faire
before any others. These royals bards may also require the Charioteer skill (see GURPS Low Tech,
p. xx).

Beggar

The beggars in India are numberless. They are a miserable and pitiful lot and are envied by none.
However, in some perverse way, they perform a noble task, giving people an easy way to accrue
good karma.

Young urchin beggars might make good NPCs.

Typical advantages: Few. Beggars can be more easily defined by the advantages they may not take.
Any form of above average wealth, naturally, and any level of elevated status.
They may have developed a number of hardy abilities however, such as Deep Sleeper.

Typical disadvantages: Poverty is required, as is a low Status. Uneducated. A beggar is very likely to
have acquired unpleasant physical disfigurements of some sort, some of which, polio for example,
are reasons why people may have become beggars. Disadvantages such as Lame are therefore
appropriate choices, as is a low Appearance. These illnesses will typically lead to low ST and HT
scores.

Typical skills: Area Knowledge, Panhandling, Scrounging, Streetwise, Survival (Urban). It is not
typical for beggars to thieve, but they certainly might pick up such skills as Pickpocket and Holdout.

Bhisti

Servile characters offer a challenge to role-play, and this is particularly true in an Indian setting. One
must lower one's ambitions. However, a minor character can have a disproportionate impact on an
adventure, quite often because no one expects it of them. A good example is the eponymous bhisti
(water carrier) of the movie Gunga Din.

Typical advantages: Patron.

Typical disadvantages: Low Self Image, Status, Poverty, Uneducated.

Typical skills: Depending entirely on profession.

Brigand

Bandits and desperadoes in India might be from a caste that traditionally supports itself through
robbery, or they might have suffered some misfortune that has driven them from society. It is
common for bandits to band together and such bands may make bases out of abandoned forts. The
thags (see page xx) were a fascinating class of assassin brigand.

Freedom fighters (e.g. Kashmiri separatists) and militant Marxists might be resemble bandits, though
they themselves would deny they are criminals.

Typical advantages: Ally Group.

Typical disadvantages: Secret, Uneducated.

Typical skills: As a typically violent profession, banditry requires combat skills. Area Knowledge,
Camouflage, Carousing, Hiking, Orienteering, Survival (including urban specialization if city based,
e.g. gangsters).

Charlatan

India has a great tradition of illusionists; to many the "rope trick" is brought to mind when India is
mentioned. The least impressive charlatan will have a handful of transparent tricks, such as levitating
when covered by a sheet. The best however are masters at escape, deft contortionists, nimble with
sleight of hand, and proficient chemists, knowledgeable about color changing, fire resistant, and
explosive chemicals.

Typical advantages: Charisma, Double-Jointed, High Pain Threshold, Resistant to Poison, Versatile,
Visualization.
Typical skills: Acting, Autohypnosis, Bard, Body Control, Chemistry, Enthrallment, Escape, Fire
Eating, Fireworks, Holdout, Hypnotism, Pickpocket, Regurgitate, Sleight of Hand, Snake Charming.

Entertainer

India has a tradition of traveling entertainers and many Indian's make their livings in this way. This
can range from children able to contort themselves through small hoops for the edification of train
passengers, to full circuses. (And might also include charlatans though they are so specialized as to
deserve their own entry.)

Typical advantages: Ally Group, Charisma, Double-Jointed, Musical Ability, Voice.

Typical skills: Acrobatics, Acting, Artist, Bard, Dancing, Directing, Enthrallment, Juggling,
Mimicry, Oral Literature, Performance, Singing, Snake Charming, Wrestling.

Eunuch

As in the Middle East, Muslim rulers in India used eunuchs to guard their harems. These eunuchs
might make interesting characters. They are likely to have fair combat skills, as they are armed
guards, and have a good coterie of contacts.

Another type of eunuch in India are the transvestite hijra. This is a peculiar class of person castrated
when young so that they may join this society. They dress as women and are considered auspicious.
They unfailingly appear at weddings and offer blessings in return for money. They also get money
by threatening to expose themselves or otherwise intimidating people. They for what is almost a
secret society and have a web of contacts through the city so they know when marriages are taking
place. They are generally too antisocial to be PCs but may be NPCs.

Typical advantages: Ally Group, Contacts.

Typical disadvantages: Eunuch, Odious Personal Habits (as pariahs of society, they have less use for
social mores).

Typical skills: Intimidation, Panhandling, Streetwise.

Exiles

Adventuring is a highly unusual profession in India; there is no adventurer caste. Therefore,

characters that do take up itinerant thrill-seeking are likely to be outcasts in some way. Rama and the
Pandavas are good examples, they were all forced into unsettled lives of adventure by being exiled.

Typical advantages: Unusual Background.

Farmer

The vast majority of Indians are peasant farmers and they offer the greatest population available for
adventurers. However, they are likely to be reluctant adventurers.

Typical advantages: None really. One might make a case for Disease Resistance due to hardiness of
years of manual labor.

Typical disadvantages: Low Self Image, Status, Poverty, Primitive, Uneducated.

Typical skills: Agronomy, Animal Handling, Area Knowledge, Naturalist, Survival.

Guru

Teachers are highly respected in India. Every character is likely to have had a teacher in the past to
whom they feel a great affection which is certainly reciprocated. If they are still in contact then they
many turn to their guru for practical advise.

One class of guru is the religious teacher.

Typical advantages: Ally Group, Charisma, Sanctity, Status, Tenure.

Typical disadvantages: Dependents.

Typical skills: Teaching and a particularly high skill in the area of expertise.

Holy Man

There are a number of types of mystics in India.

There are sanyassis who have foregone a comfortable life to search for wisdom through meditation
or gain favor with the gods through pilgrimage. Their aim is to better themselves spiritually. A sadhu
is more aggressive about chasing mystical secrets. Often they will practice asceticism, searching out
the truth that lies beyond the material world through self-inflicted abuse. By putting themselves
through hardships they obtain a release from considerations of this world. Their search for truth
typically takes them away from civilization, into the jungles and on pilgrimages.

Also removing themselves from civilization are the shrmanas who conduct rigorous debate and
meditation on religious mysteries in forest retreats. The term shramana really only applies to non-
brahmin religious seekers of Vedic times.

The yogi is similar to the ascetic, but rather than subject themselves to hardships, they put their
bodies through the demanding disciplines of yoga. Some combine the two approaches, yoga and
asceticism.

The Muslim mystic is the Sufi, though one who takes up the mendicant approach, as practiced by
Hindu mystics, is called a "dervish.".

Ascetics and yogis who gain magical powers through their deprivations are considered in the
Magical India chapter under Sadhu and Yogi.

Typical advantages: Autotrance, Decreased Life Support, Double-Jointed, High Pain Threshold,
Strong Will, True Faith. See also section above, Acquiring Advantages.

Typical disadvantages: Compulsive Vowing, Mendicant, Pacifism, Reclusive, Skinny, Vow.

Typical skills: Body Control, Meditation, Mental Strength, Nei Tan, Panhandling, Theology, Yoga.
A holy man is likely to have given up a former profession so will have skills appropriate to their old
profession.

Jungli

The adivasi tribals of India live a fairly harsh life. They are generally poor. They are therefore often
available for mercenary work. Such a character is likely to have little contact with civilized society
so much fun can be had playing up their ignorance and lack of concern for mores.

Typical advantages: Fit.

Typical disadvantages: Poverty, Primitive, Social Stigma.

Typical skills: Fishing, Naturalist, Survival, Tracking.

Magician

The next chapter lists the various magic workers of India.

Mahout

The caste of elephant handlers, mahouts, guard its secrets closely. As well they might, as their skills
make them their services very valuable.

Elephants are not the easiest of animals to domesticate, but when they are tamed they form strong
bonds with their masters.

Typical advantages: Ally (elephant).

Typical skills: Animal Handling, Packing, Riding (Elephant), Veterinary (Elephant).

Merchant

The attraction of playing a merchant character is because of the wealth. They also have contacts with
other lands. They generally do not travel themselves. For a non-sedentary adventure, they may pose
difficulties as they generally do not travel.

During classical times the character may belong to a shreni guild.

In modern times, this character type includes those who make their money on the stock market and
other forms of speculation.

Typical advantages: Ally Group, Contacts, Merchant Rank, Wealth

Typical disadvantages: Overweight, Unfit.

Typical skills: Accounting, Diplomacy, Economics, Fast-Talk, Gambling, Merchant.

Official

India has been a bureaucratic country for the better part of its history. The Mauryan Empire was
known to be overly officialed and likely did not institute the practice. In Muslim India, Delhi
maintained a large officialdom and to be an imperial administrator was a coveted position. British
India too was notorious for its bureaucracy. So over-officialed is India that it has given the English
language the phrase "red tape" (folders were wrapped in a wide red band before being tied up with
string).

The bureaucracy of India hold considerable power. The bureaucratic process is a powerful and
indomitable force; little happens in India because of the maze of red tape between the initiation of an
official action and its conclusion. Also bureaucrats themselves hold excessive influence as they can
stop or hurry a procedure. They are famous for being extremely condescending to patrons and the
unscrupulous make a good deal of black money.

A peculiarity of Indian offices is the specialization of tasks. Many clerk perform only one task, such
as short-hand note taking or typing, and refuse to do any other.

Officials also include British district officers, who, in addition to their administration skills, must
also know the relevant languages and Area Knowledge. Cultural Adaptability is a useful advantage
for such a character.

Note that Computer Operation is a rare skill.

Typical advantages: Administrative Rank, Claim to Hospitality (the public service looks after its
own), Contacts, Literacy, Tenure (or the equivalent of, for modern day clerks who cannot be fired),
Wealth (through corrupt monies, but must also take the Secret disadvantage in this case)

Typical disadvantages: Duty.

Typical skills: Accounting, Administration, Diplomacy, Stenography, Typing, Writing.

Physician

Knowledge of medicine is such an in demand skill that the physician is a highly respected
professional. There is a great range of doctors in India, from those with permanent practices, to those
who perform ambitious surgery on the side of the road.

An Indian physician might specialize in one of the branches of medicine followed in India, but many
combine them.

Typical skills: All medical skills, even Chi Treatment and Yin/Yang Healing, though an Unusual
Background must be taken to explain how these skill were learnt.

Priest

See under Clerical Investment for a discussion of the different types of priests.

Typical advantages: Charisma, Clerical Investment.

Typical skills: Bardic Lore, Performance/Ritual, Theology.

Raja

Playing a member of the nobility is attractive as few classes in India have the necessary freedom to
be adventurers. Rajas themselves are likely not available as PCs (though certainly not out of the
question) as they are too tied up with their responsibilities to their lands, but sons of rajas are likely
options.

Rajas are most likely to be of a kshatriya caste, though this is not strictly necessary.

Typical advantages: Ally Group, Literacy, Status, Wealth.

Typical disadvantages: Code of Honor, Dependents, Sense of Duty.

Typical skills: Administration, Diplomacy, Leadership, Politics, Savoir-Faire. Various combat skills,
including perhaps Strategy.

Saint

Saints are religious gurus who claim to have divine powers granted to them by God, either through
their birth, holiness, or because they have discovered the way to enlightenment. There are loads of
them in India and most of them are just tricksters (perhaps using charlatan skills to feign magical
powers). Some are sincere, if they are not truly possessing these powers, they may believe they do,
even if they have to fake them. They regularly attract followers and soon thereafter, great wealth.

Saint characters with true magical abilities are dealt with in the Magical India chapter under
Godmen.

Typical advantages: Ally Group (followers), Charisma, Higher Purpose, Illuminated, Pious,
Reawakened, Reputation, Sanctity, True Faith, Voice.

Typical disadvantages: Disciplines of Faith, Vows. Corrupt "saints" might have Greed,
Lecherousness, and Megalomania.

Typical skills: Bard, Enthrallment, Meditation, Theology (perhaps with new, unique specializations).

Slave

Playing a slave is a viable option. Although a slave does not have complete freedom, they are looked
after better than many other menial strata of society.

Typical advantages: Patron.

Typical disadvantages: Duties, Status.

Typical skills: Depending on duties.

Spy

Indian rulers have long made use of official informants, as the Arthashastra shows. These spies were
little more than public servants charged with secretly informed on their colleagues and others they
came into contact with; the better ones would go out and seek that knowledge.

In British times, espionage against the other imperial powers was an important business. In India,
espionage was directed against the Russians in Central Asia. Spying for the British was normally
conducted by the armed forces and the agents dispatched to Central Asia were largely army officers
(as well as natives).

Typical advantages: Administrative Rank, Charisma, Contacts, Cultural Adaptability, Legal

Immunity, Luck, Military Rank, Patron, Security Clearance.

Typical disadvantages: Duty, Secret, Sense of Duty.

Typical skills: Acting, Cartography, Detect Lies, Diplomacy, Disguise, Fast-Talk, Intelligence
Analysis, Interrogation, Orienteering, Shadowing.

Warrior
This character type is extremely broad. It ranges from the conscripted farmer to the British officer,
including within its scope Rajput knights, Muslim slave soldiers, and sepoys.All they have in
common is some skill in combat. However, the range in skill is as vast a range as it is possible to
encounter. Those trained in the use of weapons can be very skillful.

Wrestler

The wrestler can do one thing well, but that is enough to make a profession. Wrestlers, some of
which may come from wrestling castes (the brahmin Jethi caste is an example), make a living from
appearing in tournaments or being a salaried wrestler with a patron.

Typical advantages: High physical attributes are a must; the training for Indian wrestling is
excruciatingly intense. The Fit advantage is a natural consequence of training but a wrestler unlikely
to be successful unless they have the Very Fit advantage.

Typical skills: Wrestling.

Equipment
The Fantasy/Medieval Equipment list as given on p. B212 can be used for the Indian settings prior to
the 20th century. During the 20th and 21st centuries the Modern Equipment list on p. B213 can be
used. Even in these later times the items from the Fantasy/Medieval list are still available. As well as
those items listed, items of very poor quality equal to half the listed price are available, but these
items are of very poor quality and are likely to fail in some way. For example, a very low-quality
meal is available for $3.25, but could quite likely make the consumer sick. (Some items quite
obviously cannot have a very poor quality complement, fancy new car for example. A little
judgement is required.)

Money

Many different currencies have been used in India. The most recent is the rupee. Currently 100 new
paisas make a rupee, but previous to the adoption of the paisa, 16 annas made a rupee.

Job Table
Job (Requirements), Monthly Income Success Roll Critical Failure

Poor Jobs

Beggar* (Poor), $25 11, Panhandling, or Scrounging 2d

Errand Boy/Girl (Youth), $30 11 -2i/LJ, -1i, 1d

Laborer (ST and HT 9+), $30 ST 2d/4d

Peasant Farmer (Agronomy 11+), $25 PR 2d/-2i

Peddler* (Merchant 10+), $35 PR -1i/-1i, 2d

Porter** (ST 12+), $35 PR -1i/1d, -2i

Scrounger* (Poor, Scrounging 9+), $25 PR 2d

Struggling Jobs

Apprentice (Craft skill 9+), $40 PR -1i, 1d/LJ, -1i, 1d

Ascetic/Sadhu/Monk (none), $40 Panhandling 2d/4d

Bandit* (Survival 11+, one weapon skill 10+), $60 best PR 3d/3d, caught (imprisoned or fine of -4i)

Courtesan** (Attractive or better, Sex Appeal 12+), $60 PR -1i/-1i, 1d

Entertainer** (Acrobatics, Artist, Bard, Dancing, Juggling, Mimicry, Musical Instrument, Oral
Literature, Performance, Poet, Singing, Snake Charming, or Wrestling 11+), $40 PR 2d/-1i, 2d

Fisherman* (Fishing 11+), $40 PR 1d/-2i, 1d

Herdsman* (HT 11+, Animal Handling 12+), $35 Animal Handling 2d/-1i, 2d

Hunter* (Survival 11+, Tracking 11+), $50 Best PR 2d/3d, -1i

Peon (Administrative Rank <2), $50 11 -1i/LJ, -2i

Rickshaw Driver* (own rickshaw, Driving (Rickshaw/Autorickshaw) 12+), $60 PR 2d/-2i, 4d

Sailor (Seamanship 11+), $40 PR+1 2d/LJ, 2d

Servant (Savoir-Faire 11+), $50 PR 1d/LJ, -1i, 2d

Thief* (Four Thief skills at 13+, or three at 15+), $65 Best PR 2d/2d, caught (imprisoned or fine of -
4i)

Average Jobs

Alchemist* (Alchemy 14+), $120 PR-1 -2i, 1d/-4i, 3d

Artisan** (any craft skill 13+), $90 PR -1i/LJ, -2i

Artist** (Artist 13+), $75 PR -1i/-2i

Caste Priest (Clerical Investment 1-3, Performance/Ritual 13+, Theology 11+, Genealogy Lore 11+),
$100 Best PR -1i/ -2i

Constable (Legal Enforcement Powers, Intimidation 11+), $80 PR 2d/3d

Fortune-Teller** (Astrology, Divination Spell, or Fast-Talk 13+), $100 PR -2i/-3i, 1d

Petty Official (Administrative Rank 2-3, Literacy, Administration 11+), $80 PR -2i/LJ, -2i

Scholar (Literacy, Suitable Patron, IQ 13+, and two scientific skills at 13+), $150 IQ-2 -2i/LJ, -2i, 1d

Scribe** (Literacy, Writing 12+), $100 PR -1i/-2i

Shopkeeper (shop, Merchant 12+), $150 PR -2i/-4i

Smuggler* (Merchant 12+, Streetwise 11+), $120 Best PR -1i, 1d/2d, caught (imprisoned or fine of -
4i)

Soldier/Bodyguard** (combat skills totaling at least 40), $120 best weapon 2d/LJ, 4d

Comfortable Jobs

Charioteer (Driving (Chariot) 11+), $220 PR 2d/3d

Official (Administrative Rank 4-5, Literacy, Administration 11+), $300 PR -1i/-2i

Court Functionary (Savoire-Faire 14+), $400 PR -2i, 1d/LJ, -1i, 1d

Eunuch (Eunuch, Savoir-Faire 11+), $400 PR -2i/LJ, -2i, 3d

Jeweler** (Jeweler 12+), $300 PR or Merchant -2i/-5i

Landholder* (land, Agronomy 12+, Area Knowledge 13+), $250 Agronomy -3i/-6i

Magistrate (Administrative Rank 5, Law 14+), $1,000 PR -1i/-2i, intrigue

Merchant* (Merchant 12+), $300 PR -2i/-5i

Military Officer** (combat skills totaling 50+, Military Rank 2+, Leadership 12+), $230 IQ or
Strategy -2i, 3d/LJ, -2i, 5d

Physician** (Physician 13+), $350 PR -1i/LJ, -2i

Professional** (e.g. Lawyer) (appropriate skill at 12+), $250 PR -2i/LJ, -4i

Saint* (Fast-Talk 12+), $300 PR 2d/6d

Spy (Total from Acting, Detect Lies, Diplomacy, Disguise, Fast-Talk, Intelligence Analysis, and
Interrogation of 30+), $400 worst PR 3d/LJ, -1i, 5d

Teacher** (Literacy, +2 Reputation, Teaching 12+, total scientific skills totaling at least 30), $300
Teaching -2i/-4i

Temple Priest (Clerical Investment 4+, Performance/Ritual 14+, Theology 12+), $200
Performance/Ritual -1i/-2i

Wealthy Jobs

City or Provincial Governor (Status 3, Administration 13+, Area Knowledge 13+ Law 11+, Politics
11+), $2,500 Worst PR -2i/-4i, intrigue

High Temple Priest/Abbot (Status 3, Administration 13+, Politics 11+, Theology 13+), $3,500 Worst
PR -2i/-2i, intrigue

Raja* (Inherited kingdom, Status 4+, total from Administration, Area Knowledge, Diplomacy,
Politics, Savoir-Faire, and Strategy of at least 30), $15,000 Best PR-4 -2i/-4i, intrigue

Minister (Status 3, Administration 11+, Politics 11+, Savoir-Faire 12+), $8,00 Worst PR -1i/-2i,
intrigue

Key to Table

PR = prerequisite, LJ = lose job, "i" = months of income lost, "d" = dice of damage suffered, "*" = a
freelance job, and "**" = a job that may be freelance or regular employment.
Ancient and Classical India
Indus Valley Civilization
History in India stretches back to the time of the world's earliest urban civilizations. At the time of
the Old Kingdom in Egypt and the early dynasties of Mesopotamia, India was home to a remarkable
civilization of unparalleled cultural unity and civic sophistication.

Growing out of a diverse village culture in the 3rd millennium B.C., the Indus Valley Civilization
covered some 500,000 square miles at its peak centered on the lush and frequently flooded Indus and
ancient Saraswati Rivers and their tributaries. The civilization consisted of numerous cities and
villages, the largest being Mahenjo Daro on the Indus River (detailed on pp. 63-64 of GURPS Places
of Mystery; though the reference in that book to the Rig Veda as an "epic" should be ignored) and
Harrapa on the Ravi, after which the civilization is often known as "Harrapan."

The Indus Valley cities were wonders of civic planning, unprecedented in the ancient world. Each
was built entirely from identical baked mud bricks and defended by massive brick walls, protecting
the cities from river floods as much as from attackers. The streets ran north-south and east-west, with
main streets dividing the city into blocks containing networks of smaller lanes. The cities were
divided into districts based on social level. The western quarter of the two main cities was taken up
by a raised "citadel" containing public buildings, such as the city's granary. A city-wide covered
drainage system connected every house, the best of which were two-storied with courtyards.

The Indus Valley Civilization demonstrated a remarkable harmonization over a vast area. The
civilization was twice as big as either Egypt or Mesopotamia, yet maintained a high level of
standardization amongst its centers. Trade was of great importance, both within the civilization and
the rest of India and with the civilizations to the west. The sophistication of the civilization and its
extraordinary unity suggest a strong imperial or theocratic government. Surprisingly, the rulers of the
"empire" left no direct evidence of themselves -- the Harrapans built no monuments to kings, priests,
or gods.

This homogeneity lasted through the long lifetime of the civilization with successive levels of cities
being built to the same plan. However, after about a thousand years it came to an end. Mahenjo Daro
was abandoned in haste but in general the end seems to have come about through a more gradual
civic decline. This was likely brought on by stresses caused by environmental changes such as shifts
in the course of the Indus and a drying up of the Saraswati. As the region became less fertile due to
desertification, there was a definite loss of cohesion and organization until about 1500 B.C. when the
Indus Valley Civilization was eclipsed.

Aryans
In the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C., the priestly caste of the people who called themselves the
Arya, whose culture would come to dominate India, began compiling their hymns into the work of
oral tradition called the Rig Veda.

The Aryans were the eastern-most branch of the Indo-European language-speaking people. As part
of a great migration that took the Hittites to Anatolia and the Iranians to Persia, the Aryans migrated
from their ancestral home in the central Asian steppes to settle in the northern Indus Valley. At this
stage in their history the Aryans were a martial people, vigorous and fun-loving, delighting in music,
drink, and gaming.

Aryan Society
The society of the Aryans at the time of the compilation of the Vedas was pastoral as they had no
cities. This is not to suggest that they were primitive however, they were a sophisticated tribal
culture. The early Aryans were bronze-users and more technically accomplished then the Indus
Valley culture (though still only tech level 1). Their warcraft in particular was superior (including the
use of chariots and hafted axes) and their religion and poesy were very sophisticated.

After their related western cultures, Aryan society was initially divided into three classes, the noble
kshatra and the common vish, with a corps of priestly brahmins. This organization was to evolve
with the incorporation of non-Aryan Indians into the hierarchy and the brahmins becoming a stratum
of society themselves. Hence was born the four-fold varna system with priestly brahmins, warrior
kshatriyas, peasant vaishyas, and serf shudras. The jati system of castes dates from this time if not
earlier, developing from endogamous subtribes or communities based on profession -- not, as
proposed by Vedic theorists, through inter-varna marriage.

Early Aryan political organization was clan-based. A tribe was ruled by a raja (see Kingship), a
position that was often hereditary, with a retinue of royal courtiers. It was a qualified kingship
however, as the raja was beholden to a tribal council, either a council of important tribal men, called
a sabha and/or a council of family heads, samiti. It was even possible for a tribe to have no
paramount chief; a republic in some sense.

Vedic Religion

Vedic religion is a young Hinduism, the evolution of which is detailed in Hinduism Through the
Ages, p. xx.

The be all and end all of Vedic religion was sacrifice, yajna, the most common purpose of which was
to gain success in some venture -- battle, marriage, etc. The sacrifice consisted of a complex and
ritualized ceremony and was directed to a particular god who was enticed by praise to the site of the
sacrifice to drink and eat with the congregation. The Vedic gods were generous, particularly Indra,
the Aryan's favorite god, and would readily grant boons requested in this way. Other less amiable
gods such as Varuna and Rudra were sacrificed to in order to appease their wrath.

Fire, was essential in the sacrifice, its heat, "tapas," provided creative energy. The narcotic drink
soma was equally important. Fire and soma were incarnate as gods (Agni and Soma respectively).

The importance of sacrifice was not only in its placatory function; it had a moment that was far more
primal. The world itself was created from a sacrifice (see The Primordial Sacrifice and the Golden
Egg, p. xx) and as the manifest world is a projection of the divine world and a correspondence must
be maintained between the two, the performing of sacrifice ensured nothing less than the perpetual
creation and regeneration of the world. The greatest Vedic sacrifice was the ritual re-enactment of
the sacrifice of Purusha. This most important and ritualistically involved of sacrifices was performed
by seventeen brahmins.

In the Vedic world-view, brahmins, whose rites ensured the continuance of the world, were more
crucial to existence than even the gods. The words used in a sacrificial rite were sacred and had to be
recited perfectly. It took years of training for brahmins, guardians of the sacred utterances, to obtain
faultless pronunciation, inflection, and intonation. For these reasons brahmins were highly esteemed
in Vedic society.

However, brahmins were not the only class of religious practitioners in ancient India. Nonconformist
and non-Aryan savants looked for answers outside the pedagogy of the brahmins. Often employing
pre-Aryan ascetic methods, these mavericks were known as shramanas, strivers, and their
discoveries, often found from solitary contemplation in the wilderness, would reform Hinduism in
time.
Advance Down the Ganga

The Aryan's first home in India was the Punjab, based between the Sutlej and the Yamuna. This was
their Aryavarta. Here they settled into tribes and tended their herds of cattle and sheep. As well as
their celebrated rivalry with the Dasas, tribe competed with tribe for territory and cattle. Two early
tribes of importance were the Bharatas and the Purus. The Rig Veda tells how Sudas, the raja of the
Bharatas, vanquished Purukutsa, the raja of the Purus who lead an alliance of ten tribes.

In the period approximately 1000-500 B.C., the Aryans moved their center out of Punjab and into the
Gangetic basin. Their first base outside Punjab was the land between the Ganga and Yamuna. At
about this time they acquired iron, bringing them to tech level 2. With this new material, but mainly
with fire, they were able to clear the jungle from the banks of the great rivers and spread their
domains down the Ganga all the way to Bengal. They became less pastoral and more agricultural
with land becoming important as well as cattle wealth and primitive cities were founded, though not
at all like those of the Indus Valley Civilization.

During this time, the nature of the tribes was changing. By the 8th century B.C., the smaller tribes
had begun to consolidate into sixteen much larger tribal nations, called mahajanapadas (see map).
The battle of Kurukshetra from the Mahabharata was fought between factions of the Kuru
mahajanapada, formed from a unity of the Bharata and Puru tribes. The mahajanapadas were proto-
kingdoms and from them were formed the first real monarchical states in the 6th century; Koshala,
Rama's kingdom based at Ayodhya, Vatsa, Avanti (Malwa), Videha, and Varanasi were the first real
kingdoms in India. Magadha, another early kingdom, is notable not only for its later importance (see
below), but because it was founded by a vaishya rather then a kshatriya.

Now that lands were beholden to an individual king their fates depended on the character and
competence of that king. A good example is Bimbisara of Magadha, an enlightened ruler who was
patron to both Buddha and Mahavira. Bimbisara was resolute and energetic, constantly touring his
lands, improving his kingdom, and making use of village councils. His kingdom expanded,
absorbing Anga and unifying by marriage with Koshala (itself having absorbed Varanasi), in a
general 5th century process that saw the kingdoms building themselves up at the expense of their
neighbors. Through this process Magadha would come to control most of the Gangetic basin and
extend its influence into Kalinga (Orissa) and the Deccan.

Cultural Advance

With the rise of stable dynastic kingdoms and the growth of urban life, Indian society evolved. One
notable effect of this social progress was the birth of new jati castes to fill new roles. In fact, the
whole vaishya varna grew in status to become more of a mercantile caste. As a consequence of the
ascent of the vaishyas, the shudras too became better off. The vacancy left at the bottom of the
hierarchy was filled by the varna-less untouchables.

Brahmins also faced changes to their standing, but it was a decline in status rather than an
improvement. The sixth century B.C. was marked by social and intellectual ferment. Brahmins had
trouble fulfilling their roles in the new diffuse urban society and discoveries of non-brahmin
shramanas were infusing popular religion, challenging the brahmin monopoly. The findings of the
sages were compiled into the Upanishads and set Hinduism on a new path, outlined in Universal
Truths, p. xx. It was as part of this kshatriya religious backlash that Mahavira founded the Jain
religion and Gautama Buddha preached his path to spiritual liberation (see Jainism, p. xx and
Buddhism, p. xx). The two great religions, Jainism and Buddhism, preached non-violence to all
living creatures, tolerance, and self-discipline, values that were becoming vogue in India at the time
and which became cornerstones of the Indian ethos. The teachings of these faiths won immediate
popular acceptance owing to their simplicity and practicality. The sermons of both were preached in
commonly spoken languages.
Kshatriyas for their part lost their position of divine right to kingship to a new precept wherein
suitability to rule was not determined by birth but through the rajasuya and ashvamedha ceremonies.
The great empires that would inherit political authority from the mahajanapadas were all shudra
dynasties.

Mauryan Empire
In about 360 B.C. Mahapadma Nanda a soldier with a shudra mother usurped the throne of
Magadha. The Nanda Empire had its capital at Pataliputra and conquered the rest of the Gangetic
plain. On his death his many sons were not able to hold on to the empire. The turmoil following the
end of the Nanda Empire coincided with the arrival of India's most famous visitor, Alexander the
Great.

Alexander

In 331 B.C. Alexander of Macedon defeated the Persian king Darius III at the battle of Gaugamela
and was proclaimed King of Persia. He crossed the Hindu Kush in 327 B.C. to occupy Kabul (then a
Persian holding) and crossed the Indus into India proper in 326 B.C. Across the Jhelum, Alexander
met one of his most formidable challenges in Raja Porus. The battle against Porus was not the first
time Alexander had met Indian troops at the battle of Gaugamela where Indians had formed part of
the Persian army. With this prior experience, Alexander dealt with Porus's 200 elephants in defeating
the raja. Brought before Alexander, Porus so impressed the general with his regal bearing he was
made governor of Punjab.

The battle against Porus was hard fought and although no other Indian raja offered Alexander
comparable opposition in his push east across Punjab, his men were exhausted by the battle and
unnerved by the alien land. They did not have the heart to travel further. So Alexander did not cross
the Beas (but what if?) and instead headed down the Indus in 324 B.C. intending to travel home
along the coast. However, even after Alexander's death in 323 B.C., Greek generals governed parts
of north west India.

Alexander left a significant mark on India in breaking the power of the Punjab rajas and leaving a
population of Greeks in eastern Persia and north west India. However, the weight of his legacy was
not recognized by native historians and he was quickly forgotten.

Chandragupta Maurya

Greek legend has it that Chandragupta Maurya (referred to as Sandrocottus) met Alexander and was
imprisoned and sentenced to death for impertinence. However, he escaped and inspired by the great
general overthrew the Nanda emperor and took Pataliputra in 324 B.C. He spent nearly his whole
reign expanding his empire to the west and in 305 B.C., shortly before the end of his reign, he signed
a treaty with Alexander's general Seleucus Nicator, restricting the Greeks to the distant side of the
Hindu Kush (in exchange for 500 elephants). In 301 B.C. Chandragupta left his throne (died,
abdicated to become Jaina monk, who really knows?) to his son Bindusara.

The empire of the Maurya (Peacock) Dynasty was truly great. By the end of Chandragupta's reign it
extended from Bengal to the Hindu Kush and during the reign of his grandson, Ashoka, it extended
south to beyond the Krishna River. The population of this empire was in the tens of millions, made
up of divers cultures, languages, and religions, the heterodoxies being at their height. The treaty with
Nicator spread the Mauryan fame to the west and ambassadors were sent to Pataliputra from Syria
and Egypt. They reported back on India's prosperity and order. The invasion by Alexander had
brought greater trade ties with the west and under imperial stability the state-owned farms prospered
and the empire instigated the cultivation of previously untilled land.
The Empire was remarkable not only for its size and prosperity, but also for its administration.
Chandragupta was reputedly aided in running his empire by his brahmin advisor Chanakya (also
known as Kautilya), the alleged author of the Arthashastra. The Mauryan government was highly
organized and efficient for it. A high level of uniformity through the Empire was achieved with
weights and measures standardized and a universal coinage instituted. The state controlled many
important industries including the mines, shipbuilding, and weaving and included sanitation and
famine relief in its responsibilities, all requiring a burgeoning bureaucracy. The Emperor was an
integral part of the administration; the Mauryan system was hierarchical with no member of the
bureaucracy doing anything without the knowledge of his superior. In his capital, the Emperor
governed with his municipal boards (viz. industry, commerce, taxation, foreigners, vital statistics,
and civic amenities), each made up of five elders. One arm of the emperor's state control policy was
a vast army of hundreds of thousands of infantry, tens of thousands of cavalry, and thousands of
chariots and elephants. The other arm was the secret service. The emperor maintained a great legion
of spies which, as well as providing intelligence, was an important method of maintaining efficiency
and controlling corruption. Administration outside the Emperor's demesne was delegated to viceroys
of the imperial provinces (Taxila, Malwa, Suvarnagiri in Karnataka, and Kalinga after its conquest
by Ashoka) with district governors under them. The hierarchy extended to the village, which had a
headman, a tax collector, and other officials. The emperor also toured outside his home domains,
holding court in smaller centers.

An additional system of administration was the private interest guilds called shreni. The shreni were
veritable communities, controlled by councils with a measure of judicial control over their members.
The organization of some shreni was so complete that they were sometimes given the responsibility
of colonizing new areas or administering towns they had an overwhelming commercial interest in.
Shreni had four ranks, apprentices were entitled to 1/4 of the profits of their work, senior apprentices
1/2, and journeymen 3/4. Masters were entitled to all of their profits. Financial relations between
shreni was commonly on a barter system.

Ashoka

Bindusara extended the empire south to the borders of the friendly southern kingdoms. However, he
left the unfriendly Kalinga nation (modern day Orissa) for his son Ashoka to tackle.

Ashoka succeeded his father in 269 B.C. and followed his forebear's example of expanding his
empire by subduing his neighbors. In 261 B.C. he conquered mighty Kalinga. 100,000 were killed
and 150,000 enslaved in the bloody conquest, a massacre that shocked Ashoka and left him deeply
moved. He felt great remorse for the horror he inflicted in Kalinga and thenceforth eschewed force
as a method of conquest, taking up the course of righteousness and ahimsa. He became a vegetarian,
gave up hunting, outlawed animal sacrifice, and renounced the state's use of torture and capital
punishment. He used himself as an example for his subjects to improve themselves. To this end he
instituted a new class of "officers of righteousness" (dharma-mahamatra) and had his proclamations
on dharma inscribed on rocks and pillars throughout his realm. He traveled his empire personally on
dharma yatras (tours of righteousness) in order to personally spread the dharma. He built roads
through his empire (the Grand Trunk Road linking Pataliputra with Taxila is used to this day) with
rest-houses for travelers and fruit trees for shade. He arranged the digging of wells and promoted the
cultivation of medical herbs.

Ashoka Devanampiya ("Beloved of the Gods") was a great emperor, both temporarily and
spiritually, a genuine chakravartin. Not only did he rule India's largest ever pre-British empire
magnanimously, efficiently, and peacefully, he took it upon himself to improve the morality of his
subjects as a father. The world has not seen his like since. If he had not left such enduring evidence
of his own existence with his inscriptions he would seem like a myth.

After Ashoka
The empire that Ashoka had fashioned from his inheritance could not survive the loss of his
personality. Following his death in 232 B.C. Ashoka's empire started disintegrating. As many as ten
emperors followed Ashoka in the 50 years till Brihadratha was killed by his brahmin general
Pushyamitra Shunga and a new dynasty was begun. The Shungas did not have the authority of the
Mauryas but their reign is notable for the revival of the asvamedha. In 72 B.C. after ten Shunga
emperors, what remained of the empire was usurped by the Kanvayana dynasty who lasted through
four emperors until they were overcome by the Andhras in 27 B.C. (see Andhra, p. xx).

Remnants of Alexander's settlers, the Bactrian Greeks declared their independence from Persian
Seleucid rule in the 3rd century and by 180 B.C. had wrested Punjab from the feeble imperial hold
and were able to raid as far as Pataliputra. Their king Menander, who ruled around 150 B.C., became
famous for having converted to Buddhism. The Greek control of Punjab was a time of increased
intellectual traffic between India and the West, notably in the sharing of medical knowledge.
Western astronomy was imported into India, as was the astrological zodiac.

The five century interregnum between the Empires of the Mauryas and the Guptas was a time of
foreign invasion as wave after wave of tribes crossed the north west mountains. The Han dynasty in
China was most powerful at this time and in expanding its borders set off a chain of migrations as
one tribe after another forced their neighbors to make space for them.

The Greeks were conquered by the first of these tribes, the Scythians who were known in India as
Shakas. The Shakas held Punjab for about 100 years before the arrival of the Kushans (Yueh-chih),
themselves forced to migrate by the Hunas (Hsiang nu, While Huns). The Shakas relocated south
into Rajasthan and Malwa.

The most famous to the Kushan kings was Kanishka who around A.D. 100 ruled Afghanistan,
Punjab, Sind, and the Ganga down to Varanasi. He too converted to Buddhism (possibly from
Zoroastanism) and patronized the Fourth Great Buddhist Council which started the Greater Vehicle-
Lesser Vehicle schism. The Kushan dominion lasted until A.D. 240, only to be ended by the Persian
Sassanians from the west.

Gupta Empire
After centuries of disunity, an enduring successor to the Maurya Empire finally emerged in the
fourth century A.D. The Gupta Empire was never as extensive as the Maurya Empire, nor was its
political control as strong, but the Guptas reigned during the apogee of Hindu cultural energy, India's
"Golden Age."

The Emperors

Chandra Gupta I (r. A.D. 320-335)

Chandra Gupta of Magadha could clearly see greatness in his future when he adopted the name of
the founder of the glorious Maurya Empire and proclaimed himself "Maharajadhiraja" (Great King
of Kings) at his coronation. It was not from his own humble origins that he felt the audacity to make
this claim but rather because of his marriage into the Lichchavi clan of Vaishali which give him
Pataliputra as a dowry and made him the most important monarch of the Gangetic plains.

Samudra Gupta (A.D. 335-376)

From his father Samudra Gupta inherited a kingdom stretching from Pataliputra to Prayag
(Allahabad). Following his father's deathbed instructions to rule the whole world, he expanded the
empire as far as Kashmir and Assam. An inscription boldly carved into one of Ashoka's pillars in
Prayag tells how Samudra conquered nine rajas, humbled eleven others, and exacted tribute from
five of his neighbors including Kalinga, the rajas of Rajputana, and the Shakas of Malwa/Gujarat,
now known as the "Western Satraps." He conducted a great invasion of South India and subdued the
southern rajas, though without incorporating any of the south into his empire.

The territories he conquered were vast and though he did not extended his territories into the Deccan
and the Western Satraps defied him, he was strong enough to perform the asvamedha. As well he
might, as Samudra Gupta was a conquering emperor of the highest order -- an Indian Napoleon.

Chandra Gupta II (A.D. 376-415)

Chandra Gupta II ruled over the empire at its most glorious and earned for himself the title of
"Vikramaditya" (Splendid as the Sun). After defeating Rudrasena III, king of the Shakas in A.D. 409
after 6 years of fighting, his dominions extended from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. He
brought the Deccan under his direct influence by marrying his daughter Prabhavati to Rudrasena II
of the Vakataka Dynasty whose lands south of the empire covered much of Maharashtra, Madya
Pradesh and north-west Andhra Pradesh. When Rudrasena died young, Chandra Gupta was
effectively overlord of the lands in the Deccan while his daughter was steward to the Vakataka heirs.
Chandra Gupta himself married Kuvera of the Nagas, strengthening Gupta control of the east.

After capturing it from the Western Satraps, Chandra Gupta moved his capital to Ujjain and it was
here at Chandra Gupta's court that Gupta culture truly flowered.

Kumara Gupta (A.D. 415-455)

The glory of the Guptas continued through the rule of Kumara Gupta. However, the empire was
threatened near the end of his reign by invasions from the Hunas barbarians. Kumara was able to
keep the invaders out and celebrated his victories by performing the ashvamedha.

Skanda Gupta (A.D. 455-467)

Despite presiding over the beginning of the decline of the empire, Skanda Gupta was as great an
emperor as his forefathers. His misfortune was having to repel the increased invasions of the Hunas
at the same time as putting down rebellions in the hill tribes of Vidhya. Skanda's brave efforts kept
the empire intact and to celebrate his successes Skanda Gupta took the title Vikramaditya. However,
the constant warfare weakened the empire, draining the royal treasury and starting the empire on its
slide.

Later Guptas

The Gupta Empire was to last until A.D. 550, by which time the Guptas had become no more than
minor kings. Known later Guptas were Kumara Gupta (A.D. 473-474), Buddha Gupta (476-495),
Vainya Gupta (495-508), Bhanu Gupta (510-511), Narsimha Gupta (?), and Vishnu Gupta (d. 550).
They were unable to hold the empire together which had begun to disintegrate shortly after Skanda
Gupta. By A.D. 484 the Hunas were ruling in Bactria under Toramana and by A.D. 500 he had
gained Punjab as well. Toramana was succeeded by his son, the tyrant Mihirakula who ruled an
extensive kingdom. The Hunas came to dominate Rajasthan and likely formed the Rajput tribe (who
procured brahmin endorsement of a specious Aryan kshatriya background).

The collapse of the empire saw the outlying provinces, Kashmir, Assam, Kalinga, Nepal, and
Bengal, gain their independence. Successor states arising during the Gupta atrophy included a
separate Gupta line at the former western capital of Ujjain, the Maukharis of Valabhi, the Gurjaras at
Jodhpur, and the Maitrakas, former Gupta feudatories in Gujarat.
The Empire

The Gupta Empire was remarkably stable from the time of Chandra Gupta I to Skanda Gupta. The
reigns of the emperors were long and they had ample time to see in fully matured regimes.
Furthermore, when their successors came to rule themselves, they were well prepared, having spent
the better part of their lives being primed for rule.

The Guptas did not attempt to rule their empire as absolute monarchs. Instead, local authorities ran
the provinces of the empire to local customs. These authorities might be subject kings or guilds or
communities. Several conquered kings were reinstated, crowned by emperor himself, as imperial
subjects. Imperial control was passed on to the provinces by governors who ensured that peace was
maintained and the imperial taxes paid. The role of the emperor was to ministrate over the local
authorities and arbitrate between them. He also was a moral figurehead, his existence, as the
chakravartin, infused the realm with a measure of morality.

The government of the Guptas was less centralized than that of the Mauryas and a smaller
bureaucracy was required. However, the Guptas still maintained a large intelligence service and
army. Even while delegating responsibility for administration to subordinate communities, the state
ran several industries itself, including the mines and munitions production.

A significant amount of the imperial revenue came from land taxes, which amounted to 1/4 of a
land's product. Additional taxes were paid for irrigated land and taxes were imposed on wealth.
Citizens were obliged to work one day a month on public works such as building roads and
irrigation.

Despite the fairly heavy tax burden, agricultural production flourished. This supported strong trade
within India and with foreign lands such as China, South-east Asia (see Cultural Colonialism, p. xx),
and Rome, though the trade with Rome dried up as the trade with India exhausted the gold of the
Mediterranean empire.

The brisk commerce of the Gupta Empire built strong shreni guilds. The shreni were well treated by
the emperor and were granted tax breaks similar to those enjoyed by temple brahmins. They
developed quite a culture with each shreni having a distinctive insignia including colored banners
used on festival carnivals.

The Empire was a successor to the empire of Ashoka not only because it covered a similar area.
Ashoka established precedents of munificence and paternity in imperial rule, which the Guptas
followed. The Gupta Empire was demonstrably peaceful. Crime was generally low and punishment
for crime was mild; there was no capital punishment in the Gupta Empire. The relative harmony of
the Empire was due to a number of factors. Buddhism and Jainism were still strong religions and
their influence had become part of the Indian spirit. The prosperity of the Empire was a great force
for harmony.

Culture

The pinnacle of classical Indian culture was reached during the reign of Chandra Gupta
Vikramaditya. During his reign art, literature, music, dance, sculpture, temple building, and science
flourished under imperial patronage. The Gupta age saw authoritative treatises written on a multitude
of subjects including grammar, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and the Kamasutra, the famous
discourse on the art of love. The most outstanding literary figure of the Gupta period was Kalidasa,
the "Shakespeare of India," Vikramaditya's court dramatist. The astronomer Aryabhatta too lived in
Gupta times, composing his Arybhtiya in A.D. 499.

By the time of the Gupta Empire, India was well within tech level 3.
This era saw Hinduism, evolved into its classic form, reassert itself. Gupta Hinduism and the culture
of the Hindus was essentially that outlined in the India and Religious India chapters, i.e. little
different from modern Hinduism; its overriding principle was varnashramadharma. This culture and
religion was a culmination of all that had come before it and contained Vedic and Upanishadic
Hinduism as well as undeniable influences of Buddhism and Jainism. Further, Hinduism had moved
into its Puranic age with the old gods superseded by the sects of Shiva and Vishnu (who had
incorporated Buddha into his pantheon).

Behind the renewed vigor of Hinduism was the bhakti yoga of the Gita, a definite swing from the
philosophical Upanishadic approach to a more experiential, creative mode. In time greater
expressions of bhakti would make their way from the south. Important in regaining ground from the
heterodoxies was imperial patronage of Hinduism, it became a tenet that kings were responsible for
the brahmin priesthood. The Guptas were Hindus themselves and provided tax relief to temples.
Despite competing for adherents, the major religions coexisted peacefully in north India. In fact, the
Gupta period was a strong one for Buddhism as it was at this time that the Ajanta and Ellora Caves
were created.

Harsha

The Gupta Empire was restored briefly by Harsha Vardhana who in A.D. 606 at the age of 16
became maharaja of Thanesar on the Sutlej and Yamuna. He subjugated the kingdoms that had
previously paid homage to the Guptas. Harsha was an emperor of great energy, if he were not he
could not have held the fractious empire together. He traveled constantly, sitting in court throughout
his empire adjudicating on disputes and hearing petitions. Despite his efforts he could not build an
empire that would endure beyond his death.

Harsha restored the Gupta Empire not just in land, but also in character. Harsha himself was liberal,
mild, enlightened, and erudite. For a brief time north India again experienced something of the peace
of the Guptas. However, the Golden Age was turning sour. Law and order were beginning to fail;
sati was on the rise, and in Hinduism Tantric sects were appearing. As impressed as Hsuan-Tsang
was with Harsha's empire, he was twice attacked by bandits and was nearly sacrificed to Durga,
misfortunes the like of which Fa-Hsien did not experience when visiting Chandra Gupta II's Empire.

After Harsha's reign there was disunity again in northern India as dynasty after dynasty tried to
capture Kannauj, the new political center of northern India.

Southern Kingdoms
While kingdoms rose and fell in the north of India, the south moved to its own rhythms. The
Dravidian-language-speaking natives of south India were not Aryans and had a distinct culture,
expressed clearly in their matriarchal customs and traditions of cousin marriage. Culture diffused
between north and south and over time the southerners took up Aryan practices, becoming
patriarchal and exogamous. The Aryanization of the south inevitably produced a caste system. The
caste system of the south however was almost free of kshatriya and vaishya (true in Bengal also as it
happens). The southern brahmins were the keepers of Aryan culture, whereas the shudras were the
original Dravidians. Division within the southern shudra varna was along regional lines as much as
vocation with five secondary castes, hill, forest, coast, desert, and plains people, intermediary
between varna and jati. Outside the caste system there were untouchables who in the south were
divided into two groups, "left hand" (idangai) agriculturists and "right hand" (valangai) pastoralists.

The spread south of Jainism and Buddhism, which lit bonfires of enthusiasm in the north, created
communities in the south. However, the heterodoxies did not have the same impact on local
Hinduism as they did in the north. They remained separate communities occasionally subject to
persecution. Hinduism in the south was notably different from the north. Devotion had always
played an important part in religion and infused all aspects of culture; southern poetry, music, and
dance were bedded in religious devotion. The south in return exported its devotional Hinduism to the
north beginning in the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. chiefly through its devotional poetry, which
flourished in the Pandyan court of Madurai where the sangam poetry college reputedly held 500
poets.

The prosperity in the southern parts of the country was based upon the long-established trade links of
India with other civilizations. The Egyptians and Romans had trade relations with southern India
through sea routes and links were also established with Southeast Asia. The contact with the West
brought Christianity to south India. Legend has it that it was introduced by Saint Thomas to Kerala
in 52 AD (see Saint Thomas, p. xx).

Tamil Nadu

In the far south of the peninsula, south of the Krishna River, three Tamil kingdoms coexisted. To the
west was Chera, in the center Pandya with its capital at Madurai, and to the east Chola with its
capital at Tanjore.

The Cheras prospered under trade links with Arabs who had learnt to make use of the monsoon
winds. Many Arabs took up residence in Kerala. The Cholas benefited from equally profitable trade
with Southeast Asia and exported their culture to that region.

The three kingdoms were constantly at each other's throats with the Pandya's alliances alternating
between Chera and Chola, but when threatened by an outside threat as they were by Kharavela of
Kalinga in 165 B.C., they banded together. This unity did not last and they soon went back to
bickering. This left them vulnerable to the new force of the Pallavas, a successor to the Deccan
kingdom of Andhra.

Andhra

Originating in the heartland of modern Andhra Pradesh (funnily enough) in about 230 B.C., the
brahmin Andhra dyansty (also known as the Satvahana (Seven Horse) Dynasty) became a huge force
in the Deccan. They conquered pretty much all of central India as well as Magadha in 27 B.C. The
capture of Magadha was accomplished by Satakarni I who reigned from about 40 or 30 B.C. He
secured many allies amongst the Marathas and performed the ashvamedha.

Contemporaneous with the Andhra kingdom was a resurgent Kalinga under the Jaina Maharaja
Kharavela.

The most glorious of the Andhra maharajas was Gautamiputra who reigned from A.D. 80 to 104. He
conquered the Shakas of Malwa, extended the empire into Saurashtra, and subdued the Yavanas and
Pahlavas of Punjab. The Krishna River marked the southern boundary of the kingdom. Later rulers
could not hold on to this large area and the empire shrank and in A.D. 220 broke into small
kingdoms.

Pallava, Calukya, and Later Cholas

The Pallava Dynasty, an Andhra noble family, which rose in the fourth century A.D. at Kanchipuram
in Chola region came to dominate the deep south, having the three older kingdoms, Chera, Chola,
and Pandya, under its thumb. The Pallava height was from the sixth to the ninth century A.D.

The Chalukya Dynasty came to power at Vatapi (Badami) in the sixth century under Pulakesin I. He
used the ashvameda to extend his domains. His grandson Pulakesin II, inheriting an even further
expanded kingdom from his father, was the greatest king of the Chalukyas. He ruled from A.D. 608
to 642. During his reign he repulsed an invasion by Harsha, defeated the armies of Kalinga, and
defeated also the forces of Pallava, the sworn enemies of the Chalukyas. Despite creating one of
India's strongest states of the time he was defeated by Narasimha Varman of the Pallavas who then
destroyed Vatapi. The Chalakyas continued to dominate southwestern India until overthrown in A.D.
753 by Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.

In A.D. 850, Vijayalaya of Chola recaptured Tanjore from the Pallavas. This began a period of Chola
hegemony of South India. The later Chola kingdom had its height under Rajaraja (A.D. 985-1018)
and his son Rajendra (A.D. 1018-1048). Rajaraja conquered most of South India and Sri Lanka.
Rajendra raided as far north as Bengal and captured lands overseas in Malaya and Sumatra. This
"Golden Age" did not outlast Rajendra's reign but the Chola kingdom lasted until the 14th century.

Campaigns in Ancient and Classical India

In designing a campaign in Ancient or Classical India, available settings range from the pastoralism
of the early Aryan tribes to the Golden Age of Chandra Gupta II and Ashoka Maurya's empire of
righteousness. The political scope of Ancient India runs from the early clan-based societies and tribal
republics through the autocratic despotism of the Arthashashtra to the enlightened benevolence of
Ashoka. Religiously the range is from the nature-based gods of the Rig Veda to the cosmic
systematics of dharma and samsara, but the breadth of Ancient and Classical India also includes the
splinter religions of Jainism, Buddhism, and their kin. A great amount of variety can be found in
Ancient India giving the campaign designer many options, but perhaps the salient aspect of India's
early history is its sparseness. The fact that so much of India's past is unknown allows great latitude
in tuning a setting to one's liking.

The same freedom allows any level of magic to be added into a historical setting. To an Indian, the
world is filled with magic, the ancient world to a greater extent than the modern world. The
archetypal magical setting is that of the Hindu epics detailed in the chapter Epic India and it would
not be inappropriate for such a high level of magic, or a lesser level, to appear in a campaign set in
"historical" India.

Ancient and Classical India is a rich source for home-made settings. Room can be found in an
invented world for a tropical land with intractable customs and a spiritual tradition of such volume
that it overflows the land's boundaries. Alternatively, aspects of Ancient and Classical India can be
incorporated piecemeal into other settings.

Crossovers

GURPS Egypt

The Indus Valley Civilization is contemporaneous with the earlier dynasties of Egypt. The urban
civilization in India lasted until around the beginning of the Egyptian New Kingdom (from 1570
B.C.). During this time the Harrapans had considerable contact with the West, chiefly with
Mesopotamia but also to an extent with Egypt. It may even be the case that Punt (see GURPS Egypt
p. 30) can be identified with the Indus Valley.

The civilization of Egypt outlasted that of the Indus Valley and existed right through the time of the
Mauryan Empire, the last Pharaoh, Ptolemy XVI, dying in 39 B.C.

Alexander conquered Egypt in 332 B.C. before invading the heart of the Persian Empire. Egyptian
soldiers joining Alexander's army would be likely to be part of his invasion of India.
GURPS Greece

Perhaps the most direct contact of India with the Greeks (known in India as Yavana, probably from
Ionian) was during Alexander's invasion. However, there was some contact before this through the
Persian Empire (which, on occasion, exiled troublesome Greeks to Bactria). In fact, a tribe known as
Nysa, living between Kabul and the Indus, claim Greek descent, believing that Heracles and
Dionysus conquered north-west India.

Prior to Alexander's invasion opening up greater contacts, Greeks had some funny theories about
India. Including tales of one-legged creatures who use their feet as sun-umbrellas and wrap
themselves in their huge ears to keep warm. Herodotus (see sidebar) managed to get a few things
right, such as his descriptions of "wool"-bearing cotton trees and fanatically life-respecting Jains,
wonders no less fantastical than the giant gold-hoarding ants.

After Alexander, Greeks colonized Bactria in greater numbers. Settlers in northwest India made true
Greek cities, the citizenship of which was coveted. As the Indian inhabitants of Bactrian Greek cities
were Hellenized, so were the Yavanas Indianized.

The increased contact between the two civilizations, particularly through the exchange of
ambassadors, lead to a greater respect of their respective culture and learning. A story about
Bindusara Maurya has him attempting to purchase wine, figs, and a philosopher from Antiochus I,
and willing to pay a high price for the sophist. Antiochus sent the wine and figs as requested but his
philosophers were not for sale. However, Bindusara apparently did obtain a Greek philosopher, one
Iamboulos.

There are possibilities that some important Indians, including Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka,
might have Greek blood.

GURPS Imperial Rome

Rome had considerable contact with India, mainly through trade with the south. As a fantastic land
of enormous wealth, India could figure in an Imperial Rome campaign where adventurers are
willing to travel far afield.

Romans, or Romaka as they were known to Indians, established a number of trading stations in cities
along India's west coast. They even built temples and stadia there. In India, Romans were sometimes
taken on as mercenaries. Professional Roman soldiers cut quite a figure and would often be
employed as elite troops or guards.

Alternatively, Romans might encounter Indians outside of India. Indian rulers sent ambassadors to
Augustus and devoted Indians occasionally brought Indian religion to Europe -- there are a number
of stories of Indians immolating themselves to demonstrate their faith in reincarnation. During
Rome's struggles with the Parthians, many envoys were sent from India to collaborate against the
common foe.

GURPS China

Of the great civilizations, India had the greatest contact with China. Separated by the Himalayas,
trade in goods and philosophies traveled largely through Central Asia but also to the east of the great
mountains and over the seas. Towns along the Silk Road became vibrant confluences of the two
heavyweight civilizations.

As the homeland of Buddhism India attracted the Chinese as a pilgrimage destination. The two
famous Chinese Buddhists, Fa-hsien and Hsuan-Tsang (with or without his monkey companion, see
Foreign Correspondents, p. xx), traveled to India in search of Buddhist texts. Many took up
residence in the land of Buddha's birth, as many Indians made China their home for various reasons.

GURPS Time Travel

One attraction of ancient India to time travelers is the fact that so much of India's history is
unknown. Serious scholars of history would love to know more about the mysterious Indus Valley
Civilization or where the Aryans came from. While it might not seem terribly exciting to travel back
to the beginning of history to observe the world's first urban drainage experts, one never knows what
secrets are waiting to be discovered in this most poorly recorded period of history or what things
could go wrong to the best prepared of expeditions.

Another attraction of travelling through time is to see important events or famous historical people.
Alexander, Buddha, and Ashoka all stand out as the most impressive personages of the period. Of
these three, Buddha probably had the greatest impact on history, his sermon at Sarnath being his
most important moment. (Cases can be made for Alexander and Ashoka's importance over Buddha.
However, Alexander had done all he was going to do by the time he reached India and Ashoka
would have been nothing if it weren't for Buddha.) As well as these and other historical figures,
legendary or apocryphal characters such as Krishna or Rama could be sought out in their historical
setting.
The Mysteries of Harrapa

It is an irony that a country with so much history has left so little record of it. This problem
confounds all of India's ancient or classical history but particularly so for the Indus Valley
Civilization. So very little is known about the Civilization and there is so much that intrigues. The
script of the Harrapan language has not been deciphered and so very little is known about the
Harrapans themselves. The Harrapans did not leave grand tombs that have been so informative in
other civilizations, so nothing is known about who ruled.

The great unanswered questions about the Indus Valley Civilization are: How did the civilization
end? What sort of government did it have? Were the inhabitants Dravidians? Are they related to the
South Indians?

Indus Religion

Although very modest about it, the citizens of the Indus Valley Civilization were religious. The
Mother Goddess was widely worshipped. Also worshipped was the phallus as a symbol of the
"Horned God." This god, maybe a proto-Shiva, is represented in a yogic pose, surrounded by
animals wearing a horned headdress (or having horns himself). Yogic discipline and asceticism seem
to have been a feature of Harrapan religious practice along with ritual bathing and were passed on to
Hinduism in time.

Aryan Invasion Myth

The idea of the noble barbarian Aryan hordes riding over the Kyber pass on their chariots with Indra
at their shoulder, destroying the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, makes a good adventure
setting . but not good history. Historians have abandoned the Aryan invasion theory because of a
lack of reliable proof of violent invasion in the archaeological record.

However, the Rig Veda talks about the conflict between the Aryans and the Dasas. Rich in cattle, the
Dasas were a civilized and formidable people despite not having brahmins and eschewing soma. To
the disgust of the Aryans, the Dasas worshipped the phallus, as did the dwellers of the Indus Valley
cities, suggesting they may be the remnants of that civilization.

They do not perform sacrifices; they do not believe in anything; their rites are different; they are not
men. O destroyer of foes, kill them! Destroy the whole race!

--<\#208> Rig Veda. Appeal to Indra to destroy the Dasas.

GURPS Aryavarta

The Vedic period of India's history is a ripe one for campaigning. The kshatriya chiefs, leading their
clans into a strange but plentiful land, face the Dasas entrenched in their towns and savage tribes in
the hills as well as fearsome alien beasts in the jungles.

The Aryan warrior is bold and vigorous. The fruits of this land are his through his own efforts but is
aided by the brahmins and their powerful sacrifices. Essential as they are, the brahmins are
nonetheless subject to suspicion by the kshatriyas for their efforts to claim the top of the caste
hierarchy.

The brahmin is the priest of the very best of gods but the foes of his people use a strange magic of
their own, able to draw on power from a peculiar inner source by contemplation and austerities.
Young Aryan culture, as yet uncorrupted by Indian thought, draws heavily on Indo-European
tradition. GURPS Celtic Myth or GURPS Vikings might be used as inspiration.

Indian Kingship

Initially seen only as a war leader, in time the raja developed greater prestige, becoming semi-
divine. This status was formalized by the year long rajasuya sacrifice, which on one hand was a
consecration ceremony, but on the other hand it imbued the raja with the divine power of Indra,
Prajapati, and Vishnu. The vajapeya sacrifice undertaken later in his reign reinvigorated the raja and
his sovereignty. It was not an Indian idea that the raja himself was a god however, a raja might be
"Beloved of the Gods," but not "Son of Heaven."

The author of the Arthashastra (see p. xx) held no illusions about the raja's divinity. The raja
described in this manual on statecraft was no more than the head of a system of government; he may
be exceptionally hard-working, but not divine. It does benefit such a raja for his subjects to think of
him as a god however and he might consider spending time with actors dressed as gods to give
people the impression he is their equal.

The Mauryan Empire introduced the reality of a new concept to India, that of a Universal Emperor or
Chakravartin (One For Whom the Wheel Turns), an idea known of from Persia. In Buddhist belief,
like buddhas, chakravartins are periodically born during cycles of the world. Hinduism too
recognized the concept of chakravartin, Rama for example was a chakravartin.

After the Mauryan Empire, tribes migrated from the frontier of the Chinese Empire, bringing with
them excessively exalted royal monikers. This and the Persian influence led to Indian rajas seeing
themselves as gods and adopting more flattering titles. Even minor kings took to calling themselves
"maharaja" (great king). The truly great kings, such as the Gupta Emperors used "Great King of
Kings, Supreme Lord," "Maharajadhiraja-Paramabhattaraka."

Ashvamedha

The ashvamedha horse sacrifice was a grand ritual performed by mighty a raja to demonstrate and
extend his might. In this sacrifice a consecrated royal horse was set free to wander where it will for a
year. A band of the raja's soldiers followed and claimed suzerainty for the raja over any lands it
entered. If it were to wander into any enemy territory the local raja would be forced to pay homage
or repel the trespassers. At the end of the year the horse was sacrificed in a grand ceremony.

When shall I be close to Varuna? Will he enjoy my offering and not be provoked to anger? When
shall I see his mercy and rejoice?

--<\#208> Rig Veda

Soma

The drink of choice of the Aryans was the narcotic soma. Soma drink was prepared from the soma
plant by a ceremonial crushing with stones and mixing with milk. It is not known what the soma
plant was except that its extract gave the drinker vivid hallucinations and feeling of greatness and
courage. It has been speculated that it could have been marijuana.

We have drunk the Soma; we have become immortal; we have gone to the light; we have found the
gods.

--<\#208> Rig Veda

GURPS Lost Soldiers

In 324 B.C. Alexander turned his army about and left India; but what if he had sent an exploratory
detachment down the Yamuna and forgotten about it? Deep in enemy lands the detachment finds its
route back to the Greek holdings on the Indus blocked by a hostile Indian army. Forced to find
another way out with no knowledge of local language or customs they are just as likely to end up
wandering deeper into this unknown land of bewildering, frightening, and amusing customs filled
with wonder and weirdness.

Ancient Armies

The ancient army was based on a four-fold division, with the army made up of four "limbs." The
limbs were war elephants, chariots, cavalry, and infantry, ideally proportioned 1:1:3:5.

This quadripartite division of the army is manifested on the chessboard. The pawns are the foot
soldiers, the knights the cavalry, the bishops the chariots, and the rooks are the elephants.

Pataliputra

Capital of the Mauryan Empire, Pataliputra was greatest city of India at the time. The city was built
from brick and timber and was defended by a moat and ten miles of walls with 64 gates and 520
towers. The Mauryan palace in the city was lavishly carved in stone and teak.

Arthashastra

The Arthashastra is a treatise on government attributed to Chanakya, Chandragupta Mauyra's

advisor. Treating statecraft unsentimentally, the book is an extensive treatment of running a kingdom
including how to acquire power, how to exercise it through an effective bureaucracy and spy
network, and how to defend it through military activity, acquiring allies, and undermining enemies.
It has been compared to Machiavelli's The Prince.

In truth, the Arthashastra, or some of it at least, was not written by Chanakya. Its likely date of
composition is A.D. 250. The state it describes never existed except in theory, though in some
aspects such as bureaucracy, the Mauryan Empire resemble the state of the Arthashastra.
Nonetheless, campaigning in such a state with an oppressive bureaucracy and a menacing secret
service yet only tech level 1 could be an intriguing option (GURPS Arthashastra). Alternatively,
such a state could form part of an invented world.

GURPS Devanampiya

Ashoka attempted to create an empire of dharma, with all his subjects acting according to Buddha's
teaching. More than that in fact, he tried to spread dharma to foreign lands. India under Ashoka was
a more humanitarian and peaceful land than it might have been without his efforts, but still fell far
short of being a perfectly righteous realm. Such a perfect realm would make a fascinating but
challenging campaign setting. Characters would be motivated by charity rather than greed and their
actions would be rooted in ahimsa.

Ashoka's Missionary Efforts

Ashoka certainly acted like a Buddhist, he did much to boost the religion including holding the Third
Great Council of Buddhism, however he may not have ever actually converted. He certainly did not
try to convert his subjects to any religion, just to a path of righteousness. The dharma he pushed was
general enough at the time and he supported Jains and Ajivikas as much as he did Buddhists. As well
as trying to convince his subjects to take up his dharma, he exported it to his neighbors. He sent
missionaries to the realms of Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatas of
Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander of Epirus. These missionary efforts had far less
success than legend ascribes to his attempts to convert Sri Lanka where he is alleged to have sent his
son Mahendra. King Devanamipiya Tissa was converted and Sri Lanka has been Buddhist ever
since.

Thomas the Apostle

Thomas was reluctant to travel to India to spread the Gospel as he considered it too far and himself
too old. Even after being visited by a vision of Jesus he refused. However, he was compelled to
travel to India either after hearing that the Parthian ruler in India Gondophernes (known as
Gudnaphar in the apocryphal Acts) needed a skilled carpenter, or after being purchased as a slave by
an Indian merchant and sold to Gondophernes. He converted the Parthian king and many of his
people.

He traveled to Kerala in A.D. 52 and established a community of Syrian Christians and churches at
Palur, Cranganore, Parur, Gokkamangalam, Chayal, Niranam, and Quilon. He was martyred in
Madras in A.D. 68 or 72 and his remains were transported to Edessa in the third century and to
Ortona in Italy in the thirteenth century.

The Queen and Chandra Gupta

Chandra Gupta II was preceded to the throne by his elder brother Rama Gupta. Rama did not last
long as emperor after being humbled by the Shakas, prompting Chandra's ascension. An interesting
version of this story was made into a play by the Sanskrit dramatist Vishakhadatta, likely written in
the 6th century. In this play the weak and cowardly Rama was asked to give up his wife to the Shaka
king who had defeated Rama in battle. Chandra volunteered to save the queen by dressing like a
woman and taking her place. The scheme went to plan and Chandra was admitted to the harem
where he threw off his disguise and killed the Shaka king. He then returned to the royal court, killed
his brother, and married his widow.

GURPS Vikramaditya

As the high-water mark of Hindu culture and the culmination of the classical forms of Hindu society
and religion, the reign of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya stands proud as a setting for campaigns. The
Gupta Empire is as grand as any the ancient world has seen and has a culture of incredible vitality.

Two features dominate this setting, the imperial regime and the Hindu culture. The empire maintains
its cohesion with a strong state bureaucracy, a ubiquitous espionage wing, and a loose controlling
hand on its provinces. The strong secularity of this government is in contrast to the prevailing
culture. Hindu culture is overbearingly religious and devotionally expressive at that. The ordering of
society into castes and the dharma controlling people's lives are the salient features of Gupta culture.

Foreign Correspondents

Megasthenes was ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya's court from Seleucus Nicator. He reported
back the strength of the Mauryan bureaucracy and the social stratification of Indian society. His
details on the caste system were a little awry; he counted seven castes, farmers, herdsmen, craftsmen,
soldiers, spies, brahmins, and officials -- an interesting observation but not corresponding to either
varna or jati.

During the reign of Chandra Gupta II, the Chinese Buddhist Fa-hsien visited and traveled India
between A.D. 399 and 414 collecting Buddhist texts and writing home about India. Fa-hsien was
greatly impressed by the pacifism and vegetarianism of the population of the empire. He commented
also on the liberalism of the Emperor and the fraternity amongst the population. His describes
Pataliputra as a city of palaces, affluence, and public hospitals. He did note however the inhumanity
of untouchability.

Hsuan-Tsang was another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who traveled to India and noted the
peacefulness of the land (though it was in decline). According to history he visited India in A.D. 630,
staying until 644, spending time at Harsha's court. Literature however makes more of his
anthropomorphic monkey companion and their fantastic adventures in travelling to India recounted
in the 16th century Chinese novel Journey to the West by Wu Ch'Eng-En and Monkey, the cult
Japanese television series.

Cutural Colonialism

So dynamic was India's culture during its Golden Age that it was imported by India's neighbors.
Great Hindu states rose in Southeast Asia, including the kingdoms of Funan, Chenla, and Champa on
the Indo-Chinese peninsula, small kingdoms on the Malay peninsula, Malayu on Sumatra, and the
islands of Bali and Java.

Herodotus on India

"It would seem to be a fact that the remotest parts of the world have the finest products, whereas
Greece has far the best and most temperate climate. The most easterly country in the inhabited world
is India; and here both animals and birds are much bigger than elsewhere -- if we except the Indian
horse, which is inferior in size to the Median breed known as the Nisaean. Gold, too, is found here in
immense quality, either mined, or washed down by rivers, or stolen from the ants in the manner I
have described [see below]; and there are trees growing wild which produce a kind of wool better
then sheep's wool in beauty and quality, which the Indians use for making their clothes."

"There are many tribes of Indians, speaking different languages, some pastoral and nomadic, others
not. Some live in the marsh-country by the river and eat raw fish. Another tribe further to the east is
nomadic, known as the Padaei; they live on raw meat. Among their customs, it is said that when a
man falls sick, his closest companions kill him, because, as they put it, their meat would be spoilt if
he were allowed to waste away with disease. There is another tribe which behaves very differently:
they will not take life in any form; they sow no seed, and have no houses and live on a vegetable
diet. There are other Indians further north, round the city of Caspatyrus and in the country of
Pactyica, who in their mode of life resemble the Bactrians. These are the most warlike of the Indian
tribes, and it is they who go out to fetch the gold."

"I will say something of the method by which Indians get their large supplies of gold. Eastwards of
India lies a desert of sand. There is found in this desert a kind of ant of great size -- bigger than a fox,
though not so big as a dog. These creatures as they burrow underground throw up the sand in heaps,
just as our own ants throw up the earth, and they are very like ours in shape. The sand has a rich
content of gold, and this it is that the Indians are after when they make their exhibitions into the
desert. Each man harnesses three camels abreast, a female, on which he rides, and a male on each
side. They plan their time-table so as actually to get their hands on the gold during the hottest part of
the day, when the heat will have driven the ants underground. When the Indians reach the place
where the gold is, they fill the bags they have brought with them with sand, and start for home again
as fast as they can go; for the ants (if we can believe the Persians' story) smell them and at once give
chase; nothing in the world can touch these ants for speed, so not one of the Indians would get home
alive, if they did not make sure of a good start while the ants were mustering their forces. The male
camels who are slower movers than the females, soon begin to drag and are left behind, one after the
other, while the females are kept going by the memory of their young, who are left at home."
--<\#208> Abridged from the Penguin version of Herdotus' The Histories
Muslim India
First Invasions
Islam was born in A.D. 622 and quickly spread from its home in Arabia as the Islamic armies carried
the religion at a breakneck pace to east and west, reaching India's borders by 644. (For more details
of the early history of Islam see GURPS Arabian Nights.) The western deserts of India were a
discouraging barrier to the Muslim armies and the planned invasion of 644 turned back. However, in
order to gain greater control over shipping lanes, the governor of Iraq invaded Sind in 711. Hence
Sind became the first Muslim province of India, and the only one for over 200 years.

Islam now spread from the Atlantic to the Indus under the Umayyad Caliph at Damascus. It was
preferred that the conquered people of these lands convert to Islam but the methods of dealing with
non-believers varied. It was recognized that Jews and Christians were brothers to Muslims who
simply had not accepted the final revelations of Mohammed. The proof of this was that they too kept
their scriptures in books like the Koran. Jews and Christians were therefore known as "people of the
book" (dhimmis) and could continue to worship in their own way provided they pay a tax known as
jizya, about 6% of their income. Pagans or infidels (kaffirs) however were forced to convert or lose
their life. This was far too demanding a necessity for India where the infidels were simply too
numerous to convert or execute. Fortunately it was discovered that Hindus have sacred writings, the
Vedas, and by bending the rules could be considered dhimmis in a similar way as was done for the
Zoroastrians.

When the Abbasid dynasty replaced the Umayyads the center of Islam shifted east to Baghdad and
Persian succeeded Arabic as the dominant culture of the Islamic world. The Caliphate became
simply too large and a new development was the appearance of independent "sultanates" at the
fringes of the Caliphate and it was these sultans who came to rule lands in India.

Mahmoud of Ghazni

The capture of Sind in 711 was not the trigger for further Muslim incursions into India. It was in fact
the expansion of China into Turkistan in the 10th century, pushing the Turks into Afghanistan, that
was the impetus for the bloody raids of Mahmoud of Ghazni that were to bring Islam to India. In 962
the slave warrior Alptigin took Ghazni in Afghanistan. His grandson Mahmoud became India's
premier raider, invading 17 times beginning in 997. The Hindu kingdoms at this time had exhausted
itself in their wars to control the western Gangetic plain. Mahmoud's fierce central Asian horsemen
looted Indian cities, tore down Hindu temples (including the famed temple at Somnath), and carried
back slaves and huge amounts of booty to make Ghazni one of the wealthiest and most cultured
cities of the time.

The raids were ferocious and the invaders forced their religion on their victims, but their most lasting
effect was to engender deep bitterness between Hindu and Muslim. The only lands captured
permanently by Mahmoud, whose raids were always for more for plunder than conquest or jihad,
was Punjab, and that was taken only shortly before his death in 1030.

Ghazni was later captured in 1151 by the Ghurids, themselves hardy central Asian nomads like the
Ghaznivids. Sultan Mohammed of Ghur and his lieutenant, the slave warrior Qutb-ud-din Aybak,
raided India in 1175. With more intent than Mahmoud's armies, they captured Peshawar in 1179,
Lahore in 1186, and Delhi in 1193. While Qutb-ud-din pacified northern India (easily in the case of
the Gangetic plain, with difficulty and measured success in Rajasthan), Mohammed returned to
Ghazni. Mohammed was assassinated in Lahore in 1206 and Qutb-ud-din declared himself Sultan of
Delhi, founding the slave dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate lasted more than 300 years, passing through 5 dynasties. It dominated the
politics of northern India and during its time it saw monarchs both cruel and liberal (including a
woman sultan and a transvestite ruler), intrigue, usurpations, coups, invasions of Rajasthan and the
Deccan, religious extremism, tolerant mildness, threats of Mongol raids, and a disastrous attempt to
move the capital.

The Sultanate had its height in early 14th century under the Khalji dynasty. During this period, Ala-
ud-din Khalji (also known as Sikander Sani, "Second Alexander"), r. 1296-1316, defeated armies of
his enemies throughout the land, including the Rajputs, Gujaratis, and Tamils of the deep South,
taking the city of Madurai in 1310. He also set about reforming the administration of the Sultanate
and hence increasing both the royal revenue and the strength of the central administration.

The last powerful sultan was Firuz Tughluq (1351-1388), by whose reign the sultanate was already
falling apart; Madurai became an independent sultanate in 1335, the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire (see
p. xx) took much of south India from Delhi in 1336, Bengal gained independence in 1338, the
Deccan became the independent Bahmani Sultanate in 1347. However, it was the invasion by Timur
(Tamerlane) that brought the glory of Delhi to an end. Timur entered Delhi in 1398 and built towers
out of the city's dead. So absolute was Timur's sacking of Delhi that nothing stirred in the city for
months after he turned his army around and left a trail of blood on his way out as savage as the one
he had blazed on his way in. The Delhi Sultanate was effectively finished, Gujarat and Malwa
extracting themselves in 1401 to join the other independent sultanates, and though it lasted another
130 odd years through two more dynasties, northern India remained fragmented until the Moghul
Empire was to unify it once again.

Moghul Empire
Under the Moghul Empire, Muslim civilization in India reached its greatest splendor. The Moghul
Empire was grand beyond reckoning, the treasury at Agra was humanly impossible to count, and
under the patronage of the Moghuls art and culture reached heights of magnificence, the crowning
specimen being the incomparable Taj Mahal. However the most impressive feature of the Empire
was the Emperor himself. Each of the great Moghuls was a giant among men; their personalities,
achievements, and failures were of legendary proportions. They stood over their empire like
colossuses and to understand the Empire at any time, one needs to understand the Emperor.

Babur (1526-30)
Babur, the architect of the Moghul Empire, was not the first of his family to invade India; Timur, the
terror of Delhi, was Babur's great-great-great-grandfather. Timur though did not stay to build an
empire, instead he returned to his home in Samarkand, taking the citizens of Delhi as slaves and their
goods as booty.

Babur's ancestral land was Ferghana to the east of Samarkand in modern day Uzbekistan. Losing
these lands in the ebb and flow of the region's politics he traveled south to take Kabul and in 1525 he
invaded India. At the time, North India was shared between the Lodi dynasty at Delhi and the Rajput
princes, led by Rana Sanga of Mewar. At Paniput, Babur overthrew Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, his army of
25,000 overcoming the Lodi army of 100,000 including 1,000 elephants, and was proclaimed
Emperor of India. After defeating Rana Sanga at Khanua, Babur was the undisputed ruler of North
India. He expanded his territories by granting lands he did not own to his supporters and letting them
conquer it for him.

Babur was a military genius; his skills cultivated by a youth spent warring in Ferghana and
Samarkand. He beat the numerically superior armies of Hindustan through a fine understanding of
artillery and charismatic leadership. Babur was an exceedingly cultured man and quite intelligent. He
was a fine poet and had a great appreciation for art, particularly designing gardens. As a ruler, he
was liberal, knowing not to earn his subjects hate; however, he was not an administrator and chose
not to make changes to the running of the empire. Hence his administration was much the same as
under the Delhi Sultanate.

Although emperor of one of the worlds greatest empires, Babur did not like India terribly. He liked
the green valley of Ferghana most of all but he considered Kabul to be his "home" where he felt the
climate was better for him. Even so, he valued his Indian possessions and built a new capital at
Delhi.

Humayun (1530-44, 1554-6)

The Moghul Empire was not safely established in India until Akbar, Babur's grandson. Humayun,
Babur's son and successor nearly undid much of what his father had wrought. Humayun is not a bad
ruler and was brave in battle, but did not have the necessary ruthlessness to deal with dissent and
allowed his eccentricities and superstitions to impair his government of the empire.

Following Timurid tradition, Humayun appointed his three brothers, Kamran, Askari, and Hindal, as
administrators to large parts of the Empire. However, they were troublesome, their crimes including
declaring independence and murdering Humayun's advisers. His brothers' waywardness caused the
empire stress, but it was Humayun's reluctance to punish them that weakened the empire, coupled
with his personal problems such as his debilitating addiction to opium and wine and allowing his
fascination for astrology to influence the running of his court. He divided his administration into four
departments based on the elements; the earth department was responsible for agriculture and
architecture, the water department was responsible for irrigation and his wine-cellar, the fire
department controlled the military, and the air department looked after everything else. Worse, he
assigned a planet to every day and used this as a basis for what business he conducted on that day as
well as what color clothes he wore and how he to acted. Tuesday, for example, was given over to
Mars and he wore red and exercised ruthlessness in his judgement.

After his father's death it was left to Humayun to consolidate the empire. He had two main
adversaries; Sher Khan in the north-east (Bihar and Bengal), the most powerful Afghan lord in India,
and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, whose court was full of Lodi exiles. Humayun came to blows with
both . unsuccessfully. In 1535 Bahadur fought Humayun to a standstill in Gujarat -- it was left to the
Portuguese to kill Bahadur. The war with Sher Khan was worse. Humayun was decisively defeated
at Chausa and Kanauj (in 1540) and was forced to flee to Lahore. Unable to gain sufficient support
from his subject chiefs, Humayun fled to exile in 1544 at the court of Shah Tahmasp, the Safavid
ruler of Persia.

During Humayun's absence, Sher Khan (now Sher Shah) abolished Humayun's fanciful
administration and ran the kingdom well. Humayun, meanwhile, managed to obtain Shah Tahmasp's
support after becoming a Shia. He returned to India with an army bolstered by Persian troops and
after defeating his brother, Kamran and Sikandar Shah Sur of Punjab, he was able to reclaim his
empire, which had disintegrated after the death of Sher Shah's son, Islam Shah.

Humayun was emperor in India for only sixteen years, as he died two years after retaking the empire.
He lost the empire for a full ten years while in exile and fighting his brother. However, by his death,
the empire was restored to its glory and he left his son a platform for greater fame.

Akbar (1556-1605)
Akbar is not only one of India's greatest rulers, he is also one of the greatest rulers the world has
known. Under his rule India became one of the pre-eminent states in the world, comparable only to
the Ming Empire in China. Of the Great Moghuls, Jalal-ud-din Mohammed Akbar stands head and
shoulders above an already distinguished company. Through his political acumen, skill at warcraft,
and sympathy with his subjects, Akbar built an empire of great unity, prosperity, and contentment.
He expanded the borders of his realm to include all of North India and brought together the disparate
communities of his empire. It was the figure of Akbar that elevated the Moghul Empire above its
predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate; starting with Akbar the Moghul Emperors were treated with
reverence normally reserved for gods.

Akbar took the throne at the age of 13 in 1555 when his father died from falling down the stairs of
his library, no doubt light headed from opium. His early years as emperor were fraught as
descendants of the Sur dynasty laid claim to the throne. The greatest threat though was from the Sur
prime minister the diminutive Hindu Hemu, who, when he heard of Humayun's death, raised an
army and captured Delhi, declaring himself Raja Vikramaditya. This challenge to Akbar's ascension
was dealt with by general Bairam Khan on the battle field of Paniput. Hemu, leading from his
elephant, received an arrow through the eye and his army, as was the way when the leader of an
Indian army was killed, quit the battle and fled.

Once firmly established as the only contender for emperor, Akbar set about consolidating his
kingdom. While he did achieve much by force in the traditional manner (for details of his military
honors see below), he worked to improve the empire by creating internal strength and cohesion.
Akbar's most telling achievement was to win the trust and loyalty of his Hindu subjects. In 1562 he
married the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Jaipur. Marrying a Rajput princess had two ends; the
marriage tied one of the most powerful of the Rajput houses to the emperor and taking a Hindu wife
proved to Hindus throughout the empire the true respect Akbar had for their religion. Moghul
Emperors marrying Hindu wives was not without precedence but Akbar was the first to allow his
Hindu wives to continue being a practicing Hindu while in his harem. He further appeased Hindus
by revoking the unjust tax on Hindu pilgrims in 1563 and then did so much more by rescinding the
jizya that had been such a sore point to Hindus -- an act that was received with great Hindu gratitude.

In Raja Bharmal, Akbar had a good ally amongst the Rajputs. However, many of the other rajas of
Rajasthan were not inclined to join alliances. Akbar realized the importance of controlling Rajasthan
and set about nibbling away at its borders by seizing small bits of territory and procuring treaties and
marriage ties. In 1567 he made a more concerted push to grab Rajasthan by tackling the Rana of
Mewar Udai Singh, nominal leader of the Rajputs and the figurehead of Hindu resistance to Moghul
dominance of India. Akbar's Rajasthani campaigns began with the capture of the Rana's fort at
Chitor through a long and bloody siege and a massacre of the fort's inhabitants when it fell. The
victory was palpable but the Rana had flown the fort before the siege had begun and managed to
evade capture during Akbar's pacification of Rajasthan which lasted until about 1570 by which time
most of the Rajput rajas were made allies of Akbar. Udai Singh defied Akbar from the hills of
Mewar and founded the city of Udaipur on the banks of an easily defended lake. Despite bringing his
sovereignty to Rajasthan emphatically, the land remained rebellious and poorly integrated into the
empire, the rajas of Rajasthan paid little more than nominal homage to the emperor.

Akbar followed the conquest of Rajasthan with Gujarat in 1572, Bengal in 1574-6, Kabul in 1581,
Orissa in 1592, and Baluchistan in 1595. He also put great effort into obtaining territories in the
Deccan and at some time held the sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Khandesh, and Berar, successors to the
Bahmani sultanate (the sultanate having dissolved into five sultanates including also Bijapur and
Golconda). However, these were never fully integrated into the empire due to difficulties in
maintaining decent communications and travel across the Vidhyas and the fact that the son to whom
he had entrusted the conquest -- Murad, his second -- was an alcoholic, a weakness that was to kill
him while on campaign in 1599. (The same vice was to cause the death of Akbar's third, Daniyal, in
1603, again on campaign in the Deccan.)
As well as these major conquests, Akbar was constantly putting down small rebellions and making
smaller acquisitions. He would often go about these by traveling to the area with his army under the
pretext of going hunting. His presence in the area invariably bought peace or submission.

As well as enlarging his empire by expanding its borders, Akbar also strengthened it by reforming
his administration and domestic revenue collection. He divided his officialdom into 33 ranks or
mansabs (the holders of mansabs being mansabdars), delimitated by the number of horse
commanded (everyone in imperial service had a military rank, even artists), from the highest rank
commanding 10,000 (the higher ranks also being hand-picked) to the lowest commanding 10. He
divided his empire into 12 provinces ruled by governors with districts and subdistrics. He set the rate
of tax at about 1/3 of an annual harvest, the exact value being determined by the lands worth, a rate
rather lower than typically raised and its collection was markedly more sympathetic and lenient in
times of want than any other period of Muslim rule. Through this efficient administration and the
spoils of conquest, the economy of Akbar's empire flourished; the wealth of the empire was
conspicuous in the imperial and provincial courts. The governors and officials lived like kings,
knowing that their posting was only for their own life, they lived extravagantly, often beyond their
means.

Akbar was able to build an empire of such harmony and prosperity because of his singularly forceful
personality. After Maham Anga's death (see Bairam Khan, p. xx) Akbar ran the empire alone and
was able to impose on it his firm will and progressive beliefs about rule. In character Akbar was a
warrior emperor; he was happiest in battle at the front of his army and was a warrior of the highest
skill. His bravery was astounding and he showed little regard for the value of his life as the emperor.
Even away from battle he enjoyed dangerous pursuits such as fighting elephants and hunting, once
bringing down a tiger with just a sword. As a ruler he was perhaps less gifted, for example he never
learnt to read. However, he understood the benefits of treating his subjects with justice and
benevolence and in recognizing the importance of reconciling Hindu and Muslim. This came in large
part because of his great sympathy for Hinduism, and in fact for all religions and their offshoots such
as Sufism. Akbar, despite being at heart a reckless adventurer, was in some respects a sophisticated
thinker, much given to metaphysical speculation.

India is without doubt the best place to exercise an interest in religion. Akbar invited Muslim
theologians and Sufi mystics to debate within his ibadat-khana (house of worship). Long and heated
debates ensured in which Akbar too would participate. Akbar was disappointed with the undignified
arguments of the Muslim thinkers and invited members of other religions, Hindu, Jain, Christian,
Zoroastrian, and Jew, to join. Fears of the mullas and hopes of the Jesuits that Akbar might be
thinking of converting were exaggerated -- but not entirely wide of the mark. His response to all this
theological inquiry was to create his own religion in 1582, called Din-i-Ilahi, the "Divine Faith,"
with himself as its figurehead (exactly to what extent he was to be seen as divine is debatable). Din-
i-Ilahi was a mystical, syncretic religion but only ever vaguely outlined and never strongly pushed.

Akbar reigned for nearly 50 years and was to pass on to his successor a remarkable empire. At the
end of his reign, he had only one son left, Salim his eldest, who dabbled in rebellion. However, he
had grandsons who showed promise as rulers, particularly Salim's eldest son Khusrau. Salim had the
support of most of his nobles so it was he and not Khusrau who succeeded the great Akbar after he
died of an illness that caused him to bleed internally (and might very well have been due to a poison
administered by Salim).

Jahangir (1605-27)

On becoming emperor, Salim took the title Jahangir (World Seizer). His son Khusrau made a bid for
the throne but after quashing this rebellion, Jahangir had him blinded and imprisoned.

Janagir made the most of the wealthy empire he inherited by spending up big on opulence. He turned
Agra into a magnificent capital, changing Akbar's Agra Fort from a beautiful fortress into a
magnificent fortified palace. While Jahangir enjoyed the luxuries of the empire, his Persian wife Nur
Jahan (whom he married in 1611) ran the empire to her own ends. Jahangir's reign is marked by the
competition between Nur Jahan and Prince Khurrum, Jahangir's third son and heir apparent, given
the title Shah Jahan (Emperor of the World). Initially Nur Jahan's favorite, Shah Jahan was entrusted
with the army and sent to capture the lands of the Rana of Mewar and the sultanates of the Deccan.
When it was clear that he had been replaced in his step-mother's affection by his younger brother
Shahriyar, whose marriage to Nur Jahan's daughter was arranged, Shah Jahan used the army to rebel
in 1623, marching on Delhi. He was turned away by general Mahabat Khan and fugitive in the south
for three years before being accepted back. He was soon rebelling again however and was fighting
Mahabat Khan (who was lucky to be alive having staged a coup but lacking the courage to carry it
through) in the Deccan when Jahangir died. Shahriyar, Nur Jahan's hope for the empire, was not fit
to run the empire and when Shah Jahan reached Agra he had him put to death along with his closest
relatives who might claim the throne -- a novel way of taking the Moghul crown but one which was
to become almost quintessentially Moghlai.

Shah Jahan (1628-58)

Shah Jahan continued his father's tradition of opulence, but rather than his father's addiction to
earthly pleasures and scientific inquiry, Shah Jahan was seemingly addicted to building. His
crowning glory was the Taj Mahal, a jewel carved in white marble, erected as a tomb and monument
to his most loved wife Mumtaz Mahal who died in childbirth in 1631. (As a monument to Shah
Jahan's love for Mumtaz Mahal, the Taj is a symbol of love for both Hindus and Muslims and a
favorite honeymoon destination. More about the Taj Mahal is given in GURPS Places of Mystery,
pp. 60-61.) However, other constructions of Shah Jahan's are also magnificent, such as the perfect
Pearl Mosque at Agra, the huge Red Fort at his new capital Shahjahanabad at Delhi, and the Peacock
Throne, a solid gold throne encrusted with the largest precious gems Shah Jahan could find.

From the time of Akbar to that of Shah Jahan, the imperial revenues trebled, turning a hideously
wealthy empire into a monstrously wealthy one. However, the increase in imperial expenditure over
this time outstripped the increase in revenue. While Shah Jahan's reign was the most grand of all the
Great Moghuls, it was also the beginning of the decline -- this was not at all evident, such was the
obvious magnificence of the empire, and it would remain magnificent until at least the reign of the
next emperor, but it was doomed. While Shah Jahan spent millions on building projects, peasants in
his Deccani lands suffered through a horrible famine and were saved only through relief from the
emperor. Campaigns to conquer the rest of the Deccan, though largely successful (including adding
Berar and Ahmadnagar to the empire and concluding a treaty with Bijapur), cost more than they
brought in through captured wealth. Furthermore, in 1649 the city and fort of Kandahar was again
captured by the Persians (who had previously conquered it in 1623 and returned it in 1638).
Attempts by Shah Jahan's sons Aurangzeb in 1652 and Dara Shikoh in 1653, were dishearteningly
unsuccessful, as had been the ambitious 1646-7 campaigns to capture Samarkand. With the Persians
perched at Kandahar, the western border of the empire was no longer secure. The empire was also in
danger from inland threats as Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan's eldest son and clearly his favorite, and
Aurangzeb, the third son, acted out their enmity for each other. The two brothers were as different as
it was possible to get. Dara Shikoh was a cultivated philosopher, much taken by Sufism and having
something of an affection for Hinduism, having personally translated the Upanishads into Persian.
Aurangzeb on the other hand was very much an orthodox Muslim with a near fanatical devotion and
a deep hatred of Hinduism. Aurangzeb despised Dara Shikoh for his religious infidelity and Dara
Shikoh feared Aurangzeb gaining too much power. It was this fear that motivated Dara Shikoh's
machinations in thwarting Aurangzeb's conquests of the Deccani sultanates of Golconda and Bijapur,
whereby Dara Shikoh would accept peace treaties from the sultanates when Aurangzeb was on the
verge of defeating them. The hostility between the brothers would fuel a bitter war of succession.

War of Succession
The war of Shah Jahan's succession was fought while he was still alive. In 1657 he took ill and was
unable to appear for morning darshan (see A Moghul Day, p. xx). His four sons then began jostling
to divide the empire. Dara Shikoh was viceroy of Punjab but stayed at his father's side. Aurangzeb,
in the Deccan since 1652, was at the head of the Deccan army when he heard of Shah Jahan's
debility. He immediately considered his chances of taking the throne and conspired with Murad, his
younger brother, to deal with Dara Shikoh. However, it was the second son, Shah Shuja, governor of
Bengal, who made the first move, proclaiming himself emperor in 1657. Shuja marched on Agra but
was defeated by the imperial army under Dara Shikoh's son Suleiman Shikoh and Raja Jai Singh of
Jaipur.

Murad followed his brother by proclaiming the empire for himself in Gujarat in 1658, killing Shah
Jahan's finance minister of Gujarat and plundering Surat for cash to build his army. Then together
Aurangzeb and Murad marched on Agra, meeting and defeating the Rajput general Raja Jaswant
Singh of Jodhpur on the way. (Jaswant Singh returned to Jodhpur after this defeat but was not
welcomed. His wife would not sleep with him as punishment for not dying in battle.) Dara Shikoh
then mobilized what was left of Agra's army, the better part of it still under Suleiman Shikoh, and
met his brothers on the fields outside Agra (his attempts to prevent them crossing the River Chambal
while waiting for reinforcements foiled by Aurangzeb using a little-known ford down-river). Dara
Shikoh was defeated and anticipating a dire fate at the hands of Aurangzeb, fled Agra for Delhi,
leaving his father, now fully recovered, to face Aurangzeb alone.

Agra Fort was strong enough to withstand a siege but Aurangzeb captured it easily by cutting off
access to the fort's access to the waters of the Jamuna. Shah Jahan capitulated and Aurangzeb
imprisoned him in the Agra Fort. He then had Murad arrested and proclaimed himself emperor,
taking the title Alamgir (Seizer of the Universe).

Having captured the Peacock Throne, it remained for Aurangzeb to remove the threat of his two
remaining brothers. Dara, the people's favorite and nearby with the resources of Delhi at his disposal,
was Aurangzeb's first target. Rather than face his advancing brother, Dara fled to Lahore, and when
threatened here fled again down the Indus to Sind. At this point Aurangzeb let him fly and returned
to Agra to face Shah Shuja.

Aurangzeb met Shuja at Khajwah on the Ganga. As emperor, Aurangzeb now had Jaswant Singh in
his army rather than as an opponent. However, Jaswant turned his army against Aurangzeb and if
Shuja had joined battle at that moment, Aurangzeb might have been defeated. As it was, Aurangzeb
was able to defeat Shah Shuja without the Rajputs and Shuja fled down the Ganga and was chased
right out of India to Burma where, though likely soon dead, he remained an imagined threat to
Aurangzeb's empire. (Aurangzeb's son Mohammed Sultan also turned and joined Shah Shuja. A
crime for which he was punished by being sent to Gwalior prison.)

By this time Dara Shikoh had returned. He had crossed the salt deserts of Kutch in western Gujarat
and arrived in Ahmedabad. Receiving an offer of alliance from Jaswant Singh he marched towards
Agra where they were to join their armies. However, hearing of this new alliance, Aurangzeb offered
Jaswant a pardon and so the mercurial Rajput king turned-coat again leaving Dara to face Aurangzeb
near Ajmer alone. Outnumbered, Dara was defeated and fled once more with his son Sapihr Shikoh
and his harem to Ahmedabad.

At Ahmedabad the prince was turned away and Dara was forced to once again cross the Rann of
Kutch. In Sind his flight came to an end when he was treacherously turned over to Aurangzeb by
Malik Jiwan. Dara was then paraded in shame at Delhi before being killed by assassins (Aurangzeb
claiming to prefer exile as punishment for his religious waywardness). Not content to have done as
much as kill his brothers and imprisoning his father, he sent Dara's head to Shah Jahan.

By 1659, the war of succession was over. Dara's two sons, Suleiman (turned over to Aurangzeb by
the Punjabi raja he was hiding out with) and Sipihr were sent to Gwalior, where Murad was
incarcerated. Murad was put to death in 1661 for the crime of murdering the finance minister.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

Aurangzeb's empire was quite different to that of his immediate forebears. A strong Muslim, he
worked to run his empire by the strict guidelines of the Shariat and Mohammed's proclamations.
This worked to stifle creativity in the imperial court as Aurangzeb forbade music and portraiture and
expected more religious content in literature. The strongest effect of his insistence that Islam should
be the chief religion of India was naturally to antagonize Hindus. According to the Koran, infidels
should not be permitted to build new temples and must pay the jizya, two laws Aurangzeb reimposed
to the anger of his Hindu subjects and contrary to the misgiving of his counselors. He also
antagonized Sikhs, who had been enemies of the Moghul's since Guru Arjun was executed by
Jahangir for supporting Prince Khusrau. Aurangzeb had Guru Tegh Bahadur beheaded and tried to
capture Guru Govind Singh.

The empire did not respond well to Aurangzeb, who after all had imprisoned both his father and his
own son and killed all three of his brothers. Aurangzeb's religious bigotry created great discontent
and he had to put down several rebellions within his lands. Aurangzeb was able to maintain his
empire and reign for 49 years through the harsh application of his iron hand. This damaged the
empire that Akbar had established. No longer did the people or the court have faith in the emperor
and all that held it together was fear.

While Aurangzeb ruled, Shah Jahan was kept imprisoned in his harem. For eight years until his death
he was at odds with his detested son who constantly made life difficult for him, denying him access
to writing materials for example, and demanding he turn over his personal wealth.

In 1680, the Rajput rajas, furious at Aurangzeb's 1679 invasion of Jodhpur following Raja Jaswant
Singh's death (with his only heir still being carried by his widow), offered their assistance to Prince
Akbar, then leading the Moghul army, in rebellion. The rebellion might have succeeded to had
Aurangzeb not tricked the Rajputs into deserting by convincing them Akbar was going to turn
against them. Defeated on the battle field, Akbar fled to the Deccan (fleeing to Persia in 1686 and
dying there in 1704). Acknowledging his own unpopularity and fearing a wider rebellion forming
under Akbar, Aurangzeb followed his son south in 1681. He would remain there for the rest of his
reign, a full 26 years of campaigning.

Still aggrieved at not being permitted to capture Bijapur and Golconda, he now did so in 1686 and
1687 respectively. He further triumphed by capturing and torturing to death Shambhuji, Shivaji's son
(see Marathas below). The Moghul Empire now extended to within 200 miles of Kanya Kumari.
However, the south could not be subdued, particularly the Marathas, who held pockets of resistance
across the Deccan and the south. It was in trying to fully crush the Marathas and local rebellions that
kept Aurangzeb in the south. In 1705 Aurangzeb fell sick and in 1707 he died.

Later Moghuls

The seven Great Moghuls up to Aurangzeb were each exceptional men, not necessarily the best of
men, but of such stature that even their flaws and failures were as heroic as their successes and
virtues. Aurangzeb's death began a new round of fratricidal carnage as his many sons and grandsons
fought for the throne (his second son Muzzam became Emperor Bahadur Shah at the end of this
fighting, if it really matters), however, his death also marked the end of the glory of the Moghul
Empire. The emperors that were to follow him were mere shadows and the tussles and wars between
claimants to the throne were farcical compared to those of the earlier Moghuls whose similar
exploits, even in their depravity, were almost noble. In truth the later Moghul court were simply
puppets of plotting court factions that enthroned and deposed a succession of emperors. The empire
went through six emperors between Aurangzeb's death and 1739 when the Persians marched on
Delhi, slaughtered its inhabitants and carried off the Peacock Throne. Although the empire continued
past this event, it was now clearly broken by this humiliation.

Without a competent helmsman, the empire fell to pieces. The former Sultanate of Golconda became
a new quasi-independent "kingdom" when the Moghul prime minister Nizam-ul-Mulk moved to
Hyderabad in 1723. The rulers of Hyderabad were to be called Nizams after the founder of the
dynasty. The provinces of Oudh (centered on Lucknow) and Bengal were to become similarly quasi-
independent kingdoms.

The unconquerable Hindu Marathas, whom Aurangzeb had spent so much effort and so many years
trying to crush, were to form the subcontinent's most powerful state.

Marathas
During Shah Jahan's reign as emperor appeared a Hindu successor to Moghul dominion in central
India that would come to challenge Islamic rule during Aurangzeb's bigoted reign. Shivaji Bhonsle,
the father of the Maratha state, was born in Pune in 1627. By the age of 20, the devout Hindu had
taken a band of warriors into the hills to fight as guerrillas against the Moghuls, rulers of Pune since
1633, and the Muslims of Bijapur.

So expert in mountain guerrilla warfare was Shivaji's band that they were taken to be superhuman. In
truth, they simply employed tactics that were the perfect counter to the heavy cavalry and artillery of
the Moghul army and were executed with great skill. Not only was he successful against Muslims,
but he was able to extend rule over other Maratha chiefs and gained control over many mountain
fortresses. Using overwhelming force, the Bijapuri general Afzal Khan was able to bring him to the
table to discuss surrender by 1659. However, Shivaji took concealed "tiger's claws" to the meeting
and used them to kill Afzal Khan as his army ambushed the Bijapuris. Shivaji was then the terror of
Maharashtra and it took the great Rajput Jai Singh to finally force him to surrender in earnest and
accept a mansab of 5,000 horse. However, when at Delhi to accept his reward he felt so poorly
respected he escaped by hiding in a basket of sweetmeats and returned to his guerrilla ways in
Maharashtra.

By 1670 he had recaptured most of his mountain fortresses and crowned himself Chatrapti (Lord of
the Universe), with the intention of ruling the Marathas as a devout Hindu monarch. Shivaji died in
1680 but he had set in motion Hindu resistance to Moghul rule that would not be quashed by years of
effort.

In 1708 Shivaji's grandson Shahu became king of the Marathas and now free from Aurangzeb's
attacks built a stable administration and set about expanding the borders of the kingdom. In complete
fairness it is proper to attribute this to Baji Rao, Shahu's Brahmin prime minister or "Peshwa."
Succeeding his father to the position in 1720, Baji Rao began a campaign of conquest of Moghul
lands that led to Gujarat and Malwa being ceded to the Marathas and the army raiding as far as the
city of Delhi. Further successes against the Nizam led to Shahu being declared king of all of
Maharashtra.

On Shahu's death in 1749, such was the power of the Peshwa that Baji Rao was able to choose the
royal successor and then run the kingdom as de facto, though not titular, ruler.

At this time the Marathas were undoubtedly the most powerful force in India and might have gone
on to form a true empire in India. However, defeat by the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Abdali at
Paniput in 1761 put an end to any ideas that the Marathas might inherit hegemony of northern India
from the Moghuls.
The defeat at Paniput also dealt a blow to the position of the Peshwa and accelerated a
decentralization shifting power away from the Peshwa to the more powerful Maratha families. Hence
by the beginning of the 19th century the greater Maratha kingdom had dissolved into a confederation
of smaller kingdoms: the Peshwas at Pune, the Bhonsle descendants of Shivaji at Nagpur, west of
Pune, the Gaekwads at Vadodara (known as Baroda to the British) in Gujarat, the Holkars at Indore
in Malwa, and the Sindhias at Gwalior.

Vijayanagar
The deep south of India was too far away for the Delhi Sultanate to extend its rule over the Tamil
kingdoms, though in 1335 Ahsan Khan founded the Sultanate of Madurai. The greatest impact on the
south of the Delhi Sultanate was to push Hindus south out of the Deccan. Two such refugees were
the brothers Harihara and Bukka who founded a new kingdom in the south at Vijayanagar (City of
Victory), an apt name as they conquered all of India south of the Bahmani Sultanate (itself
established in 1347), including the Madurai Sultanate.

Harihara and Bukka were likely to have been converted Muslims in the service of the Tughluq
Sultan, but they soon converted back to Hinduism and Vijayanagar was to become a shining light of
Hindu culture in a subcontinent well under the heel of Muslim dominance. Made incredibly wealthy
by the spice trade that has always supported South India, Vijayanagar at its peak under King
Krishnadevaraya was comparable to Muslim Delhi.

Krishnadevaraya reigned form 1509 and 1529 and was victorious over the ex-Bahmani sultanates,
the only significant success either side had had in all the years of fighting. Krishnadevaraya defeated
each of the sultanates but reinstalled them on their thrones rather than add them to his own kingdom.

However, the Deccani sultanates would have the last laugh as in 1565 they banded together and
captured Vijayanagar and destroyed the city.

Campaigns in Muslim India

Muslim India, with its bicultural society, eccentric rulers, harem intrigue, dissident Rajput kingdoms,
and indomitable mountain rebels, is a choice setting for role-playing campaigns. The areas of
greatest drama are Delhi, Agra, Rajasthan, and the Deccan, but adventure can be found all over
India.

It is important to note that though this chapter is titled "Muslim India," Islam and its culture is only
one aspect of the Indian setting in this period of history. The majority of India remains Hindu, and
Hindu culture, while not as fresh and as vibrant as it was in Gupta times, has not been diminished by
in encroachment of Islam. Most of what applied to Classical India applies equally to Hindus in
"Muslim" India.

However, Islam was brought to India with the intention of converting Indians. While this task was
impossible given India's large population of Hindus and the Hindu practice of absorbing and
adapting new customs, rather than abandoning the old, headway was made and many Hindus did
convert. Discord between Islam and Hinduism was to be an ever-present feature of Indian society.
Hinduism could not adapt to the new religion in the same way as it did with Buddhism and Jainism;
the status of Muslims in the Hindu caste system was ambiguous and to the modern day, no solution
has been found. Hence Islam and Hinduism were to be separate communities sharing the same
country but mixing as poorly as oil and water. Muslims came to dominate the politics of India and
there was considerable discrimination against the Hindu royal and noble families, but Islam was
never to dominate India's overall culture in the same way.
Crossovers

GURPS Arabian Nights

GMs running campaigns in Muslim India are strongly advised to also have a copy of GURPS
Arabian Nights close at hand. Arabian Nights contains a fuller description of the Muslim religion
culture than India can provide. Muslims assimilated only partly into Indian society, leaving Muslim
culture largely unchanged and much of the content of Arabian Nights is still valid.

The purview of Arabian Nights reaches Persia, India's neighbor, so India is the next logical
extension of the Muslim setting. The two books make a good pair for a campaign set during the
Muslim ascendancy in India as they describe a good deal of the Muslim world at the time.
Campaigns concentrated on one of the two settings might still make use of the other. For the case of
an Arabian Nights campaign it is easy to envisage India as a land a questing Arab hero might visit
and it offers a whole new suite of fantastic beasts and adventures to be experienced. For an Indian
hero, Arabia is similarly exotic and for Muslim characters it has the attraction of being the homeland
of Islam and the destination of a hajj pilgrimage.

In making use of crossovers between the two settings there are two points of view; either the Arabian
and Indian settings are two poles, linked only due to the spread of Islam across the intervening lands,
or they are ends of a spectrum. The difference between these views can be illustrated by considering
rakshasas and djinns; these two classes of beings can either be entirely separate races, or they can be
the same creatures, any differences simply being regional variations.

GURPS Fantasy

The Banestorm that populates the world of GURPS Fantasy occurs between 1050 and 1200. At this
time there were still few Muslims in India. Most Indians snatched are likely to be Hindu, with a few
Jains and Buddhists (though the Muslims raids had begun to diminish the number of Buddhists).

There are very few Indians on the continent of Yttaria, though it is entirely possible that other
continents have greater populations of Indians. These continents would no doubt have kingdoms
based on Indian models rather than medieval European or Arabic.

The Hinduism of Yttaria differs from mainstream Hinduism somewhat. Yttarian Hinduism has
elevated the war between devas and asuras to be a dominant theme. Clearly the Hinduism of Yttaria
is descended from a sect that believes the war in heaven has not yet been concluded. The fact that a
triad of goddesses is revered along with a triad of gods suggests the cult is Shaktic.

GURPS Time Travel

Time travelers to this period of India's history are likely to be drawn there initially for the same
reasons European travelers were, to see and experience the grandeur of India. Also, a few
outstanding personalities could be encountered in India at this time, such as Timur and Akbar.

Ambitious cross-time thieves may have their eyes on the Peacock Throne. More pragmatic collectors
might covet the Koh-i-Noor (and might this have been the fate of the lost Great Moghul diamond?),
which remains available in India in the early parts of British India as well.

There are few critical historical moments in this period of India's history. Most of the historical
changes were far more gradual, such as the infiltration of Islam into India; if the Ghurids had not
brought Muslim rule to Delhi, another Muslim dynasty would most assuredly have eventually. Those
events, the outcomes of which could be changed, such as battles, would likely scarcely change the
overall history of India. For example, if Babur was prevented from founding the Moghul Empire, the
Lodi Empire (or the Sher Empire if Humayun is prevented from recapturing the empire) might well
have turned out quite similar to the Moghul Empire. One interesting possibility is for happenstance
to be manipulated in such a way that a Hindu dynasty, such as the Rajputs or Marathas, to gain
political dominance of India. This might very well have changed the character of India significantly.
However, it is unlikely to have much impact on World history, as the influence of India outside its
borders in this period of history is, frankly, minimal.
Slave Soldiers of Islam

The Muslim practice of inducting slaves into the armies gave the sultans of Islam greater fighting
forces to face the Mongols and allowed larger families a method of releasing sons who were not
needed to support the family.

The slave soldiers, or mamluks, who were often African or Central-Asian, were bought as children
and trained as soldiers from their youth. Islam did not discriminate against the mamluk social class
and there was no limit to the amount of glory and status a young Muslim slave soldier could acquire
for himself though his skill at arms; Mahmoud's grandfather made himself Sultan of Ghazni and the
first major Muslim dynasty of India was established by a slave, Qutb-ud-din.

GURPS Jihad

A horde of devout Muslim holy warriors bringing the Koran to India will find an infidel land
overwhelming in the intensity of its idolatry and resolute in its blasphemies. The marvels of Indian
culture and learning are less objects of wonder, but are rather features to be scorned and destroyed if
possible.

Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate

Mamluk, 1206-90

Khalji, 1290-1320

Tughluq, 1320-1413

Sayyid, 1414-51

Lodi (Afghani), 1451-1526.

Mongols

Delhi was spared the heavy raids by the Mongols of Ghenghiz Khan through the diplomacy of
Shams-ud-din Iletmish (r. 1211-36), the son of Qutb-ud-din. The Mongols did raid India, but did
little more than harry Punjab. Being of the same central Asian extraction as the Mongols, the Turks
of northern India were more capable of countering the Mongol military tactics than were the
Europeans, who suffered badly at the hands of the Mongols.

The Mongols returned in 1303-6 and threatened to flatten northern India. However, under Ala-ud-din
Khalji the Delhi Sultanate was rich and powerful enough to build an army large enough to hold them
back.

In 1398 the Mongols finally wrecked the destruction on India they had threatened for so long (see
main text).

Bairam Khan

The fate of Bairam Khan, Akbar's guardian and first chief minister, demonstrates the effects of the
debilitating intrigues in the Moghul court. It was through Bairam Khan's great military and political
acumen that Akbar was able to hold on to his throne when challenged by Islam Shah's successors
and during the emperor's young years Bairam Khan took up the slack of Akbar's reluctance to grasp
firmly the reins of power. Bairam Khan managed the empire with consummate skill, not only
managing affairs but actively enlarging the empire.

However, his arrogance, ostentation, and the fact that he was a Shia amongst Sunnis, generated
resentment in the court. In the end it was Akbar's nurse Maham Anga who convinced the emperor to
dismiss Bairam, as a step in advancing her son Adham Khan, a most unworthy man. Bairam Khan
was sent to Mecca, only to be murdered in 1561 in Gujarat by a vengeful soldier whose father he had
killed.

Maham Anga's influence on Akbar was short-lived. In 1561 Akbar ordered Adham Khan killed after
he tried to assassinate Akbar's prime minister Atkah Khan. After hearing of her son's death, Maham
Anga soon died herself.

The Moghul Harem

Like any Indian ruler, the Moghuls kept large harems -- large as in several thousand. Though this
included not only the emperor's wives and mistresses, but also the family and servants of the women.
All the same, an emperor would have many wives, Akbar had 300. That this was more than the
Koran allowed (four wives is the maximum for a Muslim man) was a concern but use was made of a
suggestion in the Koran that "lesser" marriages of convenience, or muta, were allowed.

The women of the harem were of course in pardah and could neither be seen by men in the harem
(apart from their husbands), or leave it. This was an inconvenience for sure, but one which could be
overcome. A woman of the harem could travel in covered carriages and some Moghul empresses
went hunting and even to war in a covered howdah. Contact with the outside world could be
conducted through the harem eunuchs. It was through these eunuchs that women in the harem could
conduct their intrigues, the level and sharpness of which put to shame even the hive of conspiracy
that was the body of nobles of the Moghul court.

A Moghul Day

The Moghul Emperors, though some of them having the reputation of being indolent, had busy days.
The daily routine and duties to be performed was determined by the particular emperor's personality
but once set was followed as religiously as circumstances would allow.

The day would start before dawn (with morning prayers for those devout emperors), the first
important duty of the emperor was to appear on the special balcony called the jharoka-i-darshan at
sunrise so his people could see that he was alive and well. Emperors would take this time to receive
petitions from the common people and to watch elephant parades or combats, though some emperors
would watch these in the afternoon. To miss this darshan (viewing), as Shah Jahan did in 1657
would invite panicked turmoil in the empire. Aurangzeb abolished this practice as it seemed too
much like human worship, a blasphemy in Islam.

Some portion in the day (the morning for some emperors, early afternoon for others) would be spent
in the hall of public audience or diwan-i-am where public state business would be conducted by the
emperor and his officials. The court would also be entertained during this time by acrobats and
musicians.

After some time adjudicating in the diwan-i-am, the emperor would move to the hall of private
audience, diwan-i-khas, where the more important or private matters of state were dealt with. A day
may include more than one session in the diwan-i-khas, with perhaps as much as twelve hours a day
being spent on administration. Some emperors held court in their diwan-i-khas at the end of the day
and allow the meeting to spill into the serving of the evening meal.

A good part of the day would be spent in the harem having meals and being entertained by
musicians, storytellers, or dancing girls. The emperor would also hold a court of sorts in the harem,
hearing petitions from its members.

Rajputs

The Rajputs of Rajasthan were likely to be descendants of India's Central-Asian invaders, the
Shakas, Kushans, and Hunas. Over time the Rajputs developed a unique martial culture and by the
arrival of the Muslim invaders were the strongest military force in India.

For the warriors of Rajputana, who would sometimes enter battle emboldened by opium, surrender
was the greatest of offenses. When defeat was certain, the warriors would enter their last battle with
undiminished bravery, while their wives built pyres on which to immolate themselves and their
children -- a grim ritual known as jauhar.

This fearsome bravery might have made the Rajputs lords of North India were it not for the fact that
the many Rajput rajas spent all their energy fighting amongst themselves. It was because of this
disunity that the Rajputs finally lost their independence to the Moghuls.

The Rajputs are treated as a caste in India with four subcastes, Pratihara, Paramara, Chauhan, and
Chalukya. All Rajputs claim descendent from either the sun or the moon.

Sabat

The fort of Chitor was taken through the use of a rather elaborate siege technique known as the
sabat. The sabat consisted of temporary fortifications which began some distance from the besieged
fort but were continually being added until it reached the walls of the fort a breach could be made.
Furthermore, riflemen and cannon could fire from positions closer to the enemy.

The builders of the sabat were protected while they worked by the already constructed fortifications
as well as leather screens, sufficient to protect against the low velocity musket shot. However,
building a sabat was dangerous work, in besieging Chitor, Akbar lost 200 workers a day.

Another method of attacking a besieged fort was to dig mines under the walls and lay gunpowder. A
defense against this was to dig a mine from inside the fort to join the attacking tunnel, although this
required locating the mine by listening for sounds of digging.

Fatehpur Sikri

In 1751 Akbar moved his capital from Agra to the site of the village of Sikri, 25 miles west of Agra.
Here Akbar constructed a new city, Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar chose this site as it was the home of the
holy man Shaikh Salim Chisthi who had prophesized that Akbar, then childless, would have three
heirs, a prediction that would come true with the birth of Daniyal in 1752.

The city had to be abandoned in 1765 due to a lack of water.

Koh-i-noor

The most famous of India's gems is the diamond known as the Koh-i-Noor (Mountain of Light). It
appeared in history in 1304 when it was acquired by Ala-ud-din, though legends claim a great
antiquity for it. It was believed that whoever owned the diamond would rule the world. It passed
from the Delhi Sultanate to the Moghul Empire, was temporarily lost to India when Delhi was
captured by the Persian, but returned in 1813 when it passed to the Sikh king Ranjit Singh shortly
before the British annexed Punjab (see Sikh Wars, p. xx). It is now part of the crown jewels of the
British monarch.

Other famous diamonds of India include: the Great Moghul, possessed by Aurangzeb but now lost;
the Pitt diamond, which ended up in Napoleon's hands and was made into the pommel of his sword;
and the Orloff diamond, which was the eye of a Hindu statue, stolen by a French grenadier disguised
as a brahmin, sold on to a number of owners and eventually gifted to Catherine II of Russia by
Prince Orloff. The unlucky Hope diamond (now in the Smithsonian), was stolen from a Hindu
temple by Tavernier, who died penniless, eaten by a pack of mad dogs. Other owners of the Hope
have been executed, lost their wives or husbands, gone bankrupt, gone insane, fallen off cliffs, died
and committed suicide in various manners, and many other tragedies.

Foreign Correspondents

Ibn Battuta, (see GURPS Who's Who 1, pp. xx-yy) the great Muslim traveler who toured the world
between 1325 and 1354 spent time in India during the reign of Mohammed Tughluq, even serving as
the Sultan's chief Judge and noted the sincere yet fruitless attempts to increase the piety of his
subjects.

Sir Thomas Roe was the English ambassador to the Moghul court from 1615 to 1619 while Jahangir
was emperor. Greatly impressed by the splendor and extravagance of the Indian empire while being
ashamed of the paltry gifts his own fledgling empire could present the Great Moghul. Roe's brief was
to obtain trading concessions for English merchants in India.

A number of European adventurers traveled to India and wrote about their experiences, such as Jean-
Baptiste Tavernier and Francois Bernier, but Niccolao Manucci was the most interesting. A
charlatan and quack he served under many Indian princes after arriving in India in 1656 until he died
there in 1717.

On the Road

A traveling Moghul Emperor, prince, or princess left none of their luxuries behind. Everything that
made their lives so sumptuous and opulent in their home was loaded onto a train of richly decorated
elephants. The grandeur of a Moghul leaving with their convoy for a summer in the hills or a
military campaign was one of the most majestic spectacles ever to be seen.

When the caravan came to set up camp, it would unravel from its packings on elephants and camels
and assemble itself into a whole city. Centered on the make-shift portable palace (complete with
jharoka-i-darshan), the city-camp was complete with streets, shops, and workman's stalls to serve a
city-sized population.

If there be Paradise on earth, it is here, it is here, it is here!

--<\#208> Inscription on Shah Jahan's private hall at the Red Fort of Delhi

GURPS Peacock Throne

To set a campaign in the Moghul Empire is to experience Muslim India at the high point of its
culture and opulence. The Moghul Empire is of a size not seen in India since the reign of Ashoka;
yet the empire never outgrows the emperor, and his personality, in all its vigor, charm, and hubris, is
the cast from which the realm is forged.

The empire of the Moghuls exerts staunch control over most of India under a stable administration.
This gives the Moghul and his family considerable power at the center of the empire. This stability,
however, affords ample elbowroom for power struggles at the heart of the empire. When the Great
Moghul is strong, no one can challenge him, and machinations in the court serve to build blocs and
win favor with the emperor himself. This is in preparation for the time when power succeeds from
the emperor. One aspect of a Moghul campaign then is the intrigue at the highest level, which
percolates down through the empire so that every level of society is touched by politics in some way.

Another aspect of a Moghul campaign is the constant warfare at the fringes of the empire, a mirror to
the conflicts at the center. For the empire to maintain its great wealth, it was necessary for it to
constantly expand. During the life of the Moghul Empire, there was constant fighting at its borders.
Military adventures were conducted in Rajasthan, Afghanistan, and the Deccan.

The pomp and wealth of the empire obscure the constant currents of activity within the court, on the
fields of war, and in the occasional rebellions and petty banditry.
British and Modern India
Early Traders
To Europe, India and the Far East were perennial wellsprings of riches. The Roman Empire paid
premium prices for India's wonders and luxuries such as exotic beasts, spices, and silks.

In theory the Portuguese had a monopoly on trade with the East, granted to them by Papal decree
through the European Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494. However, with the continent of Africa barring
their way, the Portuguese were unable to reach the East by sea and had to leave the Indian Ocean
trade to the Arabs. In 1498, however, Vasco da Gama made his way round the Cape of Good Hope,
landing in Calicut. The goods he brought back home netted him a 3,000% profit, despite having lost
two ships. Da Gama returned to India in 1502 to avenge the destruction of the Portuguese trading
depot established in 1500 at Calicut. He flattened the town and slaughtered several hundred local
seamen, thereby ensuring the continued respect of the natives. Goa, captured by Albuquerque,
viceroy in India from 1509 to 1515, was made the capital of Portuguese India in 1510 and remained
Portuguese until 1961 (when it was "liberated" by the Indian Army). Portugal's trade with India
suffered somewhat by the capitulation of the friendly Vijayanagar Empire in 1565 (see Vijayanagar,
p. xx). All the same, trade with the Orient remained dominated by the Portuguese -- and Spanish
since 1580 when Iberia was unified under Philip II -- until 1588 when the Spanish Armada was lost
in the English Channel. This freed up the seas for the Dutch and English (see Indian Ocean Piracy,
p. xx).

During the 17th century, Europeans, flush with gold from their adventures in the New World, filled
the seas with their trading ships. In the Asian courts also, Europeans became a fixture. Ambassadors
from the distant West, with their brash confidence and alien customs, pressed the Indian monarchs,
the Great Moghul in particular, for greater trading rights. Sir Joshua Child, a director of the East
India Company, attempted to bypass this petitioning procedure by blockading Bombay in 1685 and
demanding exclusive rights for the European trade with India. However, Moghul power could
scarcely have been more strong and Aurangzeb suspended English rights until they surrendered. The
English were lucky not to suffer further for their arrogance.

East India Company

The East India Company was formed as "The Company of Merchants of London trading into the
East Indies" in 1600 by a group of 218 London merchants keen to share in the huge profits being
gathering by the Dutch. A modest beginning to an enterprise that would ultimately build an empire.
Queen Elizabeth supported the merchant's petition by granting them a monopoly on all trade
between India and England.

The Company was initially very successful, making 25% profit on investments in the early half of
the 17th century, dropping to 10% in the latter, a rate Adam Smith would recognize as healthy.
Unfortunately, England had few goods of interest to trade with India and resorted to trading mostly
with bullion (a problem Rome also experienced in its time). This was a serious problem, as to be
allowed to export so much gold and silver required such extensive conciliatory gifts to commercial
rivals and royal courtiers that the Company was brought near insolvency. The Company was rescued
by the 1657 Charter of Cromwell wherein a permanent stock option was inaugurated, giving the
Company capital raising power. Cromwell also helped the Company by negotiating in 1654 an end
to the -- admittedly near meaningless -- trade monopoly of Portugal (independent from Spain since
1640). After the Restoration, Charles II granted the Company more privileges through charters
giving the Company the ability to coin money, jurisdiction over English subjects in its factories, and
the right to wage war with non-Christians.
The Company's presence in India was based around three centers of trade, each constituting a
"presidency" (see The Honourable Company, p. xx). The oldest was based initially in the town of
Surat. The English arrived here in 1612 and were given leave to establish a factory by the Emperor
in 1619. In 1687 the capital of the presidency was moved to Bombay. Francis Dray purchased land
on the Coromandal in 1639 from the ghost of Vijayanagar. Fort St George was built here in 1642 to
be the capital of the Madras Presidency, named after the nearby village. Madras was the most
important presidency early on as it benefited from the trade with South East Asia (see Triangular
Trade). The third presidency was established at Calcutta in 1690 -- a concession from Emperor
Aurangzeb. Fort William was built on the future sight of Calcutta.

The young presidencies were very successful, working as they were isolated from local politics
(bank-handing aside). When the necessity arose to expand their concerns beyond their compounds it
was due to the French rather than the Indians. Madras was captured by the French in 1746 as part of
the Austrian War of Succession. Dupleix (see sidebar) then put greater pressure on the Madras
Presidency by installing his two puppets on the most important thrones of the South, Chanda Sahib
as Nawab of the Carnatic and Salabat Jang as Nizam of Hyderabad. The British position was rescued
by Robert Clive who in 1751 captured and held Arcot, capital of the Carnatic and thereafter
installing the British puppet, Mohammed Ali as Nawab, making Britain a serious power in the South.
(See GURPS Who's Who 1, p. 90-91 for more information on Clive.)

This leap in influence on the Indian political scene was to be overshadowed in Bengal where Nawab
Siraj-ud-daula, fearful of Fort William down the Hooghly, seized the fort in 1756. Sixty-four British
including one woman and a number of wounded soldiers were locked in the Fort William dungeon,
the "Black Hole" of Calcutta. Only twenty-one survived. (Though the numbers were exaggerated in
British accounts, it was still a tragedy.) Concerned to reassert their position in Bengal and incensed
at the fate of the internees of the Black Hole, the British sent Clive to salvage the presidency. Fort
William was recaptured in 1757 (and the French expelled from Bengal as a side action). He then
went on to oust Siraj from Bengal by joining an intrigue with Jagat Seth, a hugely wealthy Calcutta
banker and Mir Jafar, Siraj's great uncle. Siraj was defeated at Plassay despite having a huge
numerical advantage and Jafar was crowned Nawab, putting the wealthiest province of India in
British hands -- an event that inexorably set rolling the Juggernaut of the British Indian Empire.

With the wealth of Bengal, India's richest province, at their feet, the British merchants could not
restrain their greed. Mir Kasim, successor to the unpopular Jafar, unable to tolerate the avarice of the
British and their artless governance, fled Bengal and took his revenge on the British inhabitants of
Patna, ordering every one of them killed. He then banded with the Nawab of Oudh, Shuja-ud-Daula,
and the Emperor Shah Alam. Their army was defeated by Major Hector Munro at Buxar. In
defeating all that remained of the Moghul army, the British showed that they had North India at their
mercy. They might have gone on to take Delhi and restore to the domains of the Moghul Empire a
stability they had not seen since Delhi was sacked by the Persians, but they were prudent enough not
to as the responsibility would have overstretched their naive administrative capabilities.

Clive, governor of Bengal for a second term from 1765, demanded from Shah Alam the revenues of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa for the Company as imperial collector. In return the Company supported
him at Allahabad, paying him £260,000 for his imperial upkeep.

The presidency of Bombay was also involved in local conflicts but with much less success. The
council aided their ally Raghunathrao, a contender for the Maratha throne during a war of succession
from 1775 to 1778 but were unable to challenge his rival Nana Phadnis and the Council of Twelve
Brothers. India's first governor-general, Warren Hastings, sent troops to protect Bombay and in 1782
the treaty of Salbai brought peace for the Presidency for some twenty years.

Madras too had its share of conflict and Hastings had to send men to counter invasions by the
usurper Nawab of Mysore, Hydar Ali. Ali, an ally of the French, was taking advantage of the
confusion and corruption of the Presidency. The war with Mysore simmered under Ali's son Tipu
Sultan and was intensified by Lord Richard Wellesley, governor-general 1798-1805, despite
instructions from Prime-Minister Pitt to refrain from armed conflict . Wellesley (older brother of the
Duke of Wellington) was an imperialist and gravely concerned about Napoleon's designs on British
India. Mysore was conquered in 1799 with Tipu Sultan dying in battle. Half the Nawabship was
annexed to the Company, the rest was returned to the child heir of the family deposed by Hydar Ali.

During Wellesley's governorship, numerous princely states were subdued and forced to sign
"subsidiary alliances." These treaties usually included a facility for the state to be taken over by the
British should the ruler die without an heir, i.e. should the line of succession "lapse" (and in 1848
this was specified to mean that only a natural heir could prevent lapse). Udaipur was annexed in this
manner in 1852, as were Jhansi in 1853 and Nagpur in 1854. The most significant alliances
Wellesley obtained were with the Nawab of Oudh, who in 1801 was forced to give up his army and
relinquish his western provinces, and the Nizam, who likewise was required to give up the province
of Berar to the Company.

The Marathas, however, remained enemies of the British and had to be subdued by force. The
Maratha Confederacy was riven by civil war and the Company made the most of this conflict,
defeating and exiling Baji Rao II in 1818 bringing the Maratha domains under the British umbrella.

This left only the Sikhs in opposition (see Ranjit Singh, p. xx).

The Great Game

"England and Russia will divide Asia between them, and the two empires will enlarge like circles in
the water till they are lost in nothing; and future generations will search for both of us in these
regions, as we now seek for the remains of Alexander and his Greeks."

--<\#208> Alexander Burnes

In the 19th century, the British were terrified of Russia -- almost hysterical. The Russia Bear was a
savage behemoth perched ominously on the fringes of civilized Europe and within striking distance
also of the newly acquired dominions in India. It was seen as inevitable that the armies of Russia,
with their modern artillery and Cossack cavalry, would storm across Central Asia encountering as
little resistance as the British had in India; the advance of the Russian Empire had been as fast as 55
square miles per day. A confrontation at India's frontier was unavoidable. In preparation of this was
conducted the "Great Game" of espionage in the Afghani and Central Asian courts and the exploring
and surveying of the Transoxanian hinterland -- the future battlegrounds.

In order to bolster the buffer state of Afghanistan before Russia got there the British planned to
reinstall the ousted Shah Shuja to Kabul and overthrow the popular usurper Mohammed Dost. After
dragging their armies up the Indus the British found Shuja had no supporters in Afghanistan and
worked alone to capture Kabul in 1839. The British found the Afghani opposition to their presence
extremely troublesome. The locals harassed them at every corner. The British found Kabul
indefensible from the Afghani guerrilla warriors and the decision was made to retreat. In 1841 the
army of 16,000 marched towards the Kyber Pass but all were slaughtered over the journey with only
one man, Dr William Brydon, surviving. (The unreliable memoirs of Harry Flashman claim there
was one other survivor -- see Bibliography.)

The British took solace in capturing Sind, taking possession of the Indus. The conquest of Sind, the
emirs of which were largely allied to Britain, conducted by Charles Napier during 1843 looked like
an act of churlish petulance. Mountstuart Elphinstone likened the campaign to "a bully who has been
kicked in the streets and goes home to beat his wife in revenge."
The Russian adventures in Central Asia, though not the disaster suffered by the British, were also
unsuccessful. An attack on Khiva was abandoned in 1840 and hard times were suffered in the
Caucuses.

The Sikh Wars

The head-to-head with Russia never eventuated but an encounter with the Khalsa of Punjab would
not be avoided. Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1839 leaving the kingdom in chaos, the Khalsa
generals assassinated each other to gain control of the army and Ranjit's relatives, heirs, and courtiers
did the same to control the throne. Finally when the knives were sheathed, Dulip Singh, the infant
son of Ranjit's widow Rani Jindan, was king. (Dulip's paternity was highly suspect as his mother's
promiscuity was legendary -- she was known as the Messalina of the Punjab.)

The kingdom was not safe however; the Khalsa was restless and dangerously oversized. Jindan's
plan was to let it attack the British. If the Khalsa was defeated it was to be expected that the British
would then allow Jindan to rule through her lover Lal Singh. If the Khalsa were to beat the English,
Jindan would then rule an empire rather than a kingdom.

This was a confrontation greatly feared by the British. Punjab had the only modern army in India.
The Khalsa at this time consisted of 45,000 infantry and 26,000 cavalry supported by 376 cannon.
This equaled about 1/5 of the British army in India but in defending the border, Britain could spare a
force no greater than that of the Khalsa. It was disciplined, well trained and well equipped. Its
soldiers were fearsome, passionately nationalistic, and had a martial religion. If the British were to
lose, all of North India would be open to the Khalsa -- it was not alarmist to see that the fate of
British India hung balanced on this conflict.

Rani Jandin encouraged the Khalsa to attack Gulab Singh of Jammu, a British ally. Then permitted
the army to plunder British lands across the Sutlej. After an incursion across the border in 1844,
Governor-General Hardringe declared war. The Battle of Ferozeshah was a victory for the British,
outnumbered 4 to 1 and outgunned though they were; yet it could easily have gone the other way.
The return exchange at Sobroan was also a British victory. The brutal battle lasted for two days with
the Khalsa losing 10,000 of their 30,000 and the British 2,000 of their 15,000. The British then
marched into Lahore. The treaty of 1845 kept Dalip as maharaja with Jandin as regent but the Khalsa
was disbanded. The British were granted territory up to the Beas and Kashmir was returned to Gulab
Singh.

The Second Sikh War began in 1848 with an uprising around Mul Singh, the deposed governor of
Multan. The crushing of the rebellion was hard fought but Multan was retaken in 1849. After
suffering a reverse at Chillianwala, the British forces, bolstered by the troops from Multan, defeated
the Punjabis at Gujrat. Punjab was then directly annexed to British rule.

The Honourable Company

At its height the East India Company was an enterprise of inordinate wealth and influence, not only
as a speculative business, but as an administration. Its like was not to be seen again, not even in the
age of multi-national corporations. By the mid-18th century, fully one half of world trade was
conducted by the Company, its profits accounting for 10% of Britain's public revenue. It was
responsible for near on 200 million dependents and it administered lands dwarfing the domains of its
country's own monarch, including having the Moghul Empire as subject, an empire whose affluence
would once have put the Company's own wealth to shame.

Control of the Company was in the hands of the General Court (later the Court of Proprietors)
consisting of all shareholders having more than a specified minimum holding, usually set at £200.
The General Court numbered several hundred. The "Court of Committees" was elected by the
General Court to run the Company. It was made up of a Governor, a Deputy-Governor, and twenty-
four Directors. As well as their huge fleet of East Indiamen ships, the Company held much property
in Britain, including London dockyards at Deptford and Blackwall as well as numerous foundries
and warehouses. In 1726 the administration of the Company was brought together in beautiful new
headquarters specially built in Leadenhall St.

The three presidencies were overseen by a president or governor with an advising council of 10
senior merchants. The presidencies were organized in a hierarchy. The lowest on the ladder were
"writers" (clerks), who would become "factors" after five years of service. Factors served for three
years to become "junior merchants," then another three years to become "senior merchants." In the
early days of the Company, the employees of the factories were paid poorly by British standards (but
like princes by Indian standards) and supplemented their income with "country trade," trade within
India. This was strictly a violation of the Company's monopoly but was allowed by the Directors to
provide for their employees. Company trade was abolished by 1773 and Company wages increased
to prevent the abuse that occurred in Bengal and to counter corruption.

The governorship of all three provinces was unified under the Governor of Bengal in 1773 with the
institution of the position of "governor-general" with a auxiliary council of four. This was part of the
Regulating Act, an act of parliament that allowed for government intervention into the running of the
Company. The act also required that one quarter of the company directors must retire each year,
thereby restricting them to a three year term; however, after one year of stand-down, they may be re-
elected.

The debacle following the annexation of Bengal, where the province was nearly ruined by the
company squeezing it for the last rupee, the British Government passed the India Act 1784, which
established a Board of Control over the Company (officially the "Parliamentary Commissioners for
the Affairs of India"). The Board consisted of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Secretary of State
for India and four privy councilors. It was to oversee the actions of the Board of Directors with
regards to politics, having no jurisdiction over the Company's business concerns. In this way, the
governor-general, ostensibly an employee of the Company, became to an extent, an instrument of the
Government.

Company India

When John Company was forced to involve itself in local politics in 1746, India was a continent in
disarray. The Moghul Empire was in sharp decline and the major provinces of Oudh, Bengal,
Hyderabad, and the Carnatic, were all but independent of imperial control, paying little more than
homage. The Maratha Confederacy, the other major power in the subcontinent, was an unruly,
disorganized confederation of dynasties ruling over a bandit-ridden land. Under Company
hegemony, India experienced a new unity and a measure of peace.

After the British took formal control of Bengal in 1765, a dual government was established with a
puppet on the throne administering the justice and military of the state while the British collected the
revenue. Under this arrangement the British became incredibly rich but the state had no money to
run itself. Hastings reorganized things in 1773 taking over direct administrative responsibilities, a
model used for the rest of British India. Law was standardized under the British system. Having
acquired an empire, the Company set about modernizing it. A railway network was built in the 1850s
as was a telegraph network and a postal service was instituted. The building of bridges, irrigation
canals, and other civil works were undertaken.

A corps of civil servants was trained to administer the burgeoning empire (to be known in time as the
Indian Civil Service) and the Company established Haileybury College in Hertfordshire to train its
officers. For administrative purposes, Company India was divided into districts, each of about 4,430
square miles in size. A civil servant administered this district as the district officer, a position
subsuming the roles of magistrate and revenue collector. Much was expected of a district officer as
he effectively had final command over his district and often had to make judgments about issues far
beyond those normally encountered by a young public servant just out of college, requests to be
permitted to perform a human sacrifice, for example. For his work he was required to have an
exemplary knowledge of his district including the language and an in depth understanding of local
customs. He was required to tour his district for a good part of the year (90 days for a small district,
120 for a large one). At the early stages of the British occupancy, district officers such as these were
often isolated, perhaps not seeing another European for months. Many had the requisite adventurous
spirit and took to the country with gusto, often taking a native bride. However, as intimate contact
with the natives became unseemly to polite British sensibilities, the practice of "going native"
became less popular.

Britain was in possession of a good portion of India, but a third of the country was still ruled by a
local princes, the so-called princely states, of which there were over six hundred, the largest,
Hyderabad covered and area of nearly 100,000 sq. miles, whilst the smallest was no more than a
town and a handful of villages. The five most important (with princes entitled to a 21 gun salute)
were Hyderabad, Baroda (Vadodara in the vernacular), Gwalior, Jammu and Kashmir, and Mysore.
The princely states were in fact part of the Empire as their independence was little more than
nominal. Although they were entitled to an army, it would often be armed by the British. The
railroad and telegraph passed through these states as if they were integral provinces of the Empire. A
"resident" would stay in the state's capital to oversee British interests and a British garrison (called a
"cantonment") would be established near the railway station.

In time, the population of British grew and a community developed. This community was quite
dismissive of the natives and insulated itself from unnecessary contact with Indian society. It was a
common attitude that Europeans were unquestionably superior to Indians and even born to rule the
heathens. However, many British understood the depth of Indian culture and the field of orientalism
flourished at Fort William College and Haileybury. Further, it was acknowledged by some that the
imposition of British legal and social institutions was not necessarily the best thing for Indians who
already had equivalent systems.

Anglo-Indian War

For the oppressed masses of India, after seeing a procession of rulers the British were generally no
worse than any other, better in some cases as they taxed fairly and cared for the maintenance of their
domains. However, the fact that they were foreigners and chose to rule as foreigners was a cause of
disquiet. The British meddling in civil institutions became a real source of concern when it began to
look like they were undermining the native religious traditions. The interdict against sati, a religious
practice, began to look like more than just a humanitarian decree when the remarriage of widows
was sanctioned by law. A definite fear of Christian proselytism emerged.

In 1857, the sepoys of the Indian Army rose up against their rulers. The event and the civil war it
engendered is known by British historians as the "Great Indian Mutiny" and by Indians as the "First
War of Independence."

Seeds of unrest were sown in the army by the General Service Enlistment Act requiring sepoys to
serve anywhere within the British Empire if called on. This was unpopular as the sepoys were not
keen to serve so far from home and Hindus were worried that they might be required to serve
overseas and hence lose caste for crossing the "black water." Indian discontent was heightened by
the deposing of the decadent King of Oudh, Wajid Ali Shah in 1856. Oudh was the last independent
province in the heartland of the Moghul Empire and though Bahadur Shah II still reigned in name at
Delhi, the loss of Oudh looked like the end of the Empire. The King had a treaty with the British that
should have protected him and the annexation of Oudh served little purpose for the British.
However, by this time the British had become very distant from their subjects, both socially and in
respecting their concerns. The uprising itself was sparked by the introduction of the new breech-
loading Enfield rifle, the cartridge of which was lubricated with animal fat. As the tearing of the
cartridge paper would normally be done with the teeth, the fat was an affront to both Hindu and
Muslim as it would contain cow or pig, the consumption of which is anathema to these religions.

The revolt against the new cartridges began with the sepoys of Meerut in 1857 who refusing to use
them during drills. Those that refused were ejected from the army in disgrace. The men of the 3rd
Bengal Light Cavalry, jailed for refusing to use the cartridges, were freed by their compadres. The
sepoys and sowars rioted, killing British officers and marching to Delhi. At Delhi they called on the
emperor Bahadur Shah II to be their patron. (Shah had no choice but to accede though it was all
beyond his ken. He had no experience of ruling, only of living the good life of a pensioner.) Mutiny
was then raised over north India.

At Cawnpore the British surrendered after 18 days of siege by rebels led by Nana Sahib, adopted son
of the former Maratha Peshwa. The British were allowed to leave by river boat but as they were
embarking, the mutineers slaughtered them and imprisoned the survivors. These survivors too were
slaughtered before Cawnpore was liberated by Sir Henry Havelock and egregious vengeance was
taken on the city.

In Lucknow the residency compound was besieged. The British of Lucknow held out for 4 1/2
months suffering constant barrage from the besiegers and the exhaustion of food and medical
supplies. Finally Sir Colin Campbell's army reached Lucknow and the survivors were relieved.

Before the end of 1857 Delhi was retaken and the back of the rebellion was broken. Bahadur Shah
was exiled to Burma and his three young sons executed -- a most ignominious end to one of the
world's most magnificent dynasties.

The war continued through 1858 as the Rani of Jhansi and the rebel general Tantia Topi evaded
British pursuit. Both were eventually killed and Lord Canning declared the war over a year after the
Meerut uprising.

The uprising against British rule was essentially confined to north India, and then only to Delhi,
Lucknow, Cawnpore, Jhansi, and their neighbors. Calcutta was not threatened, nor were there
significant revolts outside the Bengal presidency.

Both sides of the conflict were shamefully brutal. Mass murder, rape, and religious desecration were
used as methods of terrorism. The mutineers, believing they were chasing every Briton from India,
murdered them to a man and destroyed their Christian churches. Enraged to the point of fanaticism,
the British in retaliation sent anyone to the gallows who were no more than suspected of aiding the
rebellion. A favored method of execution was to be blown up at the end of a cannon, often after
being smeared with and forced to eat cow or pig fat. The Mutiny opened a breech between British
and Indian that would not be healed.

Empire Raj
Imperial India

The mutiny brought Company rule in India to an end. It was believed that the incongruity of a
company ruling a land led to the mutiny. On August 2 1858, the Government of India Act passed the
rule of India to the crown. In truth however, Company rule of India was a practical fiction as the
British parliament had assumed political control of India through a succession of acts and charters.
The Board of Control was the true government of India. The Company had not even traded since
1833. The governor-general became a "viceroy" but very little of the machinery of administration
was changed. However, in deference to the Indian concerns the policy of "lapse" was abandoned and
a commitment to preserving the independence of the princely states was affirmed.

Under the crown the modernization of India increased in pace. The telegraph and railway had proven
their worth during the mutiny and were extended; in the ten years following the beginning of crown
rule the amount of track laid increased four-fold. Industry in India also improved apace but could not
keep up with the revolution in Britain and the commercial relationship between India and Britain
changed. Aided by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, India now became a market for British
produce, textiles, coal, etc., a reverse of the earlier relationship.

Despite the fear of another mutiny, the population of British in India did not stop growing. In fact, in
some ways the fear prompted an increase in the British population; now many British were weary of
having too many Indians in the house and took British wives rather than have Indian servants. In this
way a large society of British grew up. However, the mutiny had produced a palpable gulf between
white and brown based on mistrust and aversion. This caused the British to form a separate stratum
of society with very little social contact with Indians other than the upper echelons of Indian society.
Separate city quarters grew up in the main centers, the "civil lines" where British officials had their
bungalows.

Sahibs and Memsahibs

British social life was based around the "club," membership of which was exclusive. Natives
certainly were excluded from most clubs but club exclusivity also worked to separate the British
classes. An independent trader, a so-called "box-wallah," a most unworthy occupation in British
eyes, would be hard-pressed to win membership to the more desirable clubs. Smaller cities could
often support only one club and, while one could scarcely be totally excluded unless one was a
renowned scoundrel, one could be keep on the waiting list for some long time and be required to
attend only as a guest of a member.

British society in India is marked by a tendency to hold on to Victorian modes of etiquette long after
they had gone out of fashion in Britain. Peculiar customs also grew amongst the British of India. For
example, it was considered necessary to leave one's card with another household before one could
ever be invited to visit. Some customs were held on to in India, to the ridicule of British at home,
because they were more suited to India. The practice of changing for dinner became a frivolous
practice in Britain but in the tropics frequent changes of clothes was appropriate and at any rate
would be arranged (and even manually performed) by one's manservant.

Second Afghan War

In 1863 Dost Mohammed died and Afghanistan collapsed into war for 5 years. The British were still
greatly concerned about possible Russian interference in their Indian sphere of influence but while
there was no ruler in Afghanistan to ally with the Russians they were content to practice "masterly
inactivity."

Eventually Sher Ali emerged victorious and wished to be an ally of Russia at the same time as being
an ally of Britain. Concerned at Russian advances to Samarkand in Turkistan, Britain appealed to Ali
to cut ties with Russia and accept a British resident. In 1878 the British-Indian army was sent to
secure Afghanistan as a safe buffer. Ali was chased from Kabul and died a year later. As before, the
British encountered enormous resistance to their occupation. However, the resident, Major Louis
Cavagnari was determined to hold Afghanistan, being quite blind to the pervasive opposition
amongst the locals. On September 2, 1879 he cabled Viceroy Lyttleton the message, "All well." On
September 3 he and all his staff were assassinated in the residency. The army retaliated with such
brutality that Britain was appalled enough to send the government out of power and Lyttleton lost his
post.
In 1887 the boundary between Britain and Afghanistan was drawn by Sir Mortimer Durand (the
"Durand Line"). Even so, the Great Game on the frontier of India and Central Asia continued to be
played by Britain and Russia with the respective spheres of influence not being recognized until the
Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1907.

The Nationalist Movement

The intellectual movement of the 19th century produced societies and movements in India as it did in
the rest of the world. Many of these movements reinforced ancient ideas about Indian glory (with as
many fanciful ideas as reasonable ones) and with this came an increased awareness of the right of
self-determination and ultimately independence for India at the same time as the mutiny and British
arrogance turned the populous away from their colonial masters.

The Indian National Congress was formed in 1885 by 73 men throughout India. This body was to be
the backbone of the independence movement. It quickly increased its numbers, swelling to 300 by its
third annual meeting. One point however is that few of those members were Muslim. Eventually the
Muslims of India pushing for independence (in this case, for a separate homeland for Indian
Muslims) formed an association of their own, the Muslim League.

An important early defiance of the nationalism movement was the swadeshi (home country)
movement, a boycott of British products and preference for Indian produce. The revolution became
more serious with terrorism and murder being employed.

Gandhiji

The Indian nationalism movement was a huge popular movement involving a great number of
distinguished activists -- it had to be this strong to oppose the imperialistic power and economic
weight of Imperial Britain. It is undeniable however that one name stands proud, that of Mohandas
Karamchand Gandhi.

Gandhi was born in the princely state of Porbandar in 1869, the son of the raja's revenue minister.
After completing his studies in law at London he tried unsuccessfully to establish a practice in
Bombay and in 1893 traveled to Durban in Natal, South Africa to work as a lawyer for Indian
merchants.

It was in South Africa that Gandhi first began to work for the enfranchisement of the
underprivileged. The Natal Government of white colonials imposed harsh restrictions and taxes on
its Indian residents in order to handicap the Indian community which outnumbered whites. In
opposing this discrimination, Gandhi developed his ideology of nonviolent resistance, which he
called satyagraha (truth force). So clear was it that the policies of the Natal Government were unjust,
that by simply holding on to their principles, Gandhi and his associates were certain to triumph.
Through nonviolent opposition, Gandhi was able to convince the Natal Legislature to soften some its
racist laws.

In 1915 Gandhi returned to India. His reputation was already so strong that he was expected to join
the independence movement. His first activities back in India were to help the oppressed poor in
India, indigo planters, cloth mill workers, and farming peasants. Building up a great following
amongst the poor in India, a community ignored by other activists, Gandhi became the
"Mahatama" (Great Heart). Gandhi involvement with the independence movement increased after
the "Dyer incident" in 1919, where, under the orders of General Dyer, troops opened fire without
warming on a group of peaceful protestors in Jallianwala Gardens in Amritsar, killing nearly four
hundred and wounding thousands. Gandhi championed self-rule and exercised it through nonviolent
non-cooperation. This involved not only swadeshi, but also blatant defiance of unjust British laws,
expressed most flagrantly in his 1930 "salt-march" to the sea to make salt to protest against the steep
salt-tax.

Gandhi's satyagraha movement was taken up with great enthusiasm throughout the country. In
protesting against British rule and persecution, Gandhi's protestors were to never take violent action;
they were to peacefully submit to arrest or even flogging. This was to be absolutely followed and
Gandhi suspended the movement for a full seven years after the murder in 1922 of 22 Indian police
constables by a provoked crowd of protestors. The civil disobedience movement became "Quit
India" in 1942, a far more rebellious movement.

Mahatma Gandhi led the independence movement in India for over two decades. He was feared and
respected by the British and revered by Indians. His impact on history is profound, not only was he
the main engineer of India's independence, he is the hero of the modern notions of anti-colonialism,
nonviolence, and tolerance. As a defender of the disadvantaged and persecuted his credentials are
impeccable. Not only did he work for India's independence, he fought hard to end persecution of
untouchables (while still maintaining the integrity of Hinduism) and railed against Hindu-Muslim
mistrust and violence. He lived his philosophy like few other revolutionaries have. A champion of
the rural poor, Gandhi's utopia was the unsophisticated Indian village and he attempted to live that
lifestyle himself. He was enormously idealistic and demanded much from his followers. In
personally enacting his satyagraha philosophy, Gandhi acted like an ascetic, practicing celibacy and
fasting. This small, bespectacled, man dressed in homespun robes might have appeared quaint if it
wasn't for the fact that the power of his personality moved an empire.

Modern India
Independence and Partition

The decades of campaigning for nationalism finally brought about a victory for the proponents of
freedom for India. Exhausted by World War II, Britain no longer wanted to be responsible for India.
When Churchill's Tories were replaced in government by the Labour Party in 1945, a plan for India's
independence was drafted.

In 1945-6, elections to a representative parliament were held. The Muslim League won all of the
Muslim seats and the Congress won 90% of the general seats. The League and Congress could not
agree on a process of liberation for India, but Britain was determined to transfer the government of
India to an Indian assembly as soon as possible. Ultimately it was decided to divide India and create
two new countries, India and Pakistan, as demanded by the Muslim League.

The division of the old land of India was to give 82.5% of the territory to India and 17.5% to
Pakistan, made up of east and west wings. While much of the division of land was straight-forward
(noting however that the division of the infrastructure was diabolical), the partitioning of the states of
Punjab and Bengal was most certainly not. India and Pakistan quibbled down to the mile. The
division itself, done by a British appointee, was made on outdated maps in offices and courts miles
away from the lands in question.

"Partition," as this most monumental of cartographic amputations is known, turned from an

organizational nightmare into a human tragedy of cataclysmic proportions. Ten million people
packed up and moved to their new "homelands," the biggest human exodus in history, and as many
as one million of them never reached their new homes, being murdered in transit. In the chaos of this
huge migration, murder, rape, and looting became endemic; trains arrived at stations with every
passenger murdered and left in their carriages to complete their journey.

On midnight, August 14, 1947, India and Pakistan became independent of Britain.
India and Pakistan

Friction between Hindu and Muslim had long been a feature of the Indian landscape, but now it
became the basis for the division into two countries. Pakistan was created as a homeland for Indian
Muslims, overtly partisan in nature. India however, was to be secular, with no religion favored. This
difference of outlook has been the cause of the greatest disagreements between the two countries. It
was also the cause of trouble within the countries, with suspicion between the religions being greatly
exacerbated. The most tragic example being the assassination on January 10, 1948, of Gandhi, whose
great heart had been broken by seeing his countrymen killing each other, shot dead by a Hindu
fanatic.

Part of the agreement to partition India dealt with the problem of the princely states. The accession
of these states was to be the prerogative of the princes. This was problematic in a number of cases.
The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Nawab of Junagadh wished to accede to Pakistan as they were
Muslim personally, though their states were surrounded by India and their subjects largely Hindu.
Both these states were forcibly acquired by India. Kashmir was to be a greater problem. Wishing to
become independent, the Hindu maharaja held out on accession for his state with a population 75%
Muslim. In October 1947, Pakistan moved in to take the state, leading the maharaja to accede to
India, who quickly moved its own forces in -- barely two months old and the two new infant nations
were at war. By the year's end a "line of control" divided Pakistani Azad (Free) Kashmir
(approximately 1/4 of Kashmir) and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.

To this day, the problem of Kashmir has not been solved and India and Pakistan fought further a war
in the state in 1965 and exchanged substantial hostilities 1999. Every year when the snow melts,
heavy fire is exchanged over the line of control. The two countries fought again in 1971 when East
Pakistan became independent Bangladesh. India has had the best of all these conflicts.

India and Pakistan remain bitter enemies. Even off the battlefield, they have competed fiercely, from
the courts of the United Nations to the cricket ground. During the Cold War the two were in opposite
camps. Pakistan was favored by the United States and India formed a friendship with the Soviet
Union. In 1998 both countries tested nuclear weaponry (India had first tested a device in 1974 but
did not go on to become openly nuclear armed), making South Asia an ominous nuclear hotspot.
Both countries have the ready means to deliver nuclear payloads, either using their fleets of jet
bombers, or with domestically developed missiles, the Indian long-range Agni or medium-range
Prithvi and the Pakistani medium-range Ghauri.

After independence, India went on to form the world's largest democracy, which it has held on to
even after suffering a period of despotic rule, with a largely socialist government. Pakistan has not
managed to maintain its democracy, suffering a number of military coups in its history.

India Today

50 years of independence has seen as much stay the same in India, as it has seen change. India's
Fabian socialist government and Pakistan's military dictatorships have failed to produce economies
strong enough to benefit their most disadvantaged. Both countries have made great strides in
industrialization, but have not been able to alleviate the abundance of social ills. Depending on how
it is measured, the rate of poverty in South Asia runs from 40-50%, and the level of literacy is
scarcely better.

A particularly troubling development in India has been the rise of militant Hinduism, or hindutva. In
1992 a mob of Hindus tore down a mosque in Ayodhya, the Babri Masjid, that professedly stood on
the sight of Rama's birthplace. This incendiary act prompted a murderous cycle of riot and counter-
riot and spread into Pakistan and Bangladesh, leaving thousands dead. This has divided the
communities of Hindu and Muslim even further though it has incited anti-sectarian passions in
moderate, secular Hindus and Muslims.

The land of India has one of the longest histories of civilization, but the modern nations of this land
are a mere 50 years old. There is great optimism for the future, since the opening of the Indian
economy to globalization, its economy has grown at a fair pace, and the country has leap-frogged
into the information age. However, the land is encumbered by its intransigent traditions harking back
to its agrarian and tribal origins; the caste system still disunites society and religious superstition puts
checks on progress. Maybe some things in India will never change.

Campaigns in British and Modern India

British India: an ancient complex civilization, fractious under the rule of a foreign assertive empire --
a truly fascinating setting. Conflict and adventure is innate to British India, the empire had to be
maintained through force and threats to its borders constantly held back. Modern India too is an
intensely interesting setting: a pluralist community bursting at the seams with all its diversity.

As was the case with Muslim India, the transition to a new historical era with the arrival of a new
ruling class with a new culture does little to change the extant culture. All that applied regarding the
culture of Muslim India is true also in large part in British and modern India, as is the culture of pre-
Muslim India.

A dominant theme of British India as a setting is the culture clash between the British and the native
Indians. This cultural discord in itself makes the setting interesting but also fuels conflict and
presents challenges.

A dominant theme of modern India is the youngness of the nations. For the fifty odd years of their
independence, the countries of South Asia have struggled to incorporate their ancient traditions into
modern civilization; all their growing-pains can be attributed to the them discovering their true
identities in the modern world.

Crossovers

GURPS Swashbucklers

The early period of European contact with India is perfect for GURPS Swashbucklers. In the
Eastern sphere, merchants and privateers must suffer not only contests between the European sea
powers, the English, the Dutch, and the Portuguese/Spanish, but also with the Arabs and locals, who,
particularly in the Indonesian Spice Islands, are master pirates themselves.

Enormous profits can be gained by traders in spice but there are other riches to be gained, not the
least is the treasure of wild stories of lands of alien customs. The coast of India is ripe for raids but
ventures into the interior of the land is equally if not more profitable for it is inland that the amazing
realms of Vijayanagar and the Moghuls can be found. The European factories are havens, though
they are ever at the threat of attacks and depend on keeping good relations with their patrons.

GURPS Cliffhangers

India has the requisites of an outstanding setting for pulp adventures. It has tracts of unexplored
wilderness, treacherous topography, lost civilizations, exotic customs, ferocious wildlife, and
fabulous wealth. An adventurer might stock up on supplies at Madras before trekking inland in
search of rumored storehouses of the Vijayanagars. Or, disguised in a loincloth, turban, and boot
polish, he might infiltrate a Tantric cult to get close to its villainous high priest.
GURPS Horror

As a setting India has atmosphere (howling jackals, sinister idols to outlandish gods), the menagerie
of monsters (a preponderance of ghosts, malignant rakshasa, thags), and the alienation (impenetrable
bizarre, grotesque, and sometimes savage customs) for quite disturbing horror.

GURPS Espionage

One only need view the movie Octopussy to see the potential of India as an exotic location for
intercontinental espionage adventures.

GURPS Special Ops

There are a number of situations that might necessitate a special op. in the countries of South Asia.
The possession of ready nuclear devices and nuclear material in India and Pakistan is potentially
dangerous. An op. may be required to rectify circumstances that might lead to the use (or misuse) of
these weapons. Another danger is in these weapons or material falling into the wrong hands.
Religious extremism is a fuel for incendiary situations. Aside from the homegrown extremism in the
region, India or Pakistan might harbor terrorists from other countries who may be the target of a
special op.

GURPS Illuminati

Illumination. India has spent millennia searching for this prize among prizes. The vast secrets
uncovered by these centuries of investigation are contained in the innumerable religious texts, most
notably the Vedas. Knowledge of the Vedas (read in their original Sanskrit) is practically a necessity
for searchers after the arcane mysteries of the ancients. However, the wisdom of these venerable
works are not accessible to the uninitiated and it is necessary to have them decoded by a master (to
say nothing of the secrets the master himself knows).

These texts might include not only the metaphysical secrets of India's ancient philosophers, but also
details of life in an ancient India that was more enlightened and technologically advanced (see High
Tech Hindu, p. xx) than the modern day.

India's most well known limb of the worldwide conspiracy is the Theosophical Society. Founded by
Madam H.P Blavatsky in 1875 in New York, the Society moved its headquarters to Madras in 1878
where it could be closer to the rich source of theosophical knowledge in India. The goal of the
Theosophical Society is to bring together humanity under a unified religion though which everyone
will be illuminated and join the Great Masters who now govern our spiritual evolution.

GURPS Supers

Hindu mythology or Buddhist belief might be used as inspiration for a Supers character. Maybe the
character is an avatar of Vishnu, or has tapped into superpowers through meditation and yoga.

GURPS Cyberpunk

India will always be at the cutting edge of technology. However, as has always been the case, the
advance of the country towards the future is staggered through society and India will see a much
greater disparity between rich and poor than the already inequitable standard of a cyberpunk setting.
An Indian netrunner might sit at his jerry-rigged console in a rat-infested, dilapidated building with a
homeless family huddling in its entranceway to escape the monsoon rain.

With competence but not resources, Indian cybernetics, sold by street vendors in tiny stalls, will be
cheap and functional but crude and error-prone.

GURPS Space

Indian elements might very well find themselves in a science fiction setting. This might be as
minimal as having certain planets with a majority Indian population. At the other extreme, a science
fiction campaign might revolve around Indian motifs. Roger Zelazny's award winning novel Lord of
Light is an example of this (though admittedly only tangentially space related). In this novel, on a
lost colonized planet a small cartel use extremely advanced technology to lord over the rest of the
colonists as "gods." This technology also effects reincarnation of a sort. In a way, Lord of Light is an
interpretation of the story of the Buddha. Other Indian tales might also be rendered in a futuristic
setting, the Mahabharata for example.

GURPS Time Travel

Time travelers with an interest in the British Empire would do well to visit India during the British
Raj; India practically was the British Empire. From its inception at Plassay to the Last Post at
Mumbai's Gateway to India, the Raj is a tale writ large in history and its narrative shaped the Age of
Imperialism internationally. The Raj evolved slowly and a list of the critical moments would be
Arcot, Plassay, Mysore (British vs. Tipu Sultan), the retreat to Khyber Pass, the 1st Sikh War, the
annexation of Oudh, the Anglo-Indian War, the massacre at Jallianwala Gardens, the salt march (and
Gandhi's other protest actions), and the granting of independence to India and Pakistan.

After the 1st Sikh War, the course of India's history could scarcely be altered, the British were
unassailable in their rule of India, but ultimately, rule from Britain was unsustainable and
unacceptable and independence inevitable. However, if the British had lost at Ferozeshah or any of
the battles previous to this, history might have been quite different and may not have featured a
British Raj or even a British Empire of any distinction. Similarly, if Russia had had more success in
breaking through Central Asia and Afghanistan, might they have wrested India from the British?
Indian Ocean Piracy

The trade between India and the West (and indeed the East) has always been brisk. Never a great
maritime country itself, India's seas were filled with foreign vessels. Piracy was often more
profitable than trade and the Arabs were masters of piracy. The Portuguese trade in the Indian Ocean
was almost institutionalized piracy, wherein a warrant to trade was no more than a guarantee of
protection from official corsairs.

With the Spanish Armada destroyed, Spanish hegemony was broken and could no longer keep Dutch
and British ships from its previously exclusive trade routes. This period then saw frigates and man'o
wars of the English East India Company and the Dutch United East India Company running Spanish
blockades and capturing Spanish fortresses on Indian Ocean islands and ports. The Calvinist Dutch,
recently having gained independence from Catholic Spain, were particularly vigorous in their fight
with the Spanish and managed to wrest control of all of the Spice Islands. The British, unable to keep
up with the surging Dutch, took India for their sphere of interest.

Triangular Trade

The only thing of interest to the Asians that the Europeans could trade was gold and silver. It could
not be sustainable to simply trade all of this away on eastern produce. Hence the English and Dutch
established a triangle of trade where cotton was purchased in southern India and traded for spice in
South East Asia which was then taken back to Europe to be sold for cash, giving more bullion with
which to trade with India.

The English Become British

In 1707 the Act of Union between England and Scotland was consummated, thus bringing into being
the United Kingdom. Hence the change in nomenclature, where before there were English, there
were now British.

The term "Anglo-Indian" was initially used to refer to Britons living in India. This term in time came
to be used to for those of mixed British and Indian descent. These Anglo-Indian were shunned by
both British and Indian and formed a community of their own.

Joseph François Dupleix

An interesting "what if" comes from speculating on what would have come to pass if Joseph
Dupleix, president of Pondicherry (established 1674) from 1741, had not meet his foil in Robert
Clive. Dupleix was a master conspirator; he had south eastern India eating from his hand. He
understood better than any other European the moods and ambitions of Indian princes but most
importantly how to make use of political forces without exposing himself. He was offered the
Nawabship of the Carnatic personally but knew better than to accept.

Robert Clive however, more of a general but less of a politician than Dupleix, simply could not be
denied -- no one, not even Dupleix, could oppose his fierce energy. In 1754 Dupleix, who but for the
indomitable determination of Robert Clive might have been emperor of India, was recalled to France
as a failure.

Rivals to John Company

United East India Company of the Netherlands (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie), established
1601 and the French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales), established 1664 where
the chief European rivals of the English East India Company.
Courten's Association of Sir William Courten and associates managed to wrangle royal permission to
trade with India alongside John Co. in 1635. However, when Charles I was beheaded, the
unsuccessful Courten's Assoc. was finished.

The Muscovy Company, founded 1554, had the monopoly of trade with Persia through Russia.
Trading with India until 18th century, the Muscovy Company was never a troublesome rival to John
Company.

The Levant Company could not compete with the trade with India and ended up exporting spices
from Britain to the Middle East.

The British Conquest

Three great foreign incursions have helped to shape India: the Aryan migration, the Muslim
invasion, and finally the British conquest of India. Hardly an invasion or annexation, the British
acquisition of India was an odd process. It was an unplanned subjugation initially simply for the
purpose of securing elbowroom for British trade stations. From the time of the establishment of the
trading station ("factory" in the parlance of the time) at Surat to the annexation of Punjab, a full 230
years passed, near on ten generations.

Indian Army

One of Charles II concessions to the company was the freedom to raise an army. It wasn't until 1748
that Major Stringer Lawrence formed the first military units in Madras to form the Madras Army.
Bengal soon too formed its army, consisting initially of only 30 men plus an officer supported by a
gunner with crew. In Bombay a detachment of the King's men sent to look after the colony became
the Bombay Army. These young armies were rather rag-tag, formed as they were from those who
could find no occupation elsewhere and included many foreigners including French sailors. The
Indian Army was reinforced by men of the Royal Army; in 1754, the 39th Foot were sent to India on
loan to the Company.

In time, Indians were also to join the Indian Army. The Indian Army was to become the largest
mercenary army in the world. It was entirely made up of volunteers and never needed to conscript.
The Indian Army was very well disciplined, as was the way for European armies of the time. Even
the native members of the India army were expected to be as disciplined as a European member.
This discipline was the great advantage of the British over the native armies, which were
distinguished by their lack of discipline. Greater access to artillery and advanced European military
science also contributed greatly to British military superiority.

After the institution of the post of Governor-General, the position of Commander-in-Chief India was
also initiated. The C-C India in theory had authority over the whole Indian army. In truth he had little
control outside Bengal; the Commanders-in-Chief of Madras and Bombay looked after their own
corps. Until 1886, the C-C India did not have authority over the Punjab Irregular Field Force who
were looked after by the Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab. The C-C India was answerable to the
Governor-General rather than the Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, and was the second
most powerful man in India.

The administration of each of the three arms of the army was looked after by the Quartermaster
General and the Adjutant-General, both usually major-generals. The former looked after the vitals of
the army (supplies, barracks, etc.), the latter discipline and administration. Both had deputies
(usually colonels) and deputy assistants (usually majors).

There was considerable prejudice against the officers of the Indian Army; in particular, Lord Fitzroy
Somerset Raglan, leader of the army at Crimea, had great contempt for the "Indian" officers. They
were seen as adventurers and mercenaries -- and not without justification, as many might not have
made it into the British Army and were there only to make their fortune. Still, they had the combat
experience that might have served well at Crimea, where the prestige units of the Life Guards and
Hussars suffered in their dress uniforms under ill-experienced officers.

After the crown took over the Raj the Indian Army was integrated with the British Army. The British
officers were incorporated into the Queen's army. The European troops were also to be transferred
leaving the Indian Army entirely native. However, many transferees were unhappy, having so much
loyalty to their old regiments, and when given the opportunity, most took discharge.

Native Officer Ranks

The officers of the Indian Army were all British. However the Indian Army had an extra level of
officers, called "natives" before the crown took over the Raj and Viceroy's Commissioned Officers
afterwards (referring to the fact that the commission comes from the viceroy rather than the crown).
The native ranks were inferior to British officers but were saluted. The three native ranks were
Subedar-Major, Subedar, and Jemadar for the infantry and Rissaldar-Major, Rissaldar, and Jemadar
for the cavalry. These ranks exist still in the modern Indian army known as junior commissioned
officers.

The non-commissioned and warrant officer ranks were equivalent to the British ranks of Sergeant-
Major, Sergeant, Corporal, and Lance Corporal but were called Havildar-Major, Havildar, Naik, and
Lance Naik for the infantry and Daffadar-Major, Daffadar, Lance Daffadar, and Unpaid Lance
Daffadar in the cavalry. The native names for private and trooper were sepoy and sowar respectively.

Martial Races

The British took race very seriously. While a regiment could be made up of me of all races,
religions, and castes, it was ensured that individual squadrons were homogeneous.

It was noted that during the Mutiny it was chiefly the Bengalis who revolted while the Sikhs
remained loyal. Hence the British hit on their specious "martial races" theory. After the Mutiny no
more Bengalis were recruited and recruitment from the lower Hindu castes was also stopped.
Southern regiments were disbanded. The Gurkhas were considered the best recruits with the Sikhs
(who were assuredly not a race) not far behind. In fact, the Sikhs came to make up 1/5 of the Indian
Army. Men from the foothills of the Himalayas were also preferred as it was assumed that the heat
of the plains produced cowardly poltroons. Rajputs, Baluchis, Pathans, Dogras, and Mers were also
considered appropriate for the army.

Although they are not allowed to be selective, the modern Indian Army has a composition not
remarkably different from that of the British Indian Army.

GURPS Great Game

The need to check the advance of Russia through Central Asia to India offers great adventuring
opportunities for loyal British officers willing to brave the no-mans-land between the two empires to
map, gather intelligence, and to make allies of the khans and emirs of the region. It was a hazardous
undertaking and many young officers lost their lives, executed by suspicious locals or the Russians
themselves. Often this work would be done in disguise and sometimes with the help of Indians. The
Great Game was a time of adventure, and, known as the Tournament of Shadows by the Russians, a
time of intrigue.

Ranjit Singh
Perhaps the greatest beneficiary of the collapse of the Moghul Empire was the nation of the Sikhs.
However, once freed from the oppression of the Moghuls they were for a long time unable to achieve
any unity. This was to come under Ranjit Singh, the self-declared Maharaja of Punjab from 1801
(when he was only 21). Ranjit was an inspirational leader. He was illiterate but shrewdly intelligent.
Although he was a drunkard womanizer and only had one eye (the other lost in childhood), he had an
undeniable charisma and his shortcoming only endeared him to his followers.

Ranjit realized that two things would help his Punjab, friendship with the British and a decent army.
He secured the first with the treaty of 1809, which recognized his kingship but seceded to the British
suzerainty over Malwa to the east of the Sutlej. To build his army he enlisted foreign advisors. He
had a Frenchmen train his cavalry, an Italian his infantry, and an American his artillery. The great
Khalsa of the Punjab was organized into brigades on the French plan, each with three or four
battalions of infantry, an artillery battery and between two and six thousand cavalry.

With this great army Ranjit captured Kashmir, Multan, and Peshawar.

He died in 1839.

Rani of Jhansi

In 1853, the Raja of Jhansi, Gangadhar Rao, died. He had been unable to father an heir on his wife,
Lakshmibai, and had adopted a son, Damodar, shortly before his death. Nevertheless, in accordance
with their established protocol, the British declared the Jhansi line to have lapsed and annexed the
kingdom, depriving the Rani her regency and her adopted son his kingdom.

The Rani had no opportunity to act upon her grudge against the British until 1857 when revolt was
raised. Initially the rebels at Jhansi intended to elevate a distant relative to the throne, but through
bribery the Rani convinced them that she could rule. It was well that she did as she proved a highly
able commander during the time of strife. Along with her skills of government she had learnt in the
royal court, she proved herself a natural tactician and the other leaders of the rebellion, such as
Tantia Topi, consulted her constantly. On the battlefield too she showed her instinct for war. She
died in battle in 1858 leading her troops in a cavalry charge against General Hugh Rose's 8th
Hussars; her death precipitating the beginning of the end of the mutiny.

Hill Stations

At the height of summer the administration of British India simply could not be conducted in the
unbearable heat. The British solution to this was to move the administration to cooler climates in the
hills until the temperatures in the plains became tolerable. Thus were built the many hill stations.
Even the imperial capitals would be moved en masse to a temporary base in the hills. The
administration of Delhi had Shimla as its summer double, Bombay had Pune, and Calcutta
Darjeeling. The more important hill stations were too expensive for some who had to be content to
summer in less fashionable hill towns.

The British were not the first to make use of hill towns to escape the summer heat. Most rulers in
India did the same, the Moghuls most notably, with their love of Kashmir. The British hill stations
were unique however in that they recreated little pieces of "home." The hill stations were definitely
more British than any town in the plains. British civil servants and army personal posted in the plains
would sometimes leave their wives and children in the hills year round. The stations had a far livelier
social scene than plains cities.

Cricket
Any account of British or modern India would be incomplete without a mention of cricket, the sport
introduced by the British and adopted wholeheartedly by the Indian population. Cricket is the second
most popular spectator sport in the world today (after soccer), due in large part to its loyal following
on the Subcontinent. It also remains a major sport in England and nations of the British
Commonwealth around the world.

Cricket is a bat and ball sport with a long and illustrious history. A full description of the game is
beyond the scope of this book, suffice it so say that it is characterized by its elegance, its propensity
for coinage of quaint terms, the length of a game -- from several hours up to five days of six hours
play each -- and scores typically running into multiples of hundreds of runs. Readers interested in the
rules are encouraged to look up library books or web sites (there are thousands of them).

Cricket was first played in India by the early British colonials, but by 1892 the locals had become so
enamored of the game that the first championship matches between the Europeans and the Parsis
were held. The first Test match (the highest level of the game, played between national teams)
featuring India was played against England in London in 1932, and was followed the next year by
the first Test on Indian soil, in Mumbai. In the present, India is a strong cricket nation, competing
regularly against England, Australia, South Africa, the West Indies, New Zealand, Sri Lanka,
Zimbabwe, and their arch-rivals Pakistan.

Cricket has so penetrated Indian culture that to most Indians it is not merely a sport, but a way of
life. Poor children spend what little leisure time they have playing in the dusty streets of Delhi with
makeshift equipment. Professional players are admired and worshipped as stars, and form a rich and
even politically powerful elite. Almost every Indian boy's dream is to grow up and represent his
country at the game he loves so much.

On the shady side, betting on cricket forms the core of India's illegal gambling network, and thus
finances much of the nation's organized crime. Big matches in India, especially between India and
Pakistan, have also led to incidents of crowd violence rivaling European soccer riots. In the current
age of nuclear weapons and political tension on the subcontinent, cricket fanaticism is a dangerous
wildcard in the mix.

Thagi

Sinister worshippers of Kali, the thags (thugs, in English) honored their patron goddess by murder.
On the one hand, they were simple, though crafty bandits who would gull innocent travelers, only to
do them in and steal their belongings. On the other hand, they were the Black Goddess' instruments
on earth. Their brutal customs were preformed only in proscribed ways and involved rites to Kali to
whom they sacrificed sugar and venerated through sanctified pickaxes. Their main weapon was the
garrote (though they were known to make use of poison, drowning, and burning alive), employed
with two jerks with orisons to Kali after each, and then a slow strangulation.

Muslim thags were also known, though in worshipping Kali they were most assuredly heretics.

The cult existed in India for many hundreds of years, dating back at least to the 12th century. At any
time the cult numbered several thousand. Members communicated through a secret cant known as
Ramasi. The cult was believed to have been broken by about 1837 after Captain William Sleeman's
six year war against them. Lesser bands of thags were exterminated by 1861 and in 1882 the last
known thag was executed.

Needless to say, remnants of the cult may surface to trouble adventurers in later times or the cult
might be reborn under a charismatic and evil follower of Kali.

The light has gone out and there is darkness everywhere.

--<\#208> Nehru on Gandhi's murder

GURPS Bollywood

India's film industry churns out hundreds of movies a year, Mumbai (formerly Bombay, hence
Bollywood) and Chennai being the most prolific sources. They can be produced in such numbers
because quality is not valued by Indian audiences, so every expense can be spared. These films are
lurid spectacles that without fail are packed to the brim with romance, violence, heroism, villainy,
singing, and dancing all as ostentatious and unsubtle as can be managed. Being such a mixture, they
are known as "masala movies."

An adventure that captures the spirit of Bollywood (singing and dancing optional), while something
of a challenge, is an opportunity to abandon all restraint and taste.

Use 'Em Or Lose 'Em

India's testing of its nuclear capabilities in 1998 and Pakistan's retaliatory test shortly after, greatly
enhanced the danger of nuclear war in the subcontinent. While both were threshold states, they had
the capability of assembling nuclear weapons and could in principle have used them should
hostilities have broken out, however there was actually less chance then than now when the
"deterrent" exists.

While the two enemies are armed below mutually assured destruction levels, each is in danger of
having their nuclear arsenal destroyed by a surprise attack, thereby leaving them open to nuclear
blackmail. Both nuclear artilleries must now be on "launch-on-warning" status so they won't get
caught by such a surprise attack.

Another significant change to the defense landscape is that under the situation outlined above, it is
now possible for Pakistan to win a war against India.

GURPS Kali Yuga

The Puranic account of the cycles of time do not predict the end of the world until some time in the
4,340th century A.D., when the kali yuga comes to an end. However, some traditions do not give a
length for the kali yuga. What if the end was imminent? In this case, society will degenerate and
knowledge will be used against, rather than for, humanity -- a cyberpunk setting but with a
supernatural aspect.

Concomitant with the growth in corruption and amorality is firstly an increase in the practice of
Tantrism, and secondly in the population of rakshasa. Modern rakshasa are far more subtle than
their legendary relatives; possessed of an evil intelligence, they use their powers of shape-changing
to pass as humans and their powers of magic to their nefarious ends (including, as always, the
consumption of human flesh).
Epic India
History is not India's only tradition of recording the past; through the epics and the myths of the
Puranas, Indians look back to a time of greater glory and righteousness, the now defunct heroic age
when the land was ruled by well-born chakravartins beholden to goodly brahmins. In fact, history
gets short shrift, historical figures and events are forgotten while legendary figures, who may once
have been historical, are aggrandized and their legends become vehicles for parables and fables. In
this chapter the great epics of Hinduism are detailed (oh so briefly) as well as myths from other
sources.

The epic age existed in another time, a whole other era of human history, the treta and dvapara
yugas (see The Cycle of Time, p. xx), when dharma itself was more pure. In the epics the heroes are
greater men than will be known in this age; their motives were purer, their passions more intense,
and their destinies more deeply etched into their characters. The heroes of the epics fought and
quested for love, honor, and above all dharma, and the whole of India was their stage. They were
helped in their endeavors by powerful magicians, races of anthropomorphic animals, and by the
gods, who, if they weren't as much as the begetters of the heroes, were at least their patrons.

That epic India is a fine campaign setting in and of itself is abundantly clear. However, the stories
and teachings of the epics are pertinent for campaigns set in historical settings also, because, despite
their ahistoricity, they form part of the historical legacy of Hindus. That the events of the epics might
not have in fact occurred (though many do believe in them completely) or that the world it describes
might not have existed, is immaterial and misses the point.

Cosmology
In the Beginning .

"There was neither aught nor naught, nor air, nor sky beyond.

What covered all? Where rested all? In watery gulf profound?

Nor death was then, nor deathlessness, nor change of night and day.

The One breathed calmly, self-sustained; naught else beyond it lay.

Who knows, who ever told, from whence this vast creation rose?

No gods had then been born -- who can e'er the truth disclose?

Whence sprang this world, and whether framed by hand divine or no

-- Its lord in heaven alone can tell, if even He can show."

--<\#208> Rig Veda

The Primordial Sacrifice and the Golden Egg

Despite the pessimism regarding the knowability of the creation in the quote above, several accounts
of it exist in the Hindu literature.
An influential account from the Rig Veda describes how the universe was created from the sacrifice
of Purusha, the primal man, by the gods. Purusha, with a thousand heads, a thousand eyes and a
thousand feet, enveloped the universe. From his sacrifice was formed all of existence as the gods
divided his body into pieces -- the four Vedas, the animals, the four varnas, the four quarters of this
world, the sky, and the heavens.

The Puranas and the Laws of Manu give a very different account. In these books, the world is
brought into being from the will of God. God, the Self-existent, desired to create the world. He
created the waters and cast upon them a seed formed of the five elements and the three gunas. From
the seed was born a golden egg, the Brahmanda, and inside this egg He created Himself as Brahma,
the creator. Within the egg Brahma created the world from his body and after dwelling there for a
year, he split the egg into two halves, one gold from which he created the heavens, the other silver
from which he created the earth. Then to populate the world he created himself as two, a man, Manu,
and a woman, Swayambhu.

The Universe

The egg-shaped universe created by Brahma is divided into 21 levels. The upper seven levels, known
as lokas, are the 5 heavens, the middle air, and this world. The next seven levels are the talas and are
home to mythical beings. (Hindu myth repeatedly refers to the "three worlds," they are the earth, the
heavens, and the nether regions, or talas.) The bottom seven are the hells or narakas.

(Exactly how these realms are separated is a question that must be answered for a particular
campaign. Are they completely different planes, accessible only by Gate Magic? Or are they all on
the same plane, with the talas being subterranean realms, with the hells presumably deeper below
them?)

Brahmanda floats alone in the firmament, which may contain other universes.

This World

This world is flat and circular and lies below the heavens, the abode of the gods, the sun, the moon,
the planets, and the stars, with the middle air, antariksha, the abode of birds and the spirits of the
ancestors, between. A one-legged goat, Aja-ekapad, keeps the earth and sky separate. The earth sits
on the head of the giant serpent Seshnag who stands on the back of the tortoise Akupara whose four
feet stand on four elephants who stand on the shell of Brahmanda.

At the center of the world is Mt Meru, upon which is Svar-loka, the heavens of the gods. Meru is
also the center of the continent Jambudvipa, called for a giant jambu tree that grows on the
mountain. The continent of Jambudvipa is surrounded by six further continents arranged in
concentric rings. Jambudvipa is separated from the next continent, Plaksha, by an ocean of treacle.
The oceans separating the other continents are oceans of wine, clarified butter, curds, and milk. The
last of the continents is surrounded by an ocean of fresh water, beyond which is the land of Lokaloka
on which is a giant mountain range some 100,000 miles high and 100,000 miles wide. Beyond
Lokaloka is darkness and then the shell of Brahmanda.

India is located on the southernmost verge of Jambudvipa, separated from the rest of the continent by
the Himalayas.

Another scheme has Mt Meru as an island surrounded by four continents. The southernmost of these
continents, is Jambudvipa after the jambu tree growing on the shore opposite Meru, and is the home
of humans.

The India of the epics corresponds to the historical period where India is divided into
mahajanapadas, which in the epics are true kingdoms, rather than the tribal kingdoms of history.

The Epics
Most cultures make do with one epic, Hinduism needs two. Both tales, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, started their lives as fairly straightforward stories, respectively the quest of Rama for
his wife Sita and the civil war between two lines of the Kuru tribe. Over the centuries additional
legends and religious or social essays have been added (particularly in the case of the Mahabharata)
and were given a greater religious spirit. The epics now work not only as stories, but as paragonic
tales.

Legend puts the date of the battle of Kurukshetra (see below under The Mahabharata) in the year
3128 B.C. though if it did occur is was likely to have been between 850 and 650 B.C. The Ramayana
precedes the Mahabharata (and abbreviated appears as a section in the later epic), by perhaps 200
years historically, or 2 million years according to the legend.

The Ramayana

The Ramayana is the story of Ramachandra, the king of Ayodhya, and his quest to reclaim his wife
from the rakshasa king of Lanka.

Rama was the eldest son of Dasharatha, king of Ayodhya, who had three other sons, Bharata and the
twins Lakshmana and Shatrughna, on two other of his wives. From a young age, Rama was destined
for greatness; when he was sixteen he had powers bestowed on him by the great sage Vishvamitra
and slayed several rakshasa. He married Sita, daughter of Janaka, the king of Mithila, after proving
his strength by breaking Shiva's bow, which had previously proved to be unstringable.

Rama was naturally to inherit the kingdom and Dasaratha was keen to abdicate in his favor.
However, Bharata's mother tricked Dasharatha into promising naming Bharata as regent and to exile
Rama for fourteen years. Dasaratha had no choice but to fulfill his promise and Rama left in exile to
the jungle, accompanied by Sita and Laksmana. Bharata was reluctant to take reign and kept one of
Rama's sandals on the throne to emphasize that he ruled as regent only.

During the first ten years of exile Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana defeated several troublesome
rakshasas. One female rakshasa, Shurpanakha, fell in love with Rama and had her nose and ears cut
off by Lakshmana, appealed to her brothers for help. Two of her brothers, Khara and Dushana, were
defeated along with their army of rakshasas by Rama and Lakshmana. However her older brother,
Ravana, ten-headed rakshasa king of Lanka, was persuaded to abduct Sita, carrying her away
without Rama's knowledge.

Rama and Lakshman searched for Sita. Unable to find her they went to Sugriva, the king of the
monkey people, the vanara. After the heroes helped Sugriva reclaim his kingdom from his usurper
brother Bali, the monkey king raised an army and lent it to Rama under the control of his general,
Hanuman.

In time they found out that Sita was at Ravana's city in Lanka and Hanuman lept across the Pali
Straight to locate her and wrecked a little havoc in the city. When he returned his army constructed a
bridge and joined battle against Ravana's army of rakshasa. The battle was fierce but Rama
ultimately won and Ravana was killed.

The story of the Ramayana now takes a rather less than heroic turn as Rama, rather than rejoicing at
having rescued his wife from Ravana, he instead spurns her on account of her having been touched
by another man, albeit involuntarily and non-sexually. Even her passing an ordeal of fire does not
sway him and it is only the pleas of the gods that finally make him change his mind.

Rama now returns to Ayodhya and institutes a glorious reign of such dharmic righteousness that all
his subjects are destined to heaven on account of his holiness. However, one blot remains, his
accepting back of his Sita. Discontent in his kingdom and his own jealousy forces him to exile her.
So Sita, pregnant with Rama's twin sons, leaves for the jungle and bears and there raises her sons,
Lava and Kusha. In the year that Lava and Kusha turn fifteen, Rama chooses to do the ashvamedha.
His horse is captured by the boys and Rama's army is defeated. Rama recognizes the boys and calls
Sita to Ayodhya. He accepts her innocence and wishes her to return. However, she does not accept
and calls for the earth to open up and swallow her. Rama is overwrought by sadness and leaves this
earth to re-enter Vishnu, of whom he is an avatara.

Heroes and Villians of the Ramayana

Rama

In the current version of the Ramayana, Rama is incontestably a god, the seventh avatara of Vishnu.
However, in earlier versions of the story he is not divine and it is the more recently written first and
seventh books of the epic that make him out to be a god. Vishnu takes on the incarnation as a mortal
in order to defeat Ravana who had been granted the boon by Brahma that he not be able to be killed
by god, demon, or spirit.

Rama is a great king, not only temporally, but also great in dharma. He is loyal to his father when he
is just a prince, and forces the king to keep his promise to his queen even if the king was reluctant,
even if it means living in the jungle for 14 years. By rescuing Sita from Ravana he proves himself
able to defend his honor. He further demonstrates his respect for dharmic law rather harshly by
rejecting Sita after rescuing her.

He is of course a great warrior, particularly an archer, being able to pull a bow such that his arrow
can pierce not only several trees and a hill, but also six subterranean worlds, and so good was his aim
that this arrow would then land back in his quiver a trick he performed to impress the monkey king.
Though in truth a good deal of this was achieved through mantras (spells) he cast over his arrows.

Sita

Rama's wife Sita gets little opportunity for action in standard versions of the Ramanayana. She is
essentially a good, loyal wife, and as such easily slips into her husband's shadow. However, she
demonstrates some strength of character at the end of the epic in convincing Rama to accept her back
even though legally/ethically he shouldn't and in refuses to be taken back after being exiled.

Sita is an incarnation of Lakshmi, just as Rama is an avatara of Vishnu. She also has the aspects of
an agricultural goddess as she was born from her father's plowed furrow and is accepting by the earth
when she chooses to leave.

Hanuman

That Hanuman, a monkey, has become one of Hinduism's most celebrated heroes attests to the
imagination of the religion.

As Rama's loyal companion, Hanuman has become a patron of the quality of loyalty. As well as his
deeds in the Ramayana, Hanuman has a bevy of legends of his own. He is an offspring of Shiva and
Vayu (the god of the winds) and was possessed of great powers. However, due to a curse by the sage
Trinabindu, he loses his powers until reminded of them.
Ravana

The rakshasa king of Lanka was born with ten heads and obtained his kingdom from Kubera by
defeating him and taking his aerial chariot, the Pushpaka. By performing a great austerity and
offering all of his ten heads to Brahma, Ravana was granted the boon that he should never be killed
by a mortal.

When Kubera lived at Lanka (the city built by Maya on Mt Meru for Indra), he was the lord of the
universe and Lanka was the world's greatest city. In his gem encrusted palace Kubera was attended
to by thousands of women and was served by the Yakshas, Kinnaras, etc. Ravana took control of this
most magnificent of cities (which was then cut from Mt Meru and ended up an island).

The Mahabharata
Within its labyrinth of myths, fables, and parables, the Mahabharata tells the story of the conflict
between two sets of cousins, the Pandavas and Kauravas, and the great war they fought on the field
of Kurukshetra.

The five Pandavas were the sons of Pandu, though they were actually fathered by gods. The 100
Kauravas were sons of Pandu's elder brother Dhritarashtra. When Santanu the king of Bharata (with
its capital at Hastinapura, now Delhi), died, his grandson, Pandu, became king as his eldest,
Dhritarashtra, was forbidden to succeed by tradition on account of his being blind. Upon Pandu's
death, Yudhishthira, the eldest Pandava becomes king. However, the eldest of the Kauravas,
Duryodhana wishes to be king, instead. Duryodhana builds a palace out of wax for the Pandavas.
When they have moved into the palace, Duryodhana burns it down and, with the Pandavas believed
dead, is crowned king. However, the Pandavas (with their common wife) return and Yudhishthira
assumes kingship over half the kingdom. Duryodhana convinces Yudhishthira to play him in a game
of dice, gambling being Yudhishthira's vice. Yudhishthira loses his own freedom and that of his
brothers and Draupadi. The Pandavas are forced into exile for 12 years, and then an extra year in
society where they would have to conceal their identity. After passing this ordeal and returning
Duryodhana refuses to give back half of the kingdom and they were forced to go to war.

All the kingdoms of India gather themselves at the fields of Kurukshetra and array themselves either
the Pandava or Kaurava side. After 18 days the Pandavas are victorious. However, the war and the
victory are extremely troublesome for the Pandavas. They did not wish to enter the war in the first
place, being convinced to by Krishna. During the war, their worst predictions are realized and many
of their family are killed, including a number of their most loved relatives and their own sons. Also
troubling were some of the dishonorable tactics used (all suggested by Krishna). However, despite
the war being incomparably destructive, it was just, it being part of the duty of a king to mete out
great violence.

After the war Yudhishthira rules as a just and benevolent king but is still haunted by Kurukshetra. He
performs the ashvamedha in penance. Learning of Krishna's death, the Pandavas and Draupadi
decide it is time for them to leave this world and they travel to the Himalayas (the intention being
that the journey will be so harsh that it will kill them and they will then enter heaven). A dog follows
them as they leave on their pilgrimage. As they climb the mountains each of them falls and dies,
until only Yudhishthira is left with the dog. He reaches the gates of heaven but refuses to enter
without his brothers and wife. The dog reveals itself to be Dharma and he transports Yudhishthira to
heaven where his family is waiting for him.

Heroes and Villians of the Mahabharata

The characters the Mahabharata, their stories, and their instructions on dharma are legion, and it is
not possible to mention all but a small fraction of them -- those around whom the story revolves.

The Pandavas

The mothers of the Pandavas, Kunti and Madri, could not have children by Pandu because of his
curse. However, once when the sage Durvasas visited the home of Kunti, he was well cared for
during his stay that he gave a Kunti a great mantra, which she could use five times. Using this
mantra would bring a god to Earth and conceive a son upon her. Kunti first used this when she was
young, calling Surya, the sun, and having a son, called Karna who she set afloat on a river in a box.
(Though a brother to the Pandavas, Karna was to become a member of the camp of the Kauravas. He
was born fully armored and was trained in archery by Parushurama. He became Arjuna's enemy and
was killed by him at Kurukshetra.)

Under instruction by Pandu, Kunti begat Yudhishthira, Bhimasena, and Arjuna by the gods Dharma,
Vayu, and Indra. Kunti gave one of her boons to Madri who bore Nakula and Sahadeva by the twin
Ashvins.

The brothers were given the best of educations and trained in warfare as kshatriyas.

Yudhishthira

The son of the god of righteousness, Yudhishthira himself was supremely righteous, as well as being
extremely generous, astute, and devout. As the eldest of the Pandavas he was the paternal leader of
the fellowship.

Yudhishthira's poorer qualities included an irresistible liking for gambling and a love of religion over
kingship.

Bhima

Bhima is the son of the wind god, Vayu. From birth he had a superhuman strength (when dropped
onto a rock when a child, crushing the rock to powder but leaving Bhima unharmed). He increased in
strength even further when, having been poisoned and thrown into the Ganga by the Kauravas, he
visited Patala (see The Netherworld, p. xx) where the king of the nagas gave him a drink that would
make him as strong as 1,000 elephants.

Bhima killed a number of rakshasa but also married a female rakshasi.

His greatest vice was his voracious appetite.

Arjuna

Arjuna is the greatest warrior of the Pandavas. In his youth he had an insatiable desire to learn the
science of combat and became a master of archery, teaching himself how to use his bow in complete
darkness. He was given the arrow known as Brahmashirastra, a weapon of such power that it could
only be used against non-humans -- to use it against humans would destroy the three worlds.

In the war of Kurukshetra, Krishna was Arjuna's charioteer. Arjuna and Krishna were in fact the
reincarnations of Nara and Narayana, two sages that were inseparable companions in every birth.

Nakula and Sahadeva

The youngest of the Pandavas were great heroes in their own rights, but were rather overshadowed
by the their elder siblings. The twins were both exceptionally handsome, in fact, Nakula was the
most handsome of men. This was a difficulty in the time of their exile and they had to cover their
faces in dirt so as not to be recognized or desired by women.

Draupadi

The daughter of Drupada was offered for marriage to the winner of a contest of strength and archery
skill. In the contest a steel arrow must be fired by a steel bow through a hole in a revolving disc
hanging from the ceiling to hit a target above. It was Arjuna that won the contest and was to marry
Draupadi. However, when the Pandavas returned to their house where their mother was waiting for
them, she called out to them that they must share whatever it was that they had obtained from their
days work. Hence it was that Draupadi became the common wife of the Pandavas. In order to avoid
conflict between the brothers sharing a wife, she was to be the partner of each the five brothers for a
year at a time.

Krishna

The story of Krishna's friendship with the Pandavas is only a small part of the story of his
extraordinary life. It is a significant part however, as the Mahabharata is the tale of the end of the
krita yuga and the beginning of the kali yuga, and is therefore the tale of how Krishna, as God,
shepherds in the new eon.

Krishna was a companion of the Pandavas through most of their exiles from Hastinapura. When the
time of the battle of Kurukshetra came he had promised aid to both Arjuna and Duryodhana so he
gave his army to the Kauravas and accompanied Arjuna as his charioteer though he would not fight
himself.

His greatest advice for Arjuna was that lecture on dharma that is contained in the Gita. However, he
gave a load of advice through the battle. Curiously, much of the advise involved trickery, consistent
though with the imminent beginning of the corrupt kali yuga.

The Kauravas

The Kauravas are the sons of Dhritarashtra and Gandhari. Gandhari asked of the sage Vyasa the
boon of having one hundred sons. She soon became pregnant but carried her centuplets for two years
without giving birth. When she heard that Kunti had given birth she was enraged and hit herself on
her stomach, inducing the birth of a shapeless lump of flesh. Vyasa instructed her to cut the mass
into a hundred and one thumb-sized pieces and put them into pots. In time the pots burst open and
one hundred sons and one daughter emerged.

Durhodhana

Duryodhana was the leader of the Kauravas. It is his greed and evil that brings about the war of
Kurukshetra.

Dashshasana

Dashshasana was perhaps the most despicable of the Kauravas (who as a group were not necessarily
all that evil). When Yudhishthira lost Draupadi to Duryodhana at dice, Dashshasana dragged her to
the assembly by her hair and attempted to pull off her clothes (though Krishna made her sari
infinitely long so it could not be removed, no matter how much it was unwound). However,
Dashshasana obtained heaven after his death at Kurukshetra, consistent with villainy being as much
a part of dharma as heroism.
Campaigns in Epic India
A faithful Epic India campaign is high fantasy at its most extravagant and most camp, all performed
in the utmost sincerity. Adventures should be heavy with brutal combat with rakshasas and tests of
skills and virtue (and tests of skill that prove virtue). They should be adorned with lavish
embellishments and symbolism, such as showers of petals or voices from heaven. Epic heroes and
villains are characters of profound destiny, it is a rare hero indeed that is not in some way
engendered by a god or a god themselves, and those rare heroes will certainly have some unusual
background. Heroes should have excessively strong personalities (but not one-dimensional, mind
you, they should be a balance of strengths and weaknesses, just excessive). Adventures may have
relatively simple bases, no more complicated than the stories of rescue and internecine war in the
Ramayana and Mahabharata, but are wrung for every drop of significance. Then a convoluted series
of lateral adventures can be entwine about this simple focus.

By moderating this template, a GM can find a comfortable setting in which to run fantasy campaigns
in a mythical India.
The Cycle of Time

According to the Puranas, the current cycle of the latest incarnation of the world is in its 38,885th
millennium. This puts us early in the kali yuga, the last and most corrupt of the four ages with a mere
432 millennia until the world is destroyed and righteousness returns in a new krita yuga.

The four ages, or yugas that make up a mahayuga are the krita, treta, dvapara, and kali yugas lasting
4,800, 3,600, 2,400, and 1,200 divine years respectively -- each divine year being 360 mortal years,
making a mahayuga 4,320,000 mortal years long.

In the krita yuga, people are as gods and their needs come to them as they wish. There is no evil in
the world, there is only one caste and all worship one Veda. In each of the three following yugas,
goodness decreases by one quarter as people fall away from proper worship and sacrifice and
diseases and calamities are inflicted on the world.

One thousand mahayugas make a kalpa or "day of Brahma." At the end of a kalpa, Brahma sleeps
and the world is dissolved into him. Brahma sleeps for a night as long as his day and recreates the
world again on his wakening. Brahma lives for one hundred of his years, each of 360 days of
Brahma. To herald his death, Rudra or Kalki comes to destroy the world. It stays destroyed for 100
years, at the end of which another creator is born.

The events of the Mahabharata mark the end of the dvapara yuga, with the kali yuga beginning in
3102 B.C when Krishna, avatara of Vishnu, left this world.

Asuras

The gods of Hinduism are called the devas or suras. The asuras are another class of gods who are
opposed to the devas (the reasons for which are not clear). In Vedic times they were equal in power
and prestige (Varuna, the fear-inspiring god of rita, was an asura) and fought each other constantly.
At times the asuras would have the upper hand, but eventually the devas were victorious and now
rule supreme in heaven.

The asuras, who are often referred to as demons, are not evil and, as a class of beings, are similar to
the devas. They were simply outwitted by the devas in the divine contest.

The daityas are another class of divine beings who were defeated by the devas. Often referred to as
titans, the daityas were giants who rode flying horses and lived on the moon.

Ahuras

The Aryans and ancient Persians were once kindred peoples whose migrations left them separated by
the Hindu Kush mountains. They share the same culture and mythology, but the different branches
began to diverge once they parted company. In a fascinating circumstance, in Persia, the heavenly
battle was won by the asuras, who were known to the Persians as ahuras. Hence the devas, known as
daevas in Persia, are the demons.

Amrit

The gods, losing the war against the asuras, contrived a plan to gain greater strength by producing
amrit, the water of life. Taking the help of the asuras they mixed special herbs in the sea of milk and
churned it using Mt Mandara as a churning-stick, Vishnu in his tortoise avatara as a pivot, and the
great snake Vasuki as a rope. (The asuras insisted on holding Vasuki head end; but, distressed by the
churning, the snake vomited on the asuras, leaving them forever bereft of their physical glory.)
From the sea were produced many treasures, including the apsaras (nymphs) and the moon, as well
as poison, which Shiva drank to save the others, turning his neck blue. Finally emerged the goddess
of wealth, Lakshmi, holding a cup full of amrit.

In order to that the asuras might not share in the amrit, Vishnu took on the form of a beautiful
woman, distracting them while the gods drank all of the amrit.

Amrit, if it can be obtained, makes the drinker immortal and gives them strength. The effect is
equivalent to the Immortality advantage, i.e. the imbiber no longer grows old and will not die of
disease or poison, and also regenerates damage at an accelerated rate (see p. CI58). The effects of
drinking amrit do not last, and more must be consumed if one is to truly live forever. How often
amrit must be drunk should be decided by the GM and may range from daily to some length of time,
100 years say, longer than the scale of the adventure or campaign.

Heaven

The five levels of heaven located above the earth are known as anand-lokas (regions of bliss). It is
here that the particularly meritorious are reborn as reward for their good karma.

1. Brahma-loka The highest heaven where Brahma lives meditating.

2. Tapo-loka Home of Viraj, the protean daughter of Brahma.

3. Janar-loka Home of Brahma's sons, called the Kumara.

4. Mahar-loka Home of the Prajapatis, great sages born from Brahma's mind. Any soul reborn in
any of the 4 highest heavens will not be reborn and will live in heaven until the end of the current
yuga.

5. Svar-loka The realm of light. The paradisiacal home of the gods. Svar-loka is centered around the
golden Mt Meru in a region known as Ilavrira, and has a number of different sub-heavens.

Indra-loka or Svarga On the north slopes of Meru, Indra has his capital, Amaravati, and his
magnificent palace, Vaijayanta.

Vaikuntha Vishnu's heaven is on the southern slopes of Meru where he has built his city with
buildings of gems and roads of gold.

Goloka The realm of cows. Krishna's heaven.

Alaka The wealthiest of heavens. Home of Kubera and his attendants.

Mt Kailasa Home of Shiva.

Maruta Heaven of the Maruts, Shiva's storm gods.

Vaivasvati City of the Sun.

Vasudha-nagara Heaven of Varuna.

Gana-parvata Heaven of the lesser gods, the devatas.

Soma-loka Home of the moon.

The Netherworld

The talas, the middle seven strata of the universe, are home to many mythological beings, many of
them evil. However, these realms are not hells as such and are not any more unpleasant than our
world.

1. Patala Home of the nagas. Said to be the most beautiful realm in the whole universe, containing
every possible luxury. The capital, Bhogavati, is built of jewels and the most impressive of its
buildings is the Mani-mandapa, the palace of jewels, home to the naga king.

2. Atala Land of the yakshas.

3. Rasatala or Nitala Where live the asuras, daityas and davanas.

4. Gabhastala Kingdom of the raksashas.

5. Vitala Home to the hatakas, ruled by Shiva.

6. Sutala Ruled by Bali the daitya.

7. Mahatala Land of ghosts and the kumbhanda.

Hell

Those who die with an excess of sin on their soul are sent to live a birth in one of the seven layers of
hell (naraka).

1. Put The lowest level of hell is for men who do not bear sons.

2. Avici A mild hell devoid of sensual pleasure.

3. Sanhata For common evilness.

4. Tamisra An unpleasantly dismal and stinking hell.

5. Rijisha A hell wherein the guilty conscience manifests as snakes, vultures, and poisonous insects
to torment the sinner.

6. Kudmala Featuring a river of blood and putrescence.

7. Kakola or Talatala The bottomless hell. Here the most extreme tortures are inflicted on the worst
of sinners, the utter evil. Every limb and organ of the body has its own torture and the senses are
enhanced to deepen the pain. The most horrible aspect of this hell is that there is to be no rebirth
from it -- the unfortunates who end up here are doomed to stay until the end of the world.

Venerable, But Cranky

Magician sages were ubiquitous in epic India, particularly in the time of the Mahabharata when the
skies fair teemed with flying rishis. These learned and powerful men could be convinced to interrupt
their arcane pursuits to dispense wisdom, training in all sorts of arts, blesses, or curses. Often, should
they happen on some predicament by chance (which happened curiously often), they might offer
their aid unbidden and secretly.
The learning, training, and austere hardship that goes into becoming a sage of such power is
considerable. It is little wonder then that a sage interrupted in his studies or austerities is likely to
react in anger and fire off curses. Indeed, so harsh is the training that most sages seem to have
permanently lost their patience and are likely to react with in anger if interrupted in any of their
activities, as Pandu's example given below will show. To be fair, they are as likely to reward
politeness, generosity, and integrity with blessings.

Pandu's Curse

One day, while walking through the forest with his wives Kunti and Madri, Pandu saw two deer
frolicking. He dispatched one of them skillfully with an arrow. However, the deer was in fact the
sage Kindama who had turned himself and his lover into deer. Kindama cursed Pandu that he should
die if he ever touched his wives amorously.

Later in his life, Pandu was living in the wilderness with his wives and stepchildren. Spring came
and the atmosphere became so romantic that Pandu could not restrain himself and grabbed Madri in
an embrace, bringing Kimdama's curse and death upon himself.

Under the tradition of sati, Pandu's wives were to throw themselves on his pyre. Madri insisted that
only she commit sati so that Kunti could look after their children.

The Epics as Historical Parables

Historians have difficulty identifying the reign of Rama and the battle of Kurukshetra. Despite
possibly not recounting real historical events, the epics are still of historical importance as their
stories have been interpreted by some as relating critical historical matters through parable.

The Ramayana, in telling the story of Rama's victory over the kingdom of Ravana in the deep south,
is a commemoration of the triumph of the Aryans over the non-Aryan natives -- a conquest that took
place over centuries. The pious kingdom of Ayodhya under Rama is the Aryan rule over India. If any
victory over a non-Aryan king by a historical Rama did occur, it certainly did not involve the island
of Sri Lanka, but was more likely fought in a land just south of Ayodhya.

The Mahabharata is the story of a civil war within the Kuru tribe. As a parable it is far more than
this however. The kingdom ruled over by Yudhishthira after Kurukshetra was the last great kingdom
of the dvapara yuga and Yudhishthira was the last great kshatriya king. With the shuffling in of the
kali yuga, the exclusive right to rule by the kshatriyas was usurped. The Mahabharata is a poignant
ode to kingship and a farewell to better, less corrupted age.

GURPS High-Tech Hindu

The Vedas are founts of knowledge like no other; it is said that they contain all knowledge. This
knowledge is not accessible to most however as it is coded. To those that can decode the Vedas,
limitless wisdom and science is available.

In earlier times, when the Vedas were better understood, more of their secrets were available. Some
have found evidence in the Vedas and epics for a number of highly advanced technologies in use,
from the flying chariot of Ravana to the cloning of the hundred Kauravas, as well as DNA
fingerprinting and nuclear weaponry. Who knows what yet undiscovered technology has yet to be
recognized. Some might claim that all the magic evident in the epics, is merely the advanced
technology available during that time.

Moral Tests
An extremely important purpose of the epics is to enlighten its readers on Hindu morality. Hence the
heroes of the epics face quite a number of tests. These come in many forms. In some tests, a god will
contrive a situation to see how the hero reacts. Other tests arise through chance encounters, the
consequences of which depend on how the hero acted.

A moral test in the epics is generally not about doing what would be described as "good," rather they
are about what is "right." To pass a moral test, one must understand one's place in the world, given
one's caste. One must also be proactive in asserting one's rights. As much as it can be organized in
this way, the precedence of correct behavior is, uphold promises, serve God, serve
varnashramadharma, serve one's family, serve one's self-interest.
Religious India
The spirituality of India can scarcely be exaggerated. From India come two of the world's great
religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as Jainism, Sikhism, and any number of lesser religious
traditions, born from the ceaseless speculation of Indian sages. Further, the capacity of the Indian
mind to devise religious traditions is matched only by its openness to foreign religious thought,
whether that be the welcoming of full-blown religions or the blending of new points of view into
existing Indian religious philosophy. Islam in particular has many adherents in India and modest
numbers of Christians and Jews can also be found. India is also one of the last homes of
Zoroastrianism.

The importance of religion to India is not measured by the number of its religions however, but by
the influence of religion on the culture and way of life of Indians, and by this measure religion is of
singular importance. Religion touches on every aspect of life in India. Its influence can be seen in
India's culture, outlook, and society. For an Indian, religion is an identity as much as a doctrine.
Everyone in India has a religion; even if one is not active in one's religion or even has no belief in it,
one's religion determines one's community in India.

History of Religion in India

The abundance of religions in India is confusing enough, but their evolution and their influences on
each other muddy the waters so much further. In order to put the religions in context, a review of the
religious history of India is presented before surveying the religions themselves.

Pre-Aryan Religions

Little is known of the religion of the Indus Valley Civilization (see p. xx), though it appears that a
Mother Goddess was worshipped as well as a horned god, a "lord of the beasts," with a penchant for
yoga poses. It has been suggested that the horned god was a proto-Shiva, who was merged with the
god Rudra of the Vedas (see below) to become the Shiva of Hinduism (see below).

It has been proposed that asceticism and yoga were pre-Aryan practices and reincarnation a pre-
Aryan philosophy. The eventual appearance of these ideas in Hinduism as well as many non-Aryan
gods are these nascent but not forgotten practices reasserting themselves.

Vedic period

The Vedic period of India's religious history began with the arrival of the Aryans in Northern India
in about the sixteenth century B.C. (see Aryans, p. xx) and the composition of their religious books
of knowledge, the Vedas. These books are the root of Hinduism; however, over time Hinduism
developed far away from the sacrifice based religion of the Vedas and the nature-based Vedic gods
lost their popularity to younger gods. In order to distinguish this early faith from later Hinduism, the
names "Vedism" or "Brahmanism" are often given to this older religion.

The Upanishads and the Heterodoxies

Even as the Vedas were being compiled, Hinduism (or Brahmanism) was evolving; some of the later
hymns of the Vedas contain quite different outlooks to the earlier hymns and new gods appear.
Outside the brahmin priesthood who compiled the Vedas, ascetics and non-brahamin sages were
making significant discoveries in their jungle retreats, adopting and adapting non-Vedic traditions.
These new theories were compiled in the Upanishads, dating from the period about 700-300 B.C.,
taking Hinduism in a new direction (see Sources of Hinduism, p. xx).
This slow revolution also produced whole new religions. The heterodox religions of Buddhism and
Jainism and other splinter faiths such as that of the Ajivikas, arrived in India in the 5th century B.C.
Growing out of Hinduism, these new religions challenged further the brahminic hold on religious
authority and were enthusiastically taken up by the people of India, seriously challenging Hinduism
as the dominant religion of India.

Hindu Revival

Hinduism reasserted itself over the heterodoxies partly because of its own strength and a great ability
to absorb new traditions, but also because of a new dedication to devotion, the so-called bhakti
movement. From the time of the Gupta Empire (see p. xx), the unflinching love and devotion to
one's patron god become a very popular form of worship. From about 900 B.C. bhakti as a
philosophy developed in the south and percolated to the north, bringing a freshness to Hinduism
challenging the heterodoxies.

Arrival of Islam

Islam spread widely from its home in Arabia. The first Muslims to visit India were Arab traders of
the Indian Ocean. Islam did not gain significant adherents until the invasions of Muslim raiders
turned to invasions of conquest, starting with Mohammed of Ghur in the 12th century.

From about the time of the Delhi Sultanate until the ascendancy of the British, Islam dominated
India politically. The religion gained many converts due to political patronage and persecution of the
other religions, though Hinduism remained the religion of the majority.

Hindu-Islam Symbiosis

Two religions could scarcely be more different than Islam and Hinduism. Finding any common
ground between the two therefore required getting beyond the trappings of the religions to find the
shared truth that they express in their own ways. An example of this approach is that of the poet
Kabir (A.D. 1440-1518) who preached the existence of a supreme God that may be worshipped as
Shiva, Allah, or Krishna.

This speculation led to new strains of thought in Hinduism with a "back to basics" emphasis and a
challenging of the caste system. The most significant result of the religious speculation of this time
was Sikhism, a whole new religion that fused the two faiths.

Hinduism
Hinduism is a vast and complex religious system, cobbled together over centuries from uncountable
sources, traditions, and faiths, incorporating theology, philosophy, science, and social organization.
Hinduism is more than a religion, it is a whole culture. In this melange of beliefs, Hinduism
accommodates different perspectives regarding God and the universe, allows for a number of
different paths to salvation, and supports numerous seemingly contradictory ideas. Finding
consistency in this conglomeration of philosophies and traditions is fruitless, not the less so because
consistency is not greatly respected in Hinduism, the best one is likely to do is observe that all
Hindus worship cows. It must suffice then to summarize Hinduism as the worship of the Hindu
pantheon (either as gods, manifestations of the Ultimate, or metaphors for the Inconceivable) and a
belief in reincarnation driven by one's earthly deeds.

Sources of Hinduism

Unlike most religions, Hinduism has no founder, no exalted revealer of the holy word. All the same,
the sacred literature of Hinduism is treated with total reverence.

Vedas

The oldest works of Hindu literature are the Vedas, the "books of knowledge." Compiled as oral
literature in 1500-600 B.C. (or even earlier) with content of the greatest antiquity, the Rig Veda, the
earliest of the four Vedas, is a collection of over a thousand hymns of great power and reverence for
use at sacrifices. Most of the hymns are praises to the gods, Indra chiefly, but also about such topics
as the preparation of the narcotic drink soma and the perils of gambling.

The Sama Veda is a collection of Rig Veda hymns adapted for singing. The Yajur Veda contains
directions for the sacrifice and exists in two redactions, a "black" and a "white" version.

Clearly more recent than the other three Vedas, the Atharva Veda is different again, being a
collection of spells and incantations of a rather unsophisticated animistic type of sympathetic magic
(see Magic of the Atharva Veda, p. xx).

The hymnal part of the Vedas, called the Samhitas (collections), are often what is referred to when
one speaks of the Vedas. However, the Vedic literature includes appendices to the Samhitas. The
huge Brahmana (sacred utterance) texts are a commentary on the sacrifice and the Aranyakas (forest
texts) are further commentaries of a more mystical nature likely written by sannyasis. Both
collections were composed around 1000-700 B.C.

As appendices to both the Brahmanas and Samhitas are the Upanishads (lit. "sitting close to" the
teacher). Composed around 700-300 B.C. as the culmination of centuries of speculation, they are the
final and most influential of the Vedic texts and constitute the vedanta or end of the Vedas (hence the
vedanta philosophy is based on interpreting the Upanishads). The Upanishads are esoteric works
detailing a new approach to spirituality, moving away from the sacrifice to a quest for the self. They
contain the first speculation on reincarnation and the Universal Essence (see Brahman and Atman).
Orthodox Hinduism, as described in the Universal Truths section below is based on the Upanishads
far more so than on the Samhitas.

Sutras

As the Vedas are so voluminous and hard to understand without training, the Sutras deal with the
topics in a more straightforward manner. There are Sutras describing public ceremonies (the
Shrautasutras), domestic ceremonies (the Grihyasutras), and proper conduct in life (the
Dharmasutras).

The most important of the Sutras are the books of law or Dharmashastras, the most important of
which is the Manava Dharmashastra or Laws of Manu, also known as the Manusmriti, written from
about 200 B.C. This book has the clearest explanation of the structure of society into varnas and
ashramas as well as commandments regarding how violations of these should be punished.

Epics

The most loved source of Hindu teaching are the two great epics the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana. Ostensibly tales of heroes (in which respect they are discussed in Epic India pp. xx-yy),
centuries of retelling (500 B.C.-A.D. 500 for the Mahabharata and 200 B.C.-A.D. 200 for the
Ramayana) have added supplementary myths and diversions into doctrine, metaphysics, ethics, et
cetera, as well as secular theories of king-craft, etc. The Mahabharata has become particularly
convoluted, consisting of over 200,000 lines of verse. The more popularly liked Ramayana, with
nearly 100,000 lines of verse, is straightforward in comparison.
Buried amongst the stories of the Hindu heroes, the epics contain practically all of orthodox
Hinduism, both religious doctrine and mythology. All Hindu households have a copy of the epics in
their local language and most Hindus get a good deal of their religion from these books. In 1987-8
the Ramayana was televised in an extremely popular year-length weekly serial. This was followed
by the Mahabharata.

Puranas

The Puranas are collections of myths and religious teachings composed between A.D. 300-900 but
containing traditions from all ages. The content of the Puranas are varied but most tell of the
creation of the world and its eventual destruction, myths of the gods and their most famous
worshipers, and the histories and genealogies of gods, kings, and sages.

The Puranas are sectarian literature, each exalting one particular god above all others. Eighteen of
the Puranas are the most important, the so-called Mahapuranas, six of which deal with each of the
three gods of the Hindu trinity, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. There are eighteen lesser Upapuranas
and a number of even lesser Sthalapuranas.

Tantras

The Tantras (looms) were composed in the eighth and ninth centuries A.D., quite late in the history
of Hinduism. The Tantras are manuals on Shaktism, the worship of the feminine as divine energy
(see Devi below), and include rites leading to spiritual development and the attainment of magical
powers. The Tantras largely lie outside the orthodox.

The Universal Truths

From the Upanishads can be derived a unified metaphysics describing the universe of individual
lives and souls.

Dharma

At one level, dharma is the immutable cosmic law that sustains the universe. It is a power and a
process that cannot be opposed, not by human or god. The word rita is often used as a synonym for
this cosmic clockwork.

An extension of the concept of dharma encompasses the laws of nature such as the passing of the
seasons.

A further extension of dharma is the individual's place within the cosmic order. In this sense it
means one's duty, not so much religious duty, but natural duty. Rita divides Hindus into varnas and
an individual's life into ashramas and it is one's dharma to act within the duties of one's varna and
ashrama. The Manusmriti outlines the requirements of dharma in specific terms, for example a
man's responsibilities to his family as part of the dharma of the grihya ashrama.

Reincarnation

The atman (see Brahman and Atman), is only a temporary inhabitant of any individual. Upon death
the ego is extinguished and the physical body dies. The indestructible atman however migrates to a
new home. This new home is not only a new physical body, but a new self with a new ego. This
happens at every death in a process called samsara.

One's new self upon rebirth has nothing to do with who one was in a previous birth and the new self
may bear no resemblance to the old; it may be as a person in higher or lower caste or even an animal.
In fact, the rebirth may not even be on this earth, one may be reborn in any of the heavens or hells.
The determinant in one's rebirth is one's karma.

Karma

The consequence the actions of one's life is karma. A sort of spiritual balance sheet, karma measures
the number and quality of one's good and bad actions, punya and papa. Every action of one's life
accumulates karma of some kind, leaving impressions on the soul. It is karma that determines into
what new life one will be reborn. If one's karmic balance is on the meritorious side, one will be born
into a higher caste. If the balance in on the sinful side one will slide down the caste hierarchy or
maybe even born as an animal.

Karma is a manifestation of dharma and whether a particular action attracts good or bad karma
depends on one's varna and ashrama.

Strictly, the effect of karma is only apparent after death -- there is no "instant karma." Sinners are
generally punished and the good rewarded in this life however, but that has nothing to do with
karma. (Nevertheless, it a popular practice to ascribe misfortune to karma, as if it was having an
effect in the present life. There is, therefore, a precedent for using instant karmic ramifications in an
adventure, as a player is unlikely to play their character's reincarnation, so will not suffer the effects
of the character's karma.)

Release

In the Hindu view, the eternal birth and rebirth of samsara is a miserable fate. Even if one
accumulates a load of meritorious karma, one is still reborn and must grunt and sweat under another
weary life with nothing but yet another birth to look forward to. A desirable goal is to gain release of
the atman from samsara. This release is called moksha, the practical effect of which is the unifying
of the atman with Brahman.

Moksha is not at all easy. Any action in life gains karma, even the slightest thought, and anyone
dying with karma on their soul must be reborn. There are a number of methods of achieving moksha
however.

The Path

In the Bhagavad Gita (see sidebar) Krishna explains the path to liberation. Magnanimously he
presents a number of different paths, some easier than others, some preferred by some, that all lead
to the same end.

Note that in this context the word for path, marga is used less commonly than the term yoga
meaning yoke, referring to the yoking of the atman to Brahman. This should not be confused with
the name of the darshana.

Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge. This path is followed by studying the Upanishads and the
Vedanta in an effort to come to an understanding of the self beyond what one perceives of oneself.
The goal is to reach the fourth state of consciousness, the turiya state (see States of Consciousness).
In this state no karma is acquired.

Jnana yoga is a very difficult path, considered to be too arduous and beyond the intellectual
capabilities of most people.

Karma yoga is the path of work. In this path one follows one's caste restrictions and does one's own
occupation and duties without attachment to or enjoyment of the consequences. It is important that
one follows one's own calling -- it is better to do one's own job poorly than another's well. If one
does not delight in nor is disappointed by the fruits of one's actions, whether good or bad, then no
karma is accrued for those actions.

Bhakti yoga is the path of devotion, wherein one achieves unity with God through complete
devotion to God. By always (and always means always) having God in one's mind one is able to cut
through karma and reach god directly.

Krishna strongly advocates this path in the Gita. This is a popular path as it is accessible to all.

Raja yoga or royal yoga, a specialized branch of jnana yoga, is release through physical, mental, and
spiritual discipline. Raja yoga combines the physical exercises of hatha yoga with meditation. This
yoga is hard and dangerous, one should not practice raja yoga without a guru. Mastery of raja yogic
techniques can give on magical powers (detailed in Magical India p. xx).

Gods of the Hindus

Like monsoon frogs, gods are everywhere in India. An official calculation has them at 330 million, a
huge number even considering the Hindu habit of deifying anything they find sacred.

Most Hindus worship one god above all others, in fact, ever since the bhakti movement made
worship quite personal, Hinduism has been divided into three giant sects Vaishnism, Shaivism, and
Shaktism, focusing their worship on Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi respectively. These are distinct sects
only because they clearly choose to exalt one particular god. Each of the three is equally legitimate,
simply a different approach, and they exist side-by-side with little antagonism between them.
Members of one sect may happily call on or honor any Hindu god when appropriate.

The Supreme Brahman

The Universal Essence, Brahman, is in some scriptures treated more like a god then an imponderable
absolute. As a god, Brahman is the Supreme God, of whom all other gods are emanations.

When personified but not manifest, the supreme god is often known as Ishvar (Lord). When
manifest, God takes the form of one of the gods of the pantheon; Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, and
Krishna all take on manifestations at some time where they represent the supreme "One Without a
Second."

Brahma

The creator branch of the Trinity (see sidebar). He is associated with Prajapati, the Lord of Beings,
and Purusha, the Primal Man sacrificed to create the universe (see The Primordial Sacrifice ad the
Golden Egg, p. xx).

Brahma is usually represented with four heads, his fifth having been severed by Shiva. Brahma's
mount is a goose and his consort is Saraswati.

The worship of Brahma is uncommon in modern India, his popularity having waned since the
Mahabharata and the rise of sectarianism. Brahma has only one temple devoted to him, found in
Pushkar. According to legend this is his punishment for a falsehood he committed.

Vishnu

The sustainer arm of the Trinity. A very important god in modern Hinduism, particularly to the
Vaishnavite sect, he started as a minor god in the Vedas. Vishnu's nature is unreservedly beneficial
and he has manifested himself as an avatara (incarnation) several times to help the world when it is
in need. He has taken on nine main incarnations (and any number of lesser avataras) and will take
on one more, Kalki, when it is time for the world to be destroyed.

Vishnu is usually depicted with four arms riding Garuda, his man-bird mount. His wife is Lakshmi.
Although he is worshipped simply as Vishnu he is more often worshipped as one of his avataras.
Rama and Krishna are by far the most popularly worshipped of his avataras, both of whom are
worshipped as gods in their own rights, their avataric natures being secondary to their worship.

Shiva

Shiva, the great god of the Shaivite sect, is a very complex god with many aspects and powers. He is
the Destroyer of the Trinity, but is considered a generous and merciful god -- rather different to his
appearance in the Vedas as Rudra, the fearsome howling storm god. He is also the god of fertility
and is often worshipped with the lingam, (phallus), or the yoni-lingam, (womb-phallus). Shiva is the
patron of ascetics and the lord of the dance, in which aspect he is known as Nataraja.

As a master ascetic, Shiva is often depicted dressed only in an antelope skin loincloth with matted
hair and a snake wound around his neck. In the center of Shiva's forehead is his third eye, symbol of
his wisdom, which when opened causes destruction. Thankfully he keeps it closed. He lives
alternatively on Mount Kailesh and at Varanasi, his favorite city. However, he is also to found in
graveyards in the company of goblins and spirits. Smoking marijuana is one of his vices.

Although Shiva appears to lead an odd lifestyle, he is in no way a figure of ridicule or amusement --
he is the Supreme Being after all.

Shiva's wife is Parvati and his mount is Nanda the bull.

Devi

India has always worshipped the Mother Goddess; she was given particular importance in the Indus
Valley Civilization. However, beginning with the patriarchal Vedic times, worship of the Goddess,
or Devi, was fairly modest when compared to the worship of the major gods. The rise of bhakti
during the Gupta period was accompanied by a renewed reverence for the feminine principle as a
source of divine energy, called Shakti. As the principal holy texts of Shaktism are the Tantras, this
sect is often called Tantrism.

While the male gods have always had wives who deserved a good deal of affection from worshippers
and contributed to the legends of their husbands, Shaktism sees the female half as the active aspect
of these partnerships. As examples; when the god is meaning, the goddess is speech; when he is
understanding, she is intellect; when he is righteousness, she is devotion.

Shakti is most often worshipped as Shiva's wife, Parvati. However, she has different aspects, which
have come to the fore when needed. Durga the warrior goddess is her forceful manifestation. A far
more sinister aspect of Shakti is Kali, the black goddess.

Shaktism is most popular in Bengal and Assam.

Lesser Gods

Saraswati Goddess of knowledge and learning. Books are a symbol of Saraswati and hence are
considered holy objects.
Lakshmi Goddess of wealth and good fortune. Reborn as Vishnu's wife through his incarnations,
Sita for Rama, Rukmini for Krishna, etc.

Money is a symbol of Lakshmi in the same way as books are for Saraswati.

Durga Demon killing, tiger riding, multi-armed warrior goddess babe.

Kali A goddess of quite frightful nature. Kali is represented with a black body, besmeared with
blood, four arms, and a long red tongue. She wears nothing but a skirt made of human hands and a
garland of skulls.

When Devi takes the form of Kali, she loses herself in a dangerous rage, drinking blood and
celebrating her victories with a dance that would shatter the earth.

Despite her fearsome character, Kali is widely worshipped by otherwise reasonable devotees.
However, her followers include the murderous thagi cult (see p. xx).

Ganesh Elephant-headed, pot-bellied son of Shiva and Parvati. The remover of obstacles prayed to
at the outset of any undertaking.

Indra Great god of the Vedic Aryans.

Agni God of fire.

Surya The Sun.

Varuna All seeing controller of rita. Held in awe and fear. Also god of the oceans.

Kartikeya God of war. Son of Shiva.

Kubera The lord of riches. Kubera was formally an ugly demon (rakshasa) but was made an ugly
god by a thousand years of austerities. He is now an immensely wealthy god with more treasures
than he can keep in his capital. He is attended to by a number of races of creatures, namely
guhyakas, kinnaras, and yakshas.

Yama God of the underworld and judge of the dead. Since the development of the theory of
reincarnation his role has become ambiguous.

Hinduism in Practice

There are two faces to Hinduism. The Hinduism of the scriptures presents a vastly complex system
of philosophy that reveals truths of greater depth the more it is studied. This philosophy is as vital as
it is profound, as an understanding of it leads to a divine enlightenment. However it is simply too
complex for the common believer. The magnitude of the Vedas is overwhelming and intimidating.
Few are trained to understand them and few of the uninitiated have the effrontery to believe they can
understand them. The average Hindu has the greatest respect for the Upanishads and those who
study them are practically saints, however they acknowledge that their path is different. For the vast
majority of Hindus, Hinduism is the worship of God.

Practical Hinduism is following the directions of one's family priest, doing the necessary rituals and
devotions, and respecting God in order to keep Him happy. Occasionally it is necessary to visit the
temple for a particular ritual and God looks favorably on devotion beyond what is necessary. Living
to one's caste obligations and doing good deeds are also a type of devotion.
Hinduism Through the Ages

Hinduism changed radically from when the Rig Veda was composed. The early Hinduism of the
Vedas was based on the sacrifice, or yajna. Every religious rite was a sacrifice to the gods, from the
smallest domestic ceremony to the grand sacrifices using numerous brahmin yagnis. The sacrifice
involved an incarnation to bring the god to the ceremony and an offering of some sort, normally
clarified butter (ghi) or foodstuffs, but sometimes animals and in extreme cases humans.

The gods of the Vedas were nature gods, led by Indra the boisterous warrior storm god. The Vedic
pantheon was large, including old gods such as Dyaus, the sky father (Zeus to the Greeks and Jupiter
(Dyaus-pitr) to the Romans), who had lost their importance but were not forgotten. However, early
Hinduism was not strictly pantheistic. While not monotheistic like modern Hinduism, Vedism was
henotheistic, where one god was temporarily elevated to become the one and only for the rite in
which the god is invoked.

As Hinduism became more sophisticated philosophically and dominated by the brahmin sages, the
Vedic gods lost their popularity and power to the new pantheon of Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi, and
their relations. Indra for example, once a brave and incomparably puissant warrior, beloved of the
warlike nomads, was not favored by the brahmins and in the epics and Puranas is constantly being
bested by Krishna and other gods.

The Vedas make no mention of reincarnation. The dead are judged by Yama, the good going to the
Land of the Fathers, the bad to the House of Clay.

As a challenge to the sacrifice, the practice of asceticism gained ground. Possibly based on a pre-
Vedic practice, asceticism involved an introspective search for truth through meditation and self-
denial. It was equated with sacrifice with the internal "heat" (tapas) produced by austerities being
equated with the sacrificial fire. The acceptance of asceticism into orthodox Hinduism opened up
new avenues of speculation which produced the Upanishads and "standard" Hinduism as detailed
above.

Jainism
In the Jain religion the Indian concepts of asceticism and non-violence found their greatest
expressions. Jainism, in its ideal, advocates total detachment from the material world.

Jainism was the product of the religious revolution of the late Vedic period that produced Buddhism
and the Upanishads. Unlike Buddhism, Jainism never spread beyond India but has outlasted
Buddhism in its homeland. Never a huge religion, Jainism had its height in the Mauryan Empire (see
p. xx). In modern India about 5 million people call themselves Jain, most living in state of Gujarat
and the city of Mumbai.

Jain Practice

As a daughter religion of Hinduism, Jainism shares many of the same beliefs such as reincarnation
and karma, but with its own twists. Gone however is the idea of an individual dharma, and as a
consequence Jainism does not support a varna system.

Jainism, at its most strict, is a very demanding religion. A Jaina monk, called a nigrantha (free from
bonds), strives towards release from this world by complete detachment. Ideally, the nigrantha
should take neither delight nor dissatisfaction with anything in this world. To this end, harsh
asceticism is performed, frequent fasting, meditating, and suffering in uncomfortable bodily poses
are practiced. A Jaina monk takes five vows; no killing, either deliberately or by accident; no lying;
no stealing; no sex; and no attachment to this world, which ultimately means detachment but
includes having no possessions. Not killing (or more strictly, non-violence), a practice known as
ahimsa, is taken to an extreme in Jainism, even to the extent of breathing through a cloth and
sweeping the ground in front of one's path when walking.

The extreme demands required of monks are not necessary for all Jains. The expectations for the
laity are not so strict as regular Jains are not expected to be striving for release, as it is acknowledged
that this is simply too hard. However, there are still rules that every Jain must live by. A Jain must
try to live simply, minimizing attachment to material objects and the material world. Lying and
stealing are prohibited and one must endeavor to be pure in thought and faithful to one's spouse.
Taking life by design is prohibited, which includes a strict vegetarian diet including restrictions on
all food taken from the ground such as onions, which are presumed to harbor microbes. One's work
must not let one take life either so professions such as tilling the soil or fishing are prohibited. This
last requirement has led Jains to take up work that has ultimately ended up very profitable, such as
trading and finance. This has tended to make the religion wealthy and coupled with the requirement
for lay Jains to support the monkhood explains why Jain temples are often very lavish, elaborate, and
beautiful.

Mahavira

The Jain religion was discovered by Nataputta Vardhamana, who was to become known as
Mahavira, the Great Hero. He was born in 540 B.C. in Vaishali (tradition has him born in 599 B.C),
the son of a raja (king) of the Jnatrika clan. Though not the first son he was brought up to be a
prince. However this was not the life he wanted for himself. When he was 30, after his parents died,
he left his wife and daughter to join the followers of Parshva, an ascetic who had lived and preached
200 years previously.

Vardhamana pulled out his hear in five handfuls and gave away everything he owned and wandered
naked for 12 years begging for food, arguing religion, and performing austerities. His hardships were
rewarded with enlightenment and he became Jina, the Over-comer. He gathered followers and took
his message through north India for about 30 years. His end came, appropriately, when he starved
himself to death in Pava near Rajagriha in 468 B.C. (though tradition has him dying in 527 B.C).

Jainism was not a large religion at the time of Mahavira's death but flourished under the Mauryas. A
famine at the end of Chandragupta's reign lead to an exodus of Jain monks to the Deccan, taking the
religion to the south. Jainism could not seriously compete with resurgent Hinduism and remained a
minor religion, shrinking further over the centuries. However, Jainism survived where Buddhism
disappeared because it involved the laity more in the community. The laity were charged with
supporting the monks and occasionally spending time as a monk themselves. Furthermore, as
mentioned, Jains became rich and their ethical lifestyle gave them much respect in general Indian
society.

Modern Jainism has taken on the appearance of Hinduism. The Jain heavens are populated with
saints as if they were gods and Jain priests perform rituals in Jain temples and households. Jaina
society has even become divided along caste lines. The resemblance to Hinduism leads some to
consider Jainism a peculiar caste of Hindus.

The Jaina Soul

The Jain abhorrence of violence and rejection of material possessions are not arbitrary ideas, but are
derived from a logical system of metaphysics. When Mahavira reached enlightenment he understood
this system and from it he developed the strictures of the Jain religion. Central to Jain belief is the
soul (jiva). The soul is a thing (for want of a better word) of pure brilliance; it is naturally buoyant
and blissful. It exists outside the physical world and beyond even the spiritual world, but it is linked
to them through karma. To a Jain, karma is more of a physical substance than it is to a Hindu.
Karma sticks to the surface of the soul, weighing it down and hiding its brilliance. A soul encaked
with karma takes on a spiritual and physical body. There are an infinite number of souls in the
universe and all things that exist are souls with karmic forms, including inanimate objects.

Karma is attracted to the soul by passion born of action. There are eight different types of karma,
attracted by different actions, some karma is "thicker" than others, but the effect is the same -- karma
"dirties" the soul. Hence, action must be avoided, particularly those actions that attract the worse
kinds of karma. Killing attracts particularly bad karma and careful Jains will avoid killing even
microscopic insects, hence the practices of breathing through cotton masks and sweeping the ground
while walking. Attachment to material objects, even one's own body, is also to be avoided as this is
an attachment only with the imperfect world formed by karma.

The soul is not attacked or lessened by karma, simply covered. Karma is removed by a natural
evaporation process provided no more is deposited. By practicing extreme inaction and performing
austerities a Jain is able to halt the build up of karmic residue and actually reduce the amount
clinging to their soul. This is very difficult and is attempted only by the most devout Jains. When the
soul is freed from karma it is free to rise through the firmament to heaven where it exists in a state of
bliss -- the Jain nirvana.

Jain Cosmology

The Jaina universe is maintained by an eternal order to which gods as well as humans are slave.

To the Jains, the universe is endless. The universe goes through cycles but is not destroyed between
them. The first half of the cycle is a time of improvement, utsarpini, and the second half is a time of
decline, avasarpini. At the height of the utsarpini humans are giants and live extraordinarily long
lives, getting all they could want from wishing trees (kalpa-vriksha). However, we are currently in
the avarsarpini with 40,000 years until the cycle turns. The world is currently irredeemably corrupt,
even the sky-clad (see sidebar) wear clothes and no one will gain release in this period of decline.
Things will get worse before they get better; at the depths of the cycle humans will be dwarfs living
in caves and not even able to use fire.

In each cycle, there live 24 Tirthankaras ("ford-finders"), great teachers who show the way.
Mahavira was the 24th of this cycle and Parshva, his inspiration, was the 23rd. Each cycle also has
12 universal emperors (chakravartins) as well as another 27 great men.

Buddhism
Along with Jainism, Buddhism developed in the late Vedic period as a response to the brahmanic
domination of religion, answering Indian questions with Indian answers. Even so, Buddhism did not
survive in India but went on to become one of the world's great religions.

Life of the Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama was born to the king of the Shakyas in 563 B.C. At his birth the fortune teller
predicted greatness for him as a ruler and kshatriya or, if he were to witness the misery of the world,
he would become a great religious teacher. His father, Shuddhodhana, afraid that Siddhartha might
not become a great emperor hid him from evidence of the suffering of the world. Despite his
precautions, Siddhartha one day saw four signs of misery; an old man suffering from decrepitude, a
man suffering from sickness, a dead man, and a holy mendicant. Profoundly moved by these signs he
committed himself to improving the world and abandoned his wife, son, and old life for the life of an
ascetic.
His initial attempts at ascetic austerity were impressive and he attracted five followers. For six years
he punished himself with great austerities; but one day, waking from a starvation-induced faint he
realized that even this feat of self-denial had not lead to enlightenment. He abandoned the life of
asceticism to his followers' disgust. With a full stomach he sat beneath a tree (the so-called Bodhi
Tree) and swore to meditate until he had reached enlightenment. It took 49 days of meditation and
resisting the temptations of the demon Mara for the Buddha (Enlightened One) to finally reach
enlightenment. Catching up with his former followers at Sarnath, outside Varanasi, he gave his first
sermon, setting in motion the Wheel of Dharma.

Over his long ministry, spreading his message throughout India and defending his revelation against
arguments of the brahmins, he gathered many followers. He died when he was 80 in about 483 B.C.
from an illness brought on by a meal of pork.

It is easy enough to see Buddha as a mortal (the more fantastic aspects of his life story aside) who
brought a new philosophy to those who were inclined to hear it. However, Buddhism came to see
Buddha as being divine, a perfect being who had become a god through several lives of merit and
choosing to be born on earth as a mortal so he could spread the dharma. More than that, he is not the
only Buddha to have lived in this age; he has had three predecessors and the world will see one more
Buddha, called Maitreya, before the end of this age.

Buddhist Philosophy

The realization of Gautama Buddha under the Bodhi Tree was that extreme asceticism was not the
way to free oneself of a life made miserable by loss and failed expectations; the path to happiness
was the Middle Way, neither indulgent nor excessively austere. The Middle Way is based on four
Noble Truths. The Noble Truth of Sorrow has it that the world is full of misery. The Noble Truth of
the Arising of Sorrow is that this misery comes form desire. The Noble Truth of the Stopping of
Sorrow says that one must abandon desire to stop sorrow. The Noble Truth of the Way which Leads
to the Stopping of Sorrow is the Eightfold Path -- right views, right thought, right speech, right
conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditation.

By experiencing desire one is chained to the cycle of birth and rebirth. However, when one
understands that one is not separate from the whole, there is no desire. This realization leads to
nirvana, which in Buddhist belief is an indescribable state of simultaneous being and non-being.

Buddhist metaphysics differs from Hinduism in a number of ways. An important difference is that
Buddhism does not recognize the existence of souls. Rebirth therefore is not the transmigration of
the soul to a new body. Instead it is a process likened to lighting a fresh candle with a used candle as
the old candle is extinguished; nothing of the old candle is transferred though the light, the "life," of
the candle is passed on.

Another fresh perspective of Buddhism is the view that everything is transitory; moments do not
have existence, only the transitions between moments. It is important to appreciate that everything
will change, the seasons will change, and people will die.

Buddhism in India

About 100 years after Buddha's death there was a schism in the community of Buddhists. The
Mahasanghika, Members of the Great Community, left the fold. Those remaining were known as the
Sthaviravadins (or Theravadins in the Pali language), Adherents to the Teaching of the Elders.
Theravada Buddhism is the traditional form of Buddhism. It believes that Buddha is gone from us
after he achieved nirvana and that is entirely up to one to find nirvana alone.

The heart of Buddhism is the monk. Monks are required to follow ten precepts:
1. Avoid taking life.

2. Only take what is offered.

3. Be chaste.

4. Do not lie.

5. Avoid alcohol and other drugs.

6. Eat moderately and do not eat after noon.

7. Do not watch dancing, singing, or dramas.

8. Do not use perfumes or flowers as decorations.

9. Sleep on hard, low beds.

10. Do not accept money for alms.

The first five are also required for lay Buddhists.

The heterodox sects, including Buddhism, received patronage during the reign of Ashoka (see p. xx).
The devout Mauryan emperor promoted the tenets of Buddhism and supported the religion itself,
including sending missionaries. His greatest success was Sri Lanka, which adopted Theravada
Buddhism, according to legend being converted by Ashoka's brother.

Thanks to Ashoka, Theravada Buddhism, was a success. However, a new development, Mahayana
Buddhism, the Great Vehicle developed in north west India, gave the religion new life, and helped it
spread beyond India. The Great Vehicle centered on the idea that Buddha spent several lives
becoming the Buddha, during which time he was a "bodhisattva," working for the good of the world.
As Gautama is not the only buddha there are also other bodhisattvas working now for the good of
humanity, shepherding people towards nirvana. These are beings of great merit and could achieve
nirvana if they chose but instead have elected to stay on earth and aid humanity, postponing their
nirvana. These bodhisattvas have the nature of gods and live in heaven.

A further novelty of Mahayana Buddhism is that the Buddha has not entirely gone from us to
nirvana, only his created body, nirmanakaya, has left. Buddha is still with us with a body of bliss,
sambhogakaya, which resides in heaven and a transcendent body of essence, dharmakaya.

Mahayana is an optimistic approach. Though it still maintains the world is suffering, it says that
everyone will eventually gain nirvana, or even better, get to heaven with Buddha.

From about A.D. 500, a new vein in Buddhism developed, Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana, the
Vehicle of the Thunderbolt. Bearing many similarities to Shaktism, Vajrayana gives much
importance to the wives of the bodhisattvas, Tara the wife of Avalokiteshvara, who are seen as the
active half of the partnership. Vajrayana advocates the attainment of nirvana in a lifetime by yoga
and from base experiences of the world one is attempted to transcend (which, until Vajrayana
became more contemplative in about the 9th century, involved practices similar to Hinduism's
Vamachara) -- the idea being that we are all buddhas already, we just don't realize it. Following the
practices of Vajrayana gives the practitioner magic powers as a perk.

Buddhism flourished in India for many centuries, but by the 7th century A.D. the religion was in
serious decline. The Buddhists monasteries had been unfortunate victims of the Hunas invasions (see
p. xx). This was not the main reason for Buddhism weakness however. The problem was that the
monks were expected to be supported by the laity but offered nothing in return. They were not
priests and therefore did not perform rituals for their flock. A resurgent Hinduism also hurt
Buddhism by incorporating Buddha as an avatara of Vishnu. Buddhism finally succumbed with the
arrival of the Muslims and their destructive raids.

Buddhism has seen a small revival in recent times. The untouchable writer of the constitution, B.R.
Ambedkar encouraged untouchables to become Buddhist, after his example, to free themselves from
Hindu persecution.

Islam
Although Islam had its genesis outside of India it became the regions second most important
religion, second to Hinduism.

Considerably more information about Islam and Muslims can be found in GURPS Arabian Nights.
This section deals with Islam only briefly and emphasizes Islam as it is relevant to India.

History

The Islamic calendar begins in A.D. 622 when Mohammed fled from Mecca to establish a
community at Yathrib (renamed Medina, "City of the Prophet"). Mohammed returned to conquer
Mecca in 630 and the rest of Arabia shortly after. Under the caliphs, Mohammed's successors, the
Islamic army spread the faith by the sword, building an empire that by 711 stretched from the
Atlantic to the Indus. Islam arrived in India in 711 with the conquest of Sind but the religion did not
penetrate into the Indian heartland until the raids of Mahmoud of Ghazni. Mahmoud forcibly
converted locals as well as slaughtering and looting. When an Islamic dynasty was established at
Delhi in 1206 the religion began to win serious adherents. (See Muslim India, p.xx.)

Muslims in India

In time, most of India was subject to Muslim rule. However, in most of India, Muslims were in the
minority and even where they were in the majority, such as Sind, west Punjab, and east Bengal, they
lived with a large number of Hindus. It was the practice of Muslims to convert or put to the sword
any pagans that they conquered and to impose a tax, the jizya, on members of revealed religions, the
so-called "People of the Book." It was quite impractical to exterminate the non-converting Hindus of
India, so instead they were taxed as People of the Book on the strength of the fact they had their own
religious texts.

Despite India's tolerant climate, Hindus and Muslims have always been suspicious of each other. The
two communities accentuate their differences by dressing differently and playing up their different
customs. As the minority, Muslims feel entrenched. For their part Hindus have not forgotten the
bloody raids of Mahmoud or the discriminating jizya. This divisiveness occasionally turns violent,
particularly during religious festivals. The partition of India damaged relations between the religions
as it was a forthright admission of the divisions between the communities. The state of Pakistan was
created as a home for Indian Muslims and therefore is assertive in its Islam. Many Muslims living in
modern India recognize Pakistan as some sort of homeland and take pride in Pakistan's achievements
over India, most commonly expressed as support for the Pakistani cricket team. India in contrast was
established as a secular country.

Islamic Stricture

A Muslim is made by reciting the shahada, the declaration of faith, "There is no God but Allah, and
Mohammed is his prophet." The word "islam" means submission and Islam is submission to Allah.
Islam is strictly monotheistic; not only is there only one God, Allah is the only object of worship.
Although Mohammed and the Koran are revered, they are not worshipped.

The shahada is the first of the "five pillars" of Islam, the five obligations required of all Muslims.
The second pillar is prayer which must be said five times daily at sunrise, noon, mid-afternoon,
sunset, and nightfall. The third pillar is the Ramadan fast. The fourth is the giving of alms to the
poor; Muslim's are expected to give 1/40 of their wealth as gifts. The fifth is the hajj, the pilgrimage
to Mecca, which all Muslims must perform once in their lives if they are able-bodied and can afford
the journey.

Sikhism
While Sikhism is not a huge religion, Sikhs, the men particularly with their distinctive uncut beards
and large turbans, are prominent in India beyond their numbers.

The religion of Sikhism is a happy merging of Hinduism and Islam. These two proud religions have
been at odds since Islam arrived in numbers in 997. They differ at the most fundamental level; where
Hinduism is idolatrous, Islam is iconoclastic; Islam preaches love of God and promises heaven,
Hinduism is predicated on the absence of eternal heaven and offers samsara instead. Sikhism is more
than a compromise between these two, it is a whole new religion.

Guru Nanak

"God is neither Hindu nor Muslim, and the path I follow is God's."

--<\#208> Nanak

Nanak was born in A.D. 1469 at Talwandi near Lahore, an area where Hindu and Muslim lived side
by side. He had a vision of God and received the message that there is no Hindu and no Muslim as
God is the same to all. God to Nanak was the True Name, He was Allah and Vishnu.

Nanak's message was one of toleration. God was supreme and appears in different forms. The
devotion that Nanak took up and preached involved worship and servitude to God in the Muslim
manner but in a world governed by karma and reincarnation as well as maya. One gains release
when one is absorbed in God and to attain this one must be entirely devoted to God. This is not to be
achieved by ritual or the worship of idols and pilgrimages and asceticism are merely distractions
from one's faith.

This teaching of Nanak was one of peace and virtue. God is compassionate so we must be as well.

After taking his message around North India, Nanak established a lasting community in Punjab. He
named Angad as his successor guru.

Guru Govind Singh

"Hail, hail to the Creator of the world, the Saviour of creation, my Cherisher, hail to Thee, O
Sword!"

--<\#208> Govind Singh

Sikhism was both blessed and cursed by living with the Moghul Empire, (see Moghul Empire, pp.
xx-yy). The third guru, Amar Das was patronized by Akbar who had a highly liberal attitude to
religion. Ram Das, the fourth guru, served at Akbar's court and was granted land in Punjab.
However, Jahangir, Akbar's intolerant son, killed Guru Arjan. Arjan's son, Guru Har Govind reacted
by building a fortress and promoting militarism amongst the community of Sikhs.

The conflict intensified during the reign of Aurangzeb and the tenth guru, Govind Rai, went beyond
the start made by Har Govind and turned the Sikhs into a military brotherhood -- the Khalsa (Army
of the Pure). Govind made war a holy pursuit by drawing parallels between God and weapons.
Members of the Khalsa are baptized in holy water that has been stirred by a sword. All male
members of the Khalsa take the name Singh (lion), and girls take the name Kaur (princess). All
Sikhs must wear the Five K's (see sidebar) for their practical purposes but also so they might identify
each other.

Govind Singh was the last Sikh guru. He was killed by a Muslim assassin in 1708. Govind left no
human successor, instead he decreed that the Granth, the Sikh holy book, was their last and eternal
guru.

From the formation of the Khalsa, the Sikhs have been famous warriors. In the 19th century, the
Khalsa defended a Sikh kingdom until it fell to the British. Under the British and into modern times
Sikhs have been a very important part of the Indian army. Sikhs are generally bigger than the
average Indian and are given a good deal of respect by most non-Sikhs.

Partition was harsh on the Sikhs as it divided their homeland and 2.5 million Sikhs moved east from
Pakistan to India.

Since the establishment of the country of India, some Sikh radicals have been struggling for an
independent Khalistan, a struggle has been bloody at times.

Sikhs make up about 2% of the population of India or about 20 million adherents, almost all of them
in Punjab and Delhi.

Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is the ancient religion of Persia. The religion was established by Zoroaster, also
known as Zarathustra, and his teachings are recorded in the Zend-Avesta. In the Zoroastrian
worldview the world is a battleground between Ahura Mazda, the god of light and truth, and
Ahriman, the god of falsehood and darkness. Ahura Mazda is represented by fire and Zoroastrians
worship in fire temples though they hold all four elements to be sacred (and hence their celebrated
practice of hanging corpses to be eaten by vultures in "towers of silence" rather than burying or
cremating them).

Adherents of the faith migrated to India to escape persecution in Muslim Persia and are now found in
Karachi and Mumbai where they are known as Parsis. They form a small community, less than
100,000 and shrinking. However, they have a presence far beyond their numbers. Parsis are
extraordinarily successful in business and have managed to avoid conflict with other communities.
Their greatest ability has been to assimilate. They have considerable influence in Mumbai and own a
good deal of property there. Parsi buildings can often be identified by carved sphinxes.

Christianity
There are over 20 million Christians living in India the oldest community of which dates back to the
early years of Christianity. Legends ascribes the founding of the first Syrian Christian community to
St Thomas (see p. xx) as early as the first century. Christianity was certainly extant in India before
A.D. 189 when the Bishop of Alexandria sent his envoy Pantaenus to visit the Christian community
in India. Orthodox Christianity was brought to India by Armenians. European presence in India led
to many conversions and a growth in the population of Christians. The Portuguese first brought
Catholicism to India. The British missionaries worked to convert Indians to English Christian
denominations, Anglicanism, Presbyterianism, and Methodism.

Conversion to Christianity was a way to escape untouchability. However, Christian communities are
not immune to caste prejudices; many churches in India require low-caste converts to sit in a
partitioned area. Similarly Hindus remain aware of the low status of converted castes.

A good summary of the Christian religion can be found in GURPS Fantasy.

Judaism
There is only a small number of Jews in India, most of them living in Cochin. The Cochin
community has lived in India since 587 B.C.
Hinduism? Kya Hai?

Just like "India," the name "Hindu" refers to the Indus river (and the land beyond it), a name coined
by outsiders. Followers of the Hindu religion, though calling it Hinduism in English, know it as
Santana Dharma, the Eternal Truth, or perhaps varnashramadharma, i.e. the proper conduct for one's
class and age.

Cow Protection

Although not practiced through its whole history, the worship of the cow is an inviolate principle of
Hinduism. The cow the divine symbol of motherhood, her pacifism and detachment are seen as
saintly.

Cow urine is treated by many as being a sort of holy elixir and is sometimes drunk or bathed in.

Revealed and Remembered

The Vedas, from the Samhitas to the Upanishads, are known as shruti or revealed texts. They are
believed to have been transmitted to rishis (sages) directly from God (or more accurately, from the
heavens) like smoke from fire. They are eternal and fundamental to the universe.

All other Hindu texts are smriti, (remembered) texts that are handed down by tradition. They are of
less weight and defer to the shruti texts if there is an inconsistency.

Certain sects consider their texts to be shruti, for example the Tantrics consider the Tantras as
revealed.

Oral Literature

Until about 1000 B.C. the Vedas were not even committed to writing. To do so was considered a
dilution of them and the Vedas are still transmitted from teacher to student orally. The written form
of the Vedas is not able to properly express the correct emphases and nuances that the spoken word
can carry and at any rate, the sound of the Vedas carries as much power as the meaning.

The Bhagavad Gita

The most important piece of religious discussion found in the epics is the Bhagavad Gita (the Song
of the Lord) from the Mahabharata. On the verge of the great battle of Kurukshetra, Krishna,
avatara of the great god Vishnu, lays down the fundamentals of the Hindu religion to Prince Arjuna.

Arjuna is loath to let the battle commence as he cannot bear that so many good men, family members
included, will die just so that he may be king. Krishna stresses on Arjuna that he must fight because,
as a warrior it is his duty. At any rate, those who might die in the battle will have another life.

In the Gita, Krishna reveals himself to Arjuna as the Supreme God. Explaining also the importance
of having complete faith in Him.

The Gita is the single most important piece of Hindu literature as it contains pretty much all that is
needed to be known, straight from God's mouth. Many Hindus have the Gita memorized.

Brahman and Atman

Fundamental to Upanishadic philosophy is the existence of an "Ultimate," called Brahman -- a

Universal Essence, which can be called God but is essentially unknowable and beyond description
(though It can be experienced).

Furthermore, there exists an individual essence or soul, the atman, associated with everyone. If the
atman has any existence it is as pure consciousness. Individual characteristics such as identity,
feelings, and intellect, are aspects of the sukshma sharira, the subtle body or ego, which is the
habitation of the atman in the same way as the physical body or shula sharira is the habitation of the
ego. The atman cannot be perceived as the senses exist only in the physical and subtle bodies.

It is a fundamental idea of the Upanishads that the atman and the Brahman are the same, expressed
in the phrase "tat tvam asi," "that art thou." To understand how the soul can be part of the whole
consider the air inside a jar that is no way different from the air outside the jar. If one is able to fully
comprehend this oneness and its implications one is able to achieve a union between one's atman and
Brahman (see Jnana Yoga).

Maya

The impression, that comes to one naturally, that one is an individual, independent in any way from
the rest of the world, is a delusion. The entire phenomenological world is in fact an illusion; it has no
real existence as only Brahman exists, nothing else. Maya is the illusion that blinds us from this
realization and keeps us from a union with Brahman.

Vedanta

The vedanta or study of the Upanishads forms one of the six branches of philosophy in Hindu
thought (see Philosophy, p. xx). There are three principal schools of vedanta, each seemingly in
contradiction to the others. Shankara (A.D. 788-838), the most respected vedanta scholar, outlined
the advaita (non-dualistic) school based on the belief that there is no difference at all between the
atman and Brahman. Ramanuja's (A.D. 1017?-1137?) vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualistic)
school believes that the atman is a limb of Brahman and hence is part of but clearly less than
Brahman. The dvaita (dualistic) school of Madhva (A.D. 1197-1280) claims that the atman is not of
Brahman. Madhva's view is a strongly deistic view.

Other views of the relationship between Brahman and atman include dvait-advaita (dualistic
monism) where the soul is different but dependent on Brahman, shuddh-advaita (pure monism)
where the soul is permitted to have a separate existence by Brahman, and bheda-abheda (different
yet not different) where Brahman and atman are compared to fire and sparks.

States of Consciousness

There are four states of consciousness; the waking state, the dreaming sleep state, the deep dreamless
sleep state, and turiya, the state of pure consciousness when one can perceive one's unity with
Brahman. In turiya, there is no conception of subject or object.

God is One

It is a fundamental tenet of Hinduism, understood by even the most uninformed devotee, that God is
one. That a religion with so many gods could be monotheistic is seemingly absurd, until it is
appreciated that each of the many, many gods of the Hindu pantheon are just manifestations of the
One.

The Hindu Trinity

The three most important gods of post-Vedic Hinduism are Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the trinity of
Creator, Sustainer, and Destroyer. This three-fold scheme, called Trimurti, is entirely a positive
process -- the fact that one aspect of it is destruction simply acknowledges that there must be a
purging for there to be renewal.

The trinity should not be taken as too crucial a concept. Not all of the trinity are afforded the same
reverence, even though they are theoretically equal. The worship of Brahma is considerably less
strong than that of Shiva or Vishnu, the worshippers of whom treat their favorite as being more
important than the other two members of the trinity and subsume the roles of the others, e.g.
Shaivites see Shiva as creator, sustainer, and destroyer while still acknowledging Brahma and
Vishnu.

Vishnu's Avataras

1. Matsya the fish. Warned Manu, the first man, of the great flood and guided Manu's boat with the
horn on its head.

2. Kurma the tortoise. Acted as the base for the gods and devils to churn the primal sea to obtain
amrit. (See p. xx.)

3. Varaha the boar. Raised the earth out of the waters on its tusk after it had been sunk by
Hiranyaksha, a rakshasa (a race of monsters; see Bestiary, p. xx).

4. Narasingha the man-lion. Hiranyakasipu the rakshasa could not be killed by a weapon, by man
or beast, inside or outside, at night or during the day. To deal with him Vishnu became Narasingha,
half-man, half-lion, and disemboweled him with his claws at dusk in an entranceway.

5. Vamana the dwarf. Became a giant and encompassed the earth and heaven in three strides to
reclaim them from the rakshasa Bali.

6. Parashurama the brahmin warrior with an axe. Wiped out all kshatriyas 21 times in
succession.

7. Rama.

8. Krishna.

9. Buddha. Yes, that Buddha.

10. Kalki the destroyer.

Garuda

Half eagle, half giant, with the body and limbs of a man with the head, talons and wings of an eagle.

Garuda has a great hatred of snakes stemming from an enmity between his mother and his father's
other wife, mother of the nagas (snakes or snake-men).

Rama

Rama is worshipped as the perfect king and his story has been told in the Ramayana (see p. xx).

In recent times his worship has become tied up with militant Hinduism (see India Today, pp. xx-yy).
Krishna

Krishna, the Black-skinned, is one of the most loved of the Hindu gods. He is a god of great
personality and the stories of his life are highly entertaining. As a child and youth he was very
mischievous, he had to be tied up to stop him stealing butter and he once hid the clothes of the
milkmaids as they swam naked in the Ganga (to teach them to be more respectful to the river). He
had over 16,000 wives but his love affair with Radha is the story of perfect lovers (and a parable of
the irresistible love between humanity and God). As an adult he ruled the kingdom of Dwarka and in
the Mahabharata he helped the Pandvas, delivering the Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna.

Lingam

Almost all temples to Shiva contain a lingam and a lingam alone can constitute a shrine to Shiva.
The lingam for this purpose is rather stylized, being quite squat and featureless.

There are 12 great linga in India, the jyotilinga, and any Hindu that visits all of them in a lifetime
goes to heaven upon death. There is, however, no consistent list of the 12.

Left Hand Path

The Right Hand Path (Dakshinachara) of Shaktism worships the positive, vital aspects of the power
of the feminine principle. However, Shaktism has a sinister dark side -- the Left Hand Path.

Vamachara, or the Left Hand Path of Tantrism is an unpleasant and morally degenerate cult and
hence is practiced only in secret. The teachings of Left Hand Tantrism are highly esoteric and open
up magical powers. The basis of the approach being to get beyond the Self by indulging in
pleasurable or impulsive acts. The consumption of meat and the drinking of wine often form part of
the rites as are various acts of ritual sex including, in extreme rites, incest and necrophilia. To
experience the dangerous spiritual consequences of these forbidden acts leads to a higher control of
the self and to moksha.

Tantrics are greatly feared in India as practitioners of black magic and ritualistic murders are
attributed to them.

Balarama

Balarama is a certainly a lesser god and not normally worth mentioning. However, also known as
Baldev, he is the namesake of the author and, in a shameless case of self-indulgence, Balarama's
story will be told here in the briefest possible manner to illustrate the life and personality of a fairly
typical god.

Balarama is Krishna's older brother and is also of divine origins, being an incarnation of Sheshnag,
the thousand headed cosmic serpent upon whose head the world sits. (Balarama is also indirectly an
incarnation of Vishnu.) Where Krishna is black, Balarama is white.

Balarama had many adventures in his youth with Krishna. When very young Balarama conspired
with Krishna to steal butter. Their later adventures were chiefly defeating rakshasas.

In personality Balarama was rash and violent, and a skilled warrior also. All the same, he was more
noble in character than his brother, whose womanizing Balarama disapproved of. However, where
Krishna's indulgence was women, Balarama's was wine and while drunk he could be even more
impetuous and dangerous than usual.
Balarama had only one wife, the beautiful Revati. Revati's father, King Raivata, desirous of a good
match for his daughter, asked Brahma for advice. Brahma suggested Balarama. However, Brahma
took so long in praising Balarama that eons passed and when Raivata returned mankind had
degenerated and shrunk in height so that Revati towered above Balarama. To remedy this Balarama
had to cut Revati's legs off at the knees.

Balarama's end came just before Krishna's death. Their tribe, the Yadavas, had just annihilated
themselves in a quarrel. Balarama sat down under a tree to rest and while sleeping his soul left his
body as a snake through his mouth. His body was cremated along with his brother's by Arjuna.

Goshala and the Ajivikas

For the first six years of his search for enlightenment Vardhamana was accompanied by Goshala
Maskariputra, another follower of Parshva. They argued bitterly and went their separate ways.
Goshala established the sect of the Ajivikas. He preached that one could not escape one's destiny --
one's lot in life is not determined by one's karma and action in previous lives, but by the cosmic
principle niyati. One lives through 8,400,000 eons before achieving moksha regardless of ones
actions. Goshala practiced self-denial himself as he believed this was his destiny. The Ajivikas
flourished in Mauryan times as did the other heterodoxies and had their greatest height in the 6th
century A.D. but declined and by the 14th century had disappeared from India.

Sky Clad or White Clad

A schism in Jainism developed at about the time of the exodus. The Digambaras (Sky Clad) insisted
that monks must be naked like Mahavira. The Shvetambaras (White Clad) allowed the wearing of
clothes. The two sects had only one major doctrinal difference regarding women. The Digambara
sect does not allow women to achieve release. They are not allowed to be Digambara monks or enter
temples and their only hope is that they are reborn as men.

The Quality of Souls

Not all souls are equal, but then one could hardly expect the soul of a vegetable to be the equal of the
soul of a human. The quality of a soul is dependent on how many senses it has. Gods, demons,
humans, and animals have five senses. Insects have only four. Smaller insects and moths are blind
and deaf, having only three senses. Lesser beings such as worms have only taste and touch. Those
that can only touch are trees, vegetables, and the elements (earth, fire, air, and water can all have
souls, not as "elementals" as such, simply as rocks or running water or leaping fire, etc.).

Souls and the Material World

In the Jain cosmology, the whole dynamics of this world is the interaction of souls with the five
classes of non-living entities or ajiva, the ether (akasha), movement (dharma, in a very different
sense to Hindu dharma), rest (adharma), time (kala), and matter (pudgala).

There is a definite distinction between jiva and ajiva. The former is pure and good. The latter is evil.

Gods in Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhists and Jains are not necessarily atheists but, although they may accept the existence of gods
and demons, they make little difference to their philosophy. There is no supreme unmoved mover,
only the dharma.

Buddhist Nuns
Women are not greatly respected in Buddhism. However there are Buddhists nuns as well as monks.
The Buddha allowed women to join the Order when prevailed upon by his cousin but despaired that
the effect of this concession was that the Law would now only last 500 years rather than 1000.

Bodhisattvas

Avalokiteshvara The Lord Who Looks Down. The greatest living bodhisattva. He often comes to
earth to help humanity in person.

Manjushri The bodhisattva of wisdom.

Vairochana The boshisattva of dharma.

Samanta-bhadra A real monk who taught the path to bodhisattvahood.

Buddhism Outside India

In India, Buddhism was a keen religious experiment. Its new ideas enriched the religion and culture
of the land, but ultimately it was abandoned. In East Asia however, the new converts to the religion
picked it up and ran with it.

Pure Land Buddhism developed in China considers heaven to be the ultimate goal and one gets
there by constantly thinking of Buddha in heaven.

Zen is the famous form of Buddhism that focuses on meditation and insight, including the
contemplation of puzzling or nonsensical koan.

Tibetan Buddhism is a sophisticated form of Tantric Buddhism.

The Prophet

Mohammed was born in A.D. 570 at Mecca. In 595 he married the rich widow Khadijah, for whom
he worked as a merchant. He was then free to spend time contemplating God. In 610 he was visited
by the angel Jibreel (Gabriel) while meditating in a cave on Mt Hira outside Mecca. Jibreel carried
messages from Allah to Mohammed and commanded Mohammed to be God's messenger.

Mohammed was reluctant at first. It was three years before he could be persuaded to preach. His
message was not well received by the people of Mecca and he and his few followers were
persecuted. For this reason he moved to Medina and later brought the religion to Mecca forcibly.

Mohammed was the not the first prophet of God, Moses and Jesus were also God's prophets, but he
is most assuredly the last. The pronouncements given to Mohammed through Jibreel is the ultimate
revelation for man from God.

The Koran

After becoming the Messenger of God Mohammed made thousands of proclamations, many of them
while in a trance. After his death these were collected in the 114 surahs (chapters) of the Koran, the
Muslim holy book. The content of the Koran, though spoken by Mohammed, is the Word of Allah;
every word in it is the Truth.

Sunni and Shia

Although Mohammed established a faith, he did not appoint a successor to direct the community
after his death. He had no son to take over from him. Abu Bakr, Mohammed's father-in-law became
the first caliph (successor). However, some reckoned Ali, Mohammed's cousin and son-in-law
should have been caliph. The two factions, the Sunni and Shia, did not split until after Ali, who had
his turn at being caliph from 656, was assassinated in 661.

Sunni Islam is the religion's greater party. However, in 1502, Ismail I became Shah of Shi'ite Persia
and hence, with a Shi'ite neighbor, India has a large population of Shi'ites as well as Sunnis. The
difference is not apparent to anyone outside the religion but there is sometimes friction between the
two parties, sometimes violent.

Ramadan

The ninth month of the Islamic year is celebrated as the month of Ramadan. Starting from the full
moon at the beginning of the month Muslims are forbidden to eat and drink during the day until the
next full moon, the Id moon. Fasting in this way for a month is difficult and the sick and infirm are
excused from this requirement, as are people travelling or in similarly inconvenient situations.

Sufism

In a land of unbridles mysticism, it is no surprise that Islamic mysticism, Sufism, took hold here.
Sufism became one of the dialects spoken in interdenominational religious conferences. A number of
new Sufi orders developed in India, including the Shattariya and Qadiriya orders.

The Ten Gurus

Nanak (b. 1469, d. 1538)

Angad (r. 1539-1552)

Amardas (1552-1574) Abolished caste distinctions by instituting communal eating.

Ramdas (1574-81) Built the Golden Temple.

Arjan Dev (1581-1606) Composed the Granth. Tortured to death by Jehangir for being suspected of
supporting the Prince Khusrau (see Moghul Empire, p. xx).

Har-gobind (1606-1645) Established military brotherhood of Sikhs. Imprisoned by Jehangir for 10

years.

Har-rai (1645-1661)

Har-krishan (1661-1664) Guru at 5 and dead of smallpox by 8.

Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675) Executed by Aurangzeb for not embracing Islam.

Godind Singh (1675-1708) Established the Khalsa. Assassinated as the last human guru.

Nanak-panthis

There are serious differences between the Sikhism of Guru Govind and the pacifism of Guru Nanak.
Not all Sikhs chose to become members of the Khalsa. They are Nanak-panthis, followers of Nanak
and are largely pacifists.
The Five K's

Kirpan Sword.

Kesh Uncut hair.

Kangha Comb.

Kacch Shorts.

Kara Steel bracelet on right wrist.

Magical India
India -- the land, its people, its rivers and forests, its beasts -- is steeped in magic. All occurrences,
from the creation of the world to a bicycle puncture, are not the effects of nature or chance, but are
the workings of divine magical will, invisible spirits, or of malicious charms.

In GURPS terms, India should be considered an area of "high mana," magic is common and anyone
could potentially learn magic. The shifting of circumstance and fortune are likely as not mitigated by
some sort of magical agency, mothers invoke mantras from the Arthava Veda over their children
when they fall sick, and scarcely a day will go by without one seeing a wandering sadhu, doubtless
possessing great knowledge of the arcane workings of the supernatural, or a woman brazenly
wearing her hair down, marking her undeniably as a witch. This applies throughout Indian history,
from Indic times when yoga was first practiced, to the modern day where the prime minister decides
the fate of the nation only after consulting his astrologer. It also applies regardless of how much
magic actually exists in the world; in a world of no mana, the wandering sadhu's arcane knowledge
is bogus and national affairs are not tied to the stars, but most Indians still believe it to be this way --
the existence of magic is proven to them daily through inexplicable coincidences, the claims of
magical power by brahmins, and the demonstrations of legerdemain by charlatans.

Typically for India, with its happy acceptance of a lack of consistency between its proliferating
philosophies and theologies, there are several different forms of magic, all of which can be
simultaneously valid even if they are philosophically incompatible or even contradictory. The
various forms of magic differ in the source of their magical power, the manner of obtaining magical
knowledge, and in the controlling of magical effects.

Sources of Magic
In GURPS, magic is activated and motivated through a magical energy, mana. An equivalent
magical energy is known in India and is called akasha (see sidebar p. xx). However, akasha can only
be recognized in the theory of some schools of magic in India. Some magical practitioners get their
magic from quite different sources and some might totally reject the concept of an ethereal magical
energy, for example a deeply theistic magic practitioner might find the idea of a power separate from
the gods or a magical agent between the will of God and the manifest world to be unpalatable.
Generally however, the existence of akasha will not be completely dismissed; as a normal rule
Indians are very accepting of different theories, even if they do not subscribe to them personally or
are contrary to their own beliefs.

As is the case anywhere, magic in India, as an arcane art, is secretive and abstruse. While works of
magic such as the Atharva Veda are accessible to anyone who is interested (not withstanding the ban
on the reading of the Vedas by shudras), the basis behind Indian magic, particularly its source, is
either a guarded secret or simply not known. Below are suggested four possible sources of Indian
magic. They are presented and discussed in an attempt to produce some clarity for gaming purposes;
the distinction is not one an Indian would recognize. That four sources of magic are detailed below
does not mean that only one of the four is available to any magician or that the four sources are
exclusive, a particular type of magic might have a combination of sources, for example, divinely
inspired magic worked through akasha.

Divine Magic

Theistic Hinduism believes that God is omnipresent; God either directs all action in the universe, or
the actions of the universe are the actions God. Magic is simply the manifestation of God's will. It
might also be thought of as a force through which God creates, maintains, and animates the universe.
To make use of this divine magic, the magician or priest appeals to a god or gods for service through
mantras, which are spells in the form of hymns. Mantras are generally sycophantic pleas full of
praises of the god's or gods' strength and generosity. The practical effects of these mantras is to bring
part of the god to the spell-caster.

There are two ways for magic of this type to work; either the spells cast are actively worked by a god
or the spell is not consciously performed by a god and instead the spell works off some latent
magical energy of the god who might not even be aware of it. In the first case, for the spell to
succeed if cast successfully, one of gods appealed to must want to help. While the gods are liberal
with their favors and easily cajoled, they may choose not to grant a spell if the obvious effects of it
are clearly contradictory to their nature or if they seriously dislike the spell-caster. However, the
gods are highly susceptible to praise and the greater the praise used in the spell, the more likely they
are to respond. (Enormously powerful magicians might even demand magic from the gods who will
grant it out of fear.) An appeal directly to the gods should normally include an offering as this form
of magic is based on the sacrificial magic of the Vedas. Thus this magic needs some form of
"ingredients" that are exhausted when the spell is cast, the ingredient itself remains but its subtle
essence is consumed by the god. The sacrificial ingredients are usually food, mango or clarified
butter say, and are specific to the ritual.

In the second case, where the spell is not powered consciously by the gods, the spell-caster is not
required to request directly from the gods, though the mantra used will be the same. If the divine
magical energy is simply an impartial force then the caster need not be especially holy to tap into it
(and it can be treated simply as akashic magic with the limitation that should a god discover their
magic is being used without their assent they could stop it, if able, or punish the user). However,
another option is that the currents of divine magic are dictated by dharma, in which case it can only
be used for dharmic purposes, and no amount of pleading or sacrificing is going to help. Thus it
would not be possible to perform evil with magic from Vishnu or magic for the purpose of
conciliation from Kartikeya.

Spirit Magic

Most Indians believe that the world is full of spirits, some beneficial or malicious, but most neutral.
These spirits can be blamed for misfortune and good luck might be attributed to them. A popular
theory of magic in India is that all magical effects are carried out by these spirits. How this magic is
exercised depends on the nature of the spirits with either or both of two options possible in a
campaign. These spirits might be tied to an object, a place, or a force (e.g. gravity). In this case a
magical effect requires requesting or compelling the appropriate spirit to alter their associated object
or force. Alternatively the spirits are not bound and generally have a wider range of powers.

Akashic Magic

A system of magic is known in India wherein magic does not come form any sentient agency such as
gods or spirits, but instead is powered by mana or akasha, an impartial pervasive magic energy.
Akashic magic is identical to "manic" magic of standard GURPS.

Immanent Magic

An alternative view is that there is no amorphous energy that powers magic and that magical effects
are simply natural effects obeying the natural physical laws of the universe. The philosophies of
sankhya and vaishsasheka (see Philosophy, p. xx), while they both include a substance
coincidentally called akasha, do not make mention of an all-encompassing force/substance that
powers the motion of the universe. (In these two philosophical systems akasha is the ether, either
one of the five elements in the case of sankhya, or as one of the five non-physical realities in the case
of vaishasheka.) Also, they have no requirement of a prime cause or agents to enact the physical
laws, hence there is no need for gods or spirits in these systems.

To use "immanent" magic ("immanent" because the magic is simply the inherent working of the
universe without intermediary) one must fundamentally understand the machinery of the physical
system (how substances are made up and how they interact with each other and with other realities
such as time) and then how to influence its workings. Applying one's will to this then causes magical
effects to be realized by a "natural" process.

Learning Magic
While magic is common enough in India and even non-magicians can learn magic, the practice of
magic by serious magic practitioners is a difficult and often arduous road. Magic in India can be
incredibly powerful, the greatest practitioners can hold even the gods in fear. However, to achieve
even modest levels of magic requires great work far beyond the demands of mundane pursuits.
Magical knowledge might be gained from years of study of the Vedas, body-breaking austerities,
spiritual contemplation, or the practice of precise bodily contortions, but regardless of the method it
requires the same level of sacrifice, be it in time, effort, or discipline.

Learning magic in India almost always requires a teacher or guru; while autodidactic discovery of
the mysteries of the universe might not be impossible (Buddha being an eminent example), it is
generally believed in India that such knowledge must be taught -- even the ancient sages who first
acquired this knowledge had it passed down to them from the gods. The difficulty in learning magic
without a guru is that books of magic and metaphysics in India are incomplete as a full
understanding cannot come from just the written word. For those studying without books, e.g. by
contemplation in the wilderness, little or no progress can be made without an initial direction. The
greatest obstacle to learning magic alone however, is the fact that Indian magic is so hard and its
pursuit is something one person cannot reasonably do alone; its mysteries are so deep and profound
that not only must the secrets themselves be taught, but also the mindset with which to understand
them. For these reasons, magic in India is harder to learn without instruction than is normally the
case and an unsupervised student requires three times the amount of effort to learn (each spell cost
three times as many character points) rather than twice the effort as per the standard GURPS rules.

Not only is solo-learning difficult, it is also dangerous. Without a guru students might injure
themselves physically or spiritually while teaching themselves spells or may uncover unexpected and
overwhelming mysteries through their investigations. A student attempting to learn a spell without
proper supervision must roll once the spell is learnt as if casting the spell (though the spell is not in
fact cast). If a critical failure results the student suffers some serious injury, the nature and severity
of which the GM should decide based on the spell itself and the way in which it was learnt. Possible
effects could come from injury in learning the spell or side-effects from the revelations of the
research. The effects might be mental, such as mild insanity, diminished ability to learn certain
mental skills or spells, maybe a whole college, or they might be physical if the training involved
physical austerities, postures, or manipulations, examples might be permanent HT loss from
starvation, atrophied limbs, or limbs stuck in certain positions, for example, an austerity in which the
arms are raised skywards might leave them set in this position permanently. The effects might be
magical such as having the effects of the spell back-fire on the learner, the implementation of the
spell might be seriously flawed, or the learner may attract the unwanted attention of a rakshasa,
asura, or god. Whether the spell is in fact learnt after this critical failure is up to the GM, i.e. the
learner may suffer in the learning but still learn. (Some GM's may feel that since Indian magic is
such a hazardous and fickle study that such a roll is required even when the spell is learnt through a
guru. In this case the self-taught will suffer a mishap for a simple failure of the roll.) At the same
time, a GM might be inclined to reward a critical success with some beneficial effect or unlooked for
knowledge.
Magic Workers
It is generally the case in India, that magic can be learnt by anyone (though this will depend on the
campaign), minor spells and charms can be learnt from one's brahmin, guru, or uncle. However,
dedicated magic workers, feared and worshipped by the masses, are exceptional people, exceptional
in their dedication, their bravery, and their birth. To become such an exceptional person often
requires several lives of effort, slowly building in magical competence. To progress as a magician
requires the Magical Aptitude advantage which for the purposes of GURPS India indicates that the
character has the sufficient resolution to follow the arduous path of magic as much as it indicates an
affinity with magic.

The different magic workers (jadugars or jadu wallahs to use the vernacular, jadu being the word for
magic) outlined differ primarily in the way they get their magic, for example, the hierophant gets his
magical knowledge from studying the Vedas and the yogi from practicing yogic postures and
breathing techniques.

Several of the descriptions of magic-workers given below are included strictly as options, the
ayurvedic magician for example, and are included to show how the many philosophies and sciences
of India might be developed beyond their principal, straightforward scope into systems of magic.
That this might be plausible in India is a consequence of the link between learning and
enlightenment enshrined in the notion of jnana yoga.

Alchemist

An Indian alchemist is very similar to a "standard" alchemist as described in chapter 6 of GURPS

Magic, with the peculiarities of Indian alchemy are discussed in the sidebar. All the alchemy rules of
GURPS Magic apply to Indian alchemists, although some GM may wish not to relax the
requirement for Magical Aptitude; in Indian alchemy, the mind and soul must be pure for the
alchemical reactions to work, hence it is not unreasonable for a successful alchemist to require
Magical Aptitude.

Indian alchemy, as with any intellectual pursuit in India, is a path to deeper knowledge, a type of
jnana yoga perhaps. Through the isolation of alchemical substances, the preparation of compounds,
and the inducing of magical effects in elixirs the dynamics of the gross and subtle worlds are
revealed. An alternative approach is then to take alchemical practice as a process of magical
revelation allow to alchemists to cast spells as well as producing elixirs. No spell can ever be learnt
to a level greater than the alchemist's skill in Alchemy.

Astrologer

Indians have great faith in astrology; children are not named until an astrologer is consulted and any
difficult decision in life can be taken to one's astrologer.

Astrology in India is very similar to Western astrology, it having been imported to India early in the
Christian era. Hence the same signs are used in India (see sidebar for the Indian names of the signs).
Over the years considerable research has gone into astrology in India and the science has diverged
from its Western counterpart. Indian astrologers use different techniques to cast and interpret
horoscopes, even the dating of birth signs are different as the Indian and Western systems have
accounted for changes in the positions of the constellations in the sky due to the precession of the
earth in different ways.

If astrology is taken to be a magical skill in a campaign and astrologers as magicians, then

astrologers should be given the ability to cast any information spells at a level no higher than their
astrology skill. However, all spells are considered rituals and are cast at a penalty if the astrologer
does not have his almanac available. While this might seem underpowered astrology has the benefit
of not being actual "magic" and hence cannot be protected against by spells or anti-magic charms.
Furthermore, an astrologer does not need to have Magical Aptitude.

Astrology in India first gained popularity during Gupta times and rapidly increased in popularity and
sophistication to become India's preferred method of augury. Other methods of divination can also
be used with the same as rules as for astrologers (though with a different relevant skill).

Ayurvedic Magician

Ayurvedic theory, as outlined on page xx, contains much metaphysics, generally of less use in
treating disease. It is possible this knowledge could be used to produce magic.

Ayurveda is chiefly concerned with balancing of the bodily humours. The balance of these humours
determines one's state of health and also one's temperament by determining to what extent one is
influenced by each of the three gunas. An extension of this system would be to allow one to achieve
extraordinary conditioning of the body through controlling these humours through herbal drugs,
exercise, prayer, or mind-over-matter. This might also involve an exceptional control over the warp
and woof of the bodies seven substances.

This form of magic, if it can indeed be called magic, is quite restricted. The only effects that can be
achieved are those that effect the human body in ways that are consistent with ayurvedic
metaphysics, e.g. Vigor can be used by an ayurvedic magician, but Earth Vision, that might be
interpreted as effecting the physical eyes, would not be available to an ayurvedic magician. Most
ayurvedic "spells" would only be able to effect the caster or a willing subject, though foes could be
effected through the secret administering of drugs.

An ayurvedic magician cannot have any spell at a level greater than their Ayurveda skill. An option
that might be used in a campaign is to give ayurvedic physicians the ability to create elixers from
herbs similar to alchemical elixers. Again, only those elixers that directly effect the body are
possible.

Buddhist Magician

A Buddhist magician achieves the deep understanding of the universe needed to work magic through
meditation and detachment. When the Buddhist is able to pierce maya and lose his attachment to
individuality he realizes his unity with the universe, and is intellectually at one with the mind of the
universe.

Buddhist enlightenment comes through lifestyle as much as through meditation. Hence a Buddhist
magician must follow the 10 precepts strictly (see p. xx), taking the Disciplines of Faith (Devout
Buddhist) disadvantage. If he willingly breaks any of the precepts he is unable to use his magic for
such a period of time that demonstrates he has again taken up a Buddhist lifestyle, which might be a
day for a minor transgression, or permanently for gross infractions.

A Buddhist magician cannot have any spell at a level above the level of his Meditation skill.

Hierophant

The Vedas are the principal sources of knowledge in India; all other knowledge in the world is
inferior to the Vedas. Consequently they contain the most direct magical information along with their
considerable religious content. In fact, the Artharva Veda is largely a grimoire, containing dozens of
charms and invocations.

Gleaning magical knowledge from the Vedas requires years of study and training. The Vedas
themselves must be understood as religious texts before their magical aspects can be learnt. A
hierophant cannot learn a spell to a level greater than their Vedic Sacrifice skill. A hierophant is
almost always a brahmin (and it would be claimed by some that all brahmins gain magical
knowledge in their training) but it is not impossible that for other varnas to learn magic from the
Vedas (unless the campaign reserves the ability to work magic exclusively to the brahmin varna).

The non-specific term "hierophant" is used here to describe a magician who gains his knowledge
from the Vedas. In India the term "rishi" might be used for very powerful magicians, though this
applies more correctly to legendary sages. A scholar who has mastered all four Vedas, including the
magic-containing Artharva Veda, is known as a chaturvedi.

Jain Magician

As a Jain frees himself from bonds through following the strictures of the religion he comes closer to
the secrets of the universe and can learn to control them with magic.

There is no skill required to be a Jain magician but one must live as a strict Jain, having no
possessions, including clothes for the Skyclad, and practicing zealous non-violence. The Disciplines
of Faith (Devout Jain) disadvantage is required. This is a difficult requirement as the accidental
breaking of these taboos, even violations of which one is unaware, will undo the benefits of one's
efforts and will impair one's magic use.

Muslim Magician

Islam has its own magical traditions, outlined in GURPS Arabian Nights (or the magic of The
Thousand and One Nights at any rate). There are some differences between Muslim and Hindu
traditions. Islamic magic is rather more complex in its implementation, usually involving extravagant
gestures and ingredients, dramatic "special effects," and negotiations with immensely powerful
spirits (the djinn). Its effects are often more subtle, however; any spell that directly causes damage to
another is prohibited (e.g. Fireball, Lightning, or Ice Storm). Also prohibited are Dispel Magic and
possibly Remove Curse -- Islamic spells can only be broken by fulfilling some condition, not by
counter-magic.

By about the time of the Moghul Empire, there was considerable fusion between Islamic and Hindu
thought, with native Sufism developing and Kabir and Nanak blending the religions (see the
Religious India chapter, particularly Hindu-Islam Symbiosis and Sikhism). The injection of Hindu
philosophy into Islamic magic allows the above limits on damage-causing and anti-magic spells to
be lifted, though at the cost of adulterating the Islamic nature of the magic (a cost some Muslim
magicians may be unwilling to pay).

Natural Philosopher

The philosophies of sankya and vaisheshika provide descriptions of the make-up of the world and
the interactions within it. Perhaps a deep understanding of these systems could lead to a way to
influence the physical system by applying one's will to it.

There are no spells in sankya and vaisheshika, so magic based on these philosophies must be
improvised (see GURPS Magic Chapter 4). Each of the verbs and nouns (see p. M77) are learnt as a
skill with no default but cannot ever be higher than the magician's skill in the appropriate
philosophy.
Magic based on sankhya and vaisheshika is in truth unknown in India and its inclusion here is a
speculation on the possibilities at the fringes of jnana yoga.

Numerologist

Mathematics is India's premier science. Not only was mathematical knowledge developed to a high
degree in India, it was also incorporated into religion and metaphysics. This is apparent in
instructions in the Vedas for constructing alters to precise geometry and the prevalence and
importance of certain inviolate numbers, such as 4, the number of Vedas and varnas, or 108, the
number of major Upanishads (the fact that there are actually 150 does not diminish the importance
of this number). When one understands fully the importance of these numbers and their effect on the
world, one is able to use them to create extraordinary effects. These are often realized through the
use of magic squares and geometrical designs.

Rather than requiring the Magical Aptitude advantage, a numerologist requires the Mathematical
Ability advantage. A numerologist is limited in the level of any spell known by the level of his
Mathematics skill.

Ritvij

In Vedic times (c. 1500-500 B.C.), the only magic available to the Aryan priests was ceremonial
magic (see p. B151). A crucial part of the training of a brahmin was to learn the complex rituals and
sacrifices that invoked the beneficence of the gods and harnessed the power of the universe.

No spell may be learned by a ritvij to a level greater than their Ritual Magic skill. Note though, that
in Vedic ceremonial magic it is not necessary for the participant to be physically touching, only that
they be actively involved in the ceremony.

Note that the hierophant is also gains his knowledge from the Vedas, but uses a very different
magical paradigm. With the writing of the Upanishads theology in India changed considerably. The
sovereign importance of sacrifice rites was superseded by the quest for an intimate experience of the
universal soul. Thus magic too became more personal, the elaborate ceremonies of the sacrifice
became internalized and were substituted by thought.

Aryan sacrificial magic was not the only magic in India during the Vedic Age; non-Aryans had
developed a primitive form of yoga.

Sadhu

A sadhu magician is one who has gained magical power through asceticism. By denying the body,
the mind and soul lose their attachment to the world of maya. The sadhu is then rewarded with
certain magical powers, called siddhis.

Sadhus are seen as those who have foregone the luxuries of life and society for the pursuit of
knowledge so weighty that it cannot be said to be all that desirable. They exist on the fringes of
society, an accepted part of society, but eccentric. They might even be thought of as mad.

Godman

A Godman is one who has received magical powers directly from God. This gift may be granted for
a number of reasons, the most likely being: the god needs a conduit and has arbitrarily chosen the
saint, the saint is particularly holy and is rewarded for this, or the saint has found a path to
knowledge and is rewarded. The Power Investiture or Blessed advantages are required (in the place
of Magical Aptitude).

Tantric

Righ hand Tantrism, or Dakshinachara, the worship of the divine feminine principle as a positive
energy, is a legitimate form of religious devotion. However, its "evil twin," Left Hand Tantrism, or
Vamachara, is India's most feared and most depraved tradition of black sorcery.

The depravations of Left Hand Tantrism contain so much occult power, that their practice leads to
the acquiring of potent magical powers, the more potent the power, the more depraved must be the
practices. Tantric magic is generally malicious or at least self-profiting. However, Tantrics do not
see themselves as being evil, in fact they consider their practice to be virtuous, in so much as these
terms have any meaning.

Vamachara is greatly feared and shunned that anyone who practices it gains the Secret disadvantage
of -20 points (see p. CI78), i.e. if discovered, one is advised to cut and run. Being a Tantric is not
itself illegal but may have involved illegal practices that could lead to imprisonment. It is not
unlikely that a discovered Tantric will be lynched.

Yogi

Yoga is one of India's oldest arts, predating the Aryan migration. Over time, particularly after the
writing of the Aranyakas and Upanishads, it has been made more sophisticated and has developed
branches. The most mystical of those branches, laya yoga, promises the awakening of magical
powers latent in the body through harnessing the spiritual energy currents within the body. As one
achieves greater control over the flow of prana through breath control and body control through
increasing demanding contortions, the kundalini is awakened and magical abilities become available
to the yogi.

No spell can be gained at a level greater than one's Laya Yoga skill. (If the campaign allows raja
yoga (see p. xx) to lead to the acquisition of magical powers, then Yoga is the applicable skill.)

The spells gained through laya yogic discipline can do more than just effect the body of the yogi
even though the control is only over the internal prana currents. This is because there is a correlation
between the system within the body and world outside it, see the sidebar As Within, So Without.

Other

The above description of different jadugars includes all the conventional methods of gaining magic
as well as a few well-grounded possibilities. However, who is to know what other undocumented or
clandestine schools of magic exist in India? The scriptures warn against workers of black magic who
do not get their magic from orthodox methods. While these sorcerers might be Tantrics, there may be
any number of aberrant schools of magic in India.

Available Magics
The range of magical abilities ascribed to magicians in India is extremely wide. In practice, unless
specifically restricted, an Indian magician can use any of the magic available in GURPS Basic Set,
Magic, and Grimoire even necromantic magic, curious though that might seem given the prevailing
belief in reincarnation. The available magics include the capacity to make magical items,
spontaneous magic, and rune magic (though Indian runes are either Sanskrit characters or indigenous
symbols such as "om," the trident, and the swastika). Most Indian magic comes in the form of spells,
either those learnt from the Arthava Veda or from one's guru, or specific siddhis gained from
austerities or yogic discipline. However, when a magician begins to understand the roots of his
magical tradition, the casting of extempore spells becomes possible. Hence, the use of spontaneous
magic is encouraged for those who are comfortable with its use in a campaign (see Chapter 6,
GURPS Magic).

The existing division of spells into the various colleges suffices to categorize Indian magic, though
they were not conceived with Indian magic in mind (and a whole college is missing, the elemental
college of ether). In order to contrive an Indian flavor to the spells, one might like to consider how
the effects of spells should be understood from an Indian point of view; for example, the result of a
spell might be to alter the mix of sattva, rajas, and tamas (see Sankhya, p. xx) or to impart
something of the nature of a particular god to the subject of the spell, or spells cast on a person might
alter the person's balance of humours (see Ayurveda, p. xx) or their prana flows (see Laya Yoga, p.
xx). One might also consider using more Indian names for the spells, bearing in mind that Indians
are more inclined to use religious references and poetry. The same applies to the names of the
alchemical elixirs, the Greek names are of course not appropriate, but similar names from Indian
mythology would be apt, such as the elixirs Brahmya (after Brahma) and Chyavana (named after a
famous sage from mythology), or more descriptive names, such as tejo-vardhana, "splendor-
increasing."
Attitudes Towards Magic

Indians willingly accept the ubiquity of magic, but this does not mean that they trust it. Magic is just
another force of nature, but as the uninitiated do not understand it they are suspicious of it and are
unaware of its limitations. For this reason, most are more than happy to leave it alone. This suspicion
is extended to magicians. While magic is not presumed to be evil, per se, the natural Indian mistrust
of strangers is only stronger for strangers with potentially injurious supernatural powers.

The mistrust of magic workers is exacerbated by the practice of some, sadhus particularly, to
consider themselves as being outside of society, and so, not bound by the demands of society, they
can get away with otherwise antisocial actions. At its least offensive this includes not needing to
wash, dress well (or even wear clothes), or be polite. The more unsympathetic magic workers, or
those that believe more deeply that common morals do not apply to them, might engage in more
unpleasant behavior, such as sexual exploitation.

Availability of Magic

It is generally taken in India that anyone can learn magic of some type. There are differing opinions
however and a GM can easily justify restrict the availability to magic in a campaign.

One option is to restrict magic to brahmins, as some brahmins would claim that magic is open only
to the those born in the brahmin varna. Even if it is the case that only brahmins can learn magic,
some magical abilities could be available to all, or other groups. An example might be magic
restricted to a caste, such as the Dasari caste that is believed to have the ability to raise the dead,
including animals (caste advantage, Inherent Magic (Resurrection)).

Akasha

In India mana is known as akasha. Akasha is both the primal substance and the universal force. From
akasha is formed all matter and all forces are simply specific instances of akasha. Magical effects
are induced by imposing one's will over akasha, whether manifest as a substance or a force, and
changing its form, either making physical changes in a substance or altering the action of a force.

Tapas

Another magical force is tapas, translated literally as "heat." Tapas is the energy that powers magic.
It is through tapas that God keeps the universe running.

Ceremonial sacrifices are able to produce magical results because tapas is generated by the ritual.
One of the great breakthroughs of the shramanas was to internalize the production of tapas so that
complicated rites need not be performed and instead tapas can be generated through body-control,
hence austerities create tapas.

Magical Aptitude

The requirement that professional magic working characters take the Magical Aptitude advantage is
an acknowledgement that the path of magic is typically beyond common people. The Indian
application of this advantage should therefore be understood to indicate dedication rather than an
affinity with magic.

Other advantages grant a character magical powers, specifically the Blessed, Clerical Magic, and
Power Investiture advantages. The implication of these advantages is that the magic is a gift from
God. Although a good deal of magic in India appears divine in nature, it is contrary to the spirit of
magic as it is presumed to be practiced in India, where magical ability is something that is worked
for and taken, rather than given.

In an epic or fantasy campaign, the case may be very different; heroes may be granted magic by their
patron deities (through Power Investment or Blessed) and all practicing brahmins might be granted
Clerical Magic.

Mantra

A spoken spell is known as a mantra. It is through the power of sound and words that mantras gain
their magical potency. It is critical that they be pronounced without error; for this reason they cannot
be learnt from books, only from a guru.

In general the shorter the mantra the more power it has, but also the more demanding is the need for
precise pronunciation. The most powerful of all mantras is "om," which is the eternal syllable.

The most practiced of magicians are able to cast mantras silently.

Evil Eye

If an Indian suffers some misfortune they are likely to blame the evil eye, kudrishti, curses enacted
through the jaundiced vision of a malefactor. The evil eye is not a true invoked curse and may be
entirely unintended, being born simply from jealousy, so intense is that emotion. Note though that
evil eye curses will only occur if the jealousy is truly justified, for example, if the jealousy is over
beauty, the subject must in fact be beautiful. Hence to protect against the evil eye, imperfections can
be introduced. For this reason, young children have kohl put around their eyes, making them
practically less attractive. Even putting a small dot of kohl at the back of one's foot out of sight can
protect against the evil eye in this way.

The evil eye is an example of two important Indian concepts, the importance of darshan (vision) and
the balancing of fate.

The sight of something is a mystical connection. Seeing a person, object, or place gives a measure of
power over the subject or allows power of some sort to be derived from it. It is in this way that the
evil eye works and many spells are cast along the line of sight (though it is generally not necessary),
including true invoked curses cast by real magicians. In an analogous way, the vision of something
or someone can impart part of the power or holiness of that object or person. For this reason it is
considered important to look upon idols of gods and at the person of religious gurus.

The curse of the evil eye is in some way "deserved," it is cruel recompense for being lucky enough to
have something of such value that it is coveted by others. Indians that realize they are getting too
much of a good thing always worry about when they will get their share of misfortune. There is an
impartial, unstoppable, nemesis-like agent that ensures everyone gets their karmic due.

Secrecy

Access to mystical books in India is easy, but access to the mystical knowledge in the books is most
definitely difficult. The books of magic are deliberately written to conceal their mysteries and one
must learn how to read them before one can begin to learn to understand them. For those familiar
with the secret language of the mystical literature, a whole new meaning is revealed in the books.

A further difficulty in learning magic from books is that much of the knowledge simply cannot be
expressed in the written word and must be spoken. Some secrets cannot even be spoken and must be
shown by actions. The most deep of secrets however can only be expressed through silence.

Magic of the Atharva Veda

The Atharva Veda is a bona fide grimoire, but is not a particularly sophisticated source of magic by
Indian standards.

This Veda contains two types of spells. The bheshajani are beneficent spells, including healing spells
of all kinds, charms (particularly for fertility and the birth of sons), and love spells (including a spell
to put a household to sleep while a lover sneaks in to visit the daughter). The abhichara spells are
mostly curses to bring disease, bad luck, and to remove virility.

Also included are hymns to evil spirits and serpents from which can be gained powers of black
magic. At the same time however, the Artharva Veda vilifies workers of black magic.

Alchemy

Largely derived from Chinese and Arab alchemy, Indian alchemy is similar in many ways to
Western alchemy. The laboratory techniques in particular are almost identical between the two
traditions with the same materials being used (salt, sulfur, the metals, acids, cinnabar, and calamine
being a very brief list of examples) in the same apparatuses (crucibles, furnaces, etc.). However, the
theory of Indian alchemy, based on Indian philosophy, yoga, and ayurveda, is unique.

As in Western alchemy, a primary goal is the isolation of the elements. Further though, in Indian
alchemical theory there is a primal substance from which everything is made, including the elements.
This primal substance is identified with the cosmic ocean out of which creation sprang and is
believed to be mercury (parada) when in a liquid state. (Ashes or bhasman are believed to be a less
refined form of the primal substance or mercury. Hence all material is converted to its quiddity by
burning it to cinders.)

The magical side of Indian alchemy is concerned with the production of elixirs (called rasas in the
liquid state and churna in powder form). Almost all elixirs are made by combining mercury and
ashes with a large number of different ingredients, often including bodily fluids and other products
such as blood, skin, or semen. The preparation of elixirs involves not only mixing, heating, and other
chemical techniques, but also a good deal of superstition, astrology, and other mumbo-jumbo. Note
that it is not necessary, or even necessarily desirable, to drink the elixir, looking at it or holding it
may be enough.

A great goal of alchemy is the making of the Philosopher's Stone, or Sparshamani, the touch of
which is believed to turn base elements into gold. Making the Sparshamani is a hugely involved
process, requiring great knowledge of alchemy, great effort, and great assiduity in following the
arcane rituals.

The ultimate goal of Indian alchemy however is the Rasayana, or Elixir Vitae. This most powerful of
elixirs can cure all diseases, give one a perfect memory, increase one's vitality (including one's
sexual vigor), make one immortal, and even raise the dead.

To practice alchemy requires not only considerable chemical knowledge and skill, it requires also an
equal amount of mystical knowledge and a pure soul. Alchemy is a spiritual practice as much as a
scientific one. An alchemical laboratory is a temple and a lingam is an important laboratory
accoutrement as any chemical apparatus. Alchemy, as with any study in India, is a path of salvation -
- in this case salvation through elixirs.
Planets

Sun; Surya, Ravi

Moon; Chandra, Soma

Mercury; Budha

Venus; Shukra

Mars; Mangala

Jupiter; Brihaspati

Saturn; Shani

Constellations

Aries; Mesha

Taurus; Vrishabha

Gemini; Mithuna

Cancer; Karkata

Leo; Sinha

Virgo; Kanya

Libra; Tula

Scorpio; Vrishika

Sagittarius; Dhanus

Capricorn; Makara

Aquarius; Kumbha

Pisces; Mina

As Within, So Without

As an individual person and their identity is inseparable from the universal soul ("tat tvam asi," see
Brahman and Atman, p. xx), so too is the body of a person intimately connected to the rest of the
world. The human body is a microcosm of the universe. Within the body (including the subtle body)
can be found everything that is without.

The body is made from the same atoms as the rest of the world and is moved by the same forces. The
elements are found in the body, earth is the bones, water the bodily fluids, air is the breath, and fire
in the blood. But not only that, the world itself (or India at least) is mirrored in the body. The Ganga
is the ida and Jamuna is the pingala (see Laya Yoga, p. xx), and all other sacred sites of India are
found within the body as well as the heavens and hells. Also contained in the bodies of all humans
are all possibilities, for example, each person, despite external appearances, are androgynous,
containing the other gender latent within them.

By controlling the substance and forces within one's own body, one can control the substances and
forces outside the body. It is in this way that magical control over one's surrounding can be achieved
through physical control and/or development. Furthermore, when one learns the geography of one's
own body, one is able to travel on pilgrimages to the sacred sites internally and get the benefits from
them without having to physically visit the sites.

Asceticism

The path of a sadhu is a hard one. The practice of asceticism involves eschewing possessions,
practicing painful austerities, and long periods of lonely contemplation. A sadhu will dress in no
more than robes (and often much less, as little as a smattering of ash) and survives on alms. Only
when these courses are sincerely followed will mystical knowledge come.

The process of removing oneself from the physical world is expedited by the practicing of tortuous
punishments, such as starvation, lying on beds of nails, staring at the sun, and standing on one leg.
As well as bringing one closer to the mystical levels of understanding, these ordeals generate tapas.

Madness

It is believed by some that magic users are indeed mad, explaining the tendency of sadhus to wear
only ash and to delve into areas best avoided by mortals. Perhaps this is true, that their quests into
the unknown have driven them mad, but then this madness might be the key to their ability to work
magic.

Laya Yoga

Laya yoga is a development of raja yoga (detailed on page xx), focussing on the kundalini. The
kundalini is an energy inside the human body. It is likened to a serpent that naturally lies coiled at
the base of the spine. By yogic techniques, the kundalini can be made to rise through the body up the
spine or sushumna. As it rises it passes through special points in the body known as chakras and
one's path to enlightenment is measured by which chakras the kundalini has reached. It is also
believed that as the chakras are "excited" by the kundalini psychic powers are gained.

There are seven important chakras on the spine. They are muladhara at the base of the spine,
svadishthana behind the genitals, manipura at the navel, anahata at the level of the heart, vishuddha
at the throat, ajna between the eyes, and sahasrara, the lotus of a thousand petals, just above the
head.

Laya yoga theory holds that there are in fact some 88,000 chakras in the body. It also theorizes the
existence of energy channels or nadis throughout the body which carry prana (which might be
translated as "vital air"). There are 72 million nadis and they exist in the subtle body (and hence are
invisible). The most important are the pingala and ida nadis which twist up and around the spine.
Manipulating a person's chakras and prana flows can influence their physical and spiritual health.

Elements

The elements in Indian metaphysics and magic differ from those presented in GURPS not only in
having a whole additional element, the ether, but also in the nature of the elements themselves,
particularly in the way the elements are related to the senses.
At its purest level matter has no manifestation in the physical world and exists only as a potential, at
which level it is known as tanmatra. In Indian thought, each of the elements is associated with one of
the five sensations. Tanmatra associated with a sensation is known as artha. Building up the
elements with the next conceptual level, that of the action of sensing, or vishayas, is obtained the
gross, physical elements, the mahabhutas, from which is made all physical matter. Hence each of the
five elements manifests as a sensation rather than incarnate matter and each of the sense organs is
sensitive to a particular element. These elements are not the inanimate, passive substances
recognizable in the GURPS magic system; instead they are active and dynamic, almost sentient.
They are more processes than substances, quick rather than inert. Rather than possessing qualities,
they are qualities themselves.

1. Ether (akasha) is associated with the sensation of hearing and the actions of the ear and is
manifest as sound. Ether is fluid, rarefied, and weightless. Ether is all-pervasive and is a medium for
remote influence.

2. Air (vayu) is the sensation of tactile feeling, which is felt through the skin. It is weightless and
rarefied and is cold and dry.

3. Fire (tejas) is seen through the eyes. It is luminous, hot, dry, and liquid.

4. Water (apas) is the sensation of taste and the tongue. It is liquid, cold, and soft.

5. Earth (prithivi) is smell and is experienced in the nose. Earth is inert, massive, hard, course, and
opaque.

True physical matter is made up of a combination of the elements, which are never naturally found
isolated.

The College of Ether

Given the association of ether with sound and the sense of hearing, it is sufficient to rename the
College of Sound the College of Ether.
Indian Bestiary
Natural Creatures
India is distinguished by its variety and abundance of animals. With a fauna so vast, it would be folly
to try to even list them here. Detailed in this chapter are those animals which are either unique to
India or require a more in-depth information additional to that given in Bestiary 3rd edition. The
number of animals is so much greater than can be expressed here and the GM should always make
an effort to fill any scene or situation with animals, using the list of animals in this chapter only as a
starting point.

It has been claimed that the only animal that is not held to be sacred by some group in India, is the
camel. Many animals are universally held sacred, such as the cow and the snake. Other animals are
considered sacred in certain circumstances or in particular places; crocodiles for example are
typically treated as fearsome animals to be avoided, but when kept in special tanks in temples, it is a
holy act to feed them. Even the dog and pig, normally seen as dirty animals, are worshipped by some
groups.

The Hindi name of each animal is given in parenthesis after its English name.

Bear (Richh) see p. BeXX

India's indigenous ursine is the sloth bear (mistakenly associated with the 3-toed sloth). It is similar
in size to the black bear and its stats are the same. It is black in color, with a horseshoe of tan fur on
its breast. The sloth bear is only aggressive in defense but often lets people get close enough to
warrant attacking them without warning them away. It is very dangerous in attack and its sharp
claws do cutting damage rather than crushing.

The sloth bear once roamed across India but is now very limited in numbers. It is most likely to be
found as a "dancing" bear, chained through its nose.

The Asian black bear also lives in the far north of India in the Himalayas.

Cattle (Gai) see p. BeXX

The Indian domestic cow is white or russet and features a large hump on its shoulders, of great use in
harnessing oxen to carts and ploughs, and a large flap of skin on the underside of the animal's neck
and breast. All Indian cattle have horns, some of remarkable size. Cattle are generally placid but can
get annoyed and will languidly try to strike with their horns by swinging their heads.

The cow far outstrips any other animal in its holiness. Its tranquility is seen as saintliness. On Hindu
festivals cows are fed sweets and some are ornamented and have their horns painted. Even so, cows
are still animals are treated in that way; a cow stealing an apple off a fruit cart will have its nose
belted, even if it is a god.

Other species of cattle of India include the granite-skinned water buffalo (see p. BeXX), both wild
and domestic, and the gaur, at 6' tall the largest cattle-beast in the world.

Crocodile (Magar) see p. BeXX

Once common in the rivers and swamps of India, the crocodile is now all but extinct. The common
fresh-water crocodile of India, the magar, is smaller than the average croc. Also found in Indian
rivers is the midget pencil-snouted gavial. The larger salt-water crocodile is often found in the
estuaries of Indian rivers.

Deer, etc. (Mrig) see p. BeXX

India is home to a large number of ungulates, including a number of species of deer, antelope, and
gazelle. The most common species of deer are the axis deer and the Indian sanbar; both range across
India. The nilgai and four-horn antelope are native to India but are in decline. The most impressive
antelope of India is the corkscrew-horned blackbuck, an endangered species. The edmi and goitered
gazelle live in western India.

Note that contrary to the entry in the Bestiary, the meat of deer is not highly prized in India.

Dog, Pariah (Kutta)

ST: 3-6 Speed/Dodge: 9/7 Size: 1

DX: 14 PD/DR: 0/0 Weight: 20-50 lbs.

IQ: 5 Damage: 1d-3 cut Habitat: urban

HT: 10-12 Reach: C

The urban feral dog of India is a pitiful creature. Known as pi-dogs, these starved, mange-ridden, and
tick-infested animals scavenge for scraps in the ubiquitous rubbish heaps of Indian cities. At night
they fill the cities with a litany of raucous barking.

Pi-dogs do not form packs and do not range far from their chosen territory. They are generally not
aggressive and are all but oblivious to the presence of humans. However, dogs are susceptible to
rabies, which drives them mad. A rabid dog is aggressive and may bite, the greatest danger of which
is in catching rabies from the dog's saliva.

Dog, Red (Dhole) see p. BeXX

The dhole is a small canine of India and looks like a cross between a dog and a red fox.

Their treatment in the Bestiary, after that of Kipling, has them far more gregarious than they are in
reality. It might be pointed out though that when their greater numbers gives them a sure advantage
they can be quite brave and packs have been known to bring down tigers.

Dolphin, River (Susu)

ST: 16-20 Speed/Dodge: 12/7 Size: 2-3

DX: 12 PD/DR: 0/0 Weight: 100-300 lbs

IQ: 8 Damage: 1d cr# Habitat: FW

HT: 12-14 Reach: C

The Indus and the Ganges are home to the river dolphin. Not all that closely related to the true
dolphin, the river dolphin is smaller than its salt-water cousin and sports a long and very thin snout
with needle sharp teeth. It differs in appearance also by having a head clearly distinct from its body.
It is almost blind and "sees" almost exclusively by echolocation. The river dolphin lives on fish and
crabs.

Elephant, Asiatic (Hathi)

ST: 250-280 Speed/Dodge: 8/0# Size: 10

DX: 12 PD/DR: 3/4 Weight: 5 tons

IQ: 6 Damage: 3d cr# Habitat: J, P

HT: 17/40-45 Reach: C, 1, 2

Magnificently massive, intelligent, highly versatile, and amenable to training, the elephant is one of
the wonders of India. They are one of India's most prized possessions and one of its most desired
treasures. Caparisoned and decorated they form part of the pageantry of India.

The Asian elephant stands as tall as 9 feet at the shoulder and weighs as much as 5 tons. (Note that
the stats above differ from the elephant stats in the Bestiary 3rd edition as they are for the Asian
elephant only.) Their main attacks are trampling and charging, which cause 3d crushing damage.
They may also use their trunks as weapons, doing 1d damage as a bludgeoning weapon with a
strength of 12 and a reach of 2 hexes, or the elephant may pick up and throw objects or opponents
(double the trunks ST when determining distance) with its trunk; see Throwing (p. B90) and Falling
(p. B131) to determine results. The elephant cannot dodge (though its trunk can dodge at 6) and its
skull has an extra 2 DR due to its thickness.

The elephant is a very intelligent animal. It is highly competent in the wild and makes good use of its
truck which it uses to grasp objects (treat as two-handed for lifting and carrying, see Lifting and
Moving Things, p. B89) and to siphon water, which it then spits out, either into its mouth or over its
body to shower (the elephant does not sweat and must wash regularly). The trunk is equipped with a
"finger," with which it is able to pick up objects as small as a coin. A male elephant is able to carry
large objects by using his trunk to cradle them in his tusks (female Asian elephants do not have
tusks). For these capabilities elephants have been used as draft animals in India for millennia.

In the wild, elephants live in highly sociable herds of 15-30 dozen animals, ranging over a large
territory. Elephants, with quite inefficient digestive systems, spend most of their day eating,
consuming several hundred pounds of food a day. Wild elephants must be respected; they are
generally happy to keep to themselves but will attack if provoked. Occasionally elephants will
encroach on the lands of humans through desperation and may trample whole villages to the ground
to drive people away. Stories are told of elephants getting drunk from illicit stills found in their
jungle and causing destruction in their inebriety.

Elephants have not been fully domesticated and are mustered in the wild when they are young and
subjected to rigorous training (from which less than half survive). A trained elephant is very loyal,
particularly to their rider, or mahout, to whom they can be very protective. So close is the bond
between elephant and mahout (a mahout will drink from an elephant's trunk) and so intelligent is the
animal that they can learn a number of spoken commands. Domesticated elephants are greatly loved
by Indians and during festivals they are decorated with colorful caparisons and painted.

Elephants are good for riding. An elephant can carry a rider on its neck or back. Alternatively, the
elephant can carry a howdah, a small platform strapped to the elephant's back. An elephant will not
carry more than Medium encumbrance (10xST) on its back, but can manage several people in a
howdah.
Fully trained elephants are generally docile but can be very dangerous when enraged. Male elephants
between 15 and 20 years old go through a phase of heightened aggressiveness. About 3 times a year,
for periods between a day and one month, they become dangerously bellicose; a state known as
musth, forewarned by the secretion of an odoriferous discharge from neck glands. Musth bulls are
either not worked during their difficult stage or are worked so hard they are too tired to get
aggressive.

Elephants were highly valued in battle, being one of the four limbs of the ancient army (see Ancient
Armies, p. xx). Their chief use was in intimidating and trampling ground troops, but were very useful
in crushing defenses, crossing difficult terrain, and being an elevated platform for archers. A
problem with elephants on the battlefield was that if panicked they could cause as much damage and
disarray to one's own army. Rulers would see it as a high priority to build a strong retinue of war
elephants and would spend a fortune on them and would stage fights between their elephants for
entertainment.

In cosmology elephants (along with the tortoise Akapura and the snake Sheshnag) hold up the world,
and 8 elephant couples guard the 8 directions. In ancient times elephants had wings and would fly
amongst the clouds. However, once a number of elephants alighted on a branch of the tree under
which the sage Dirghatamas was preaching. The branch broke and several of the sage's students were
crushed, so the sage cursed the elephants to forever lose their wings.

The African elephant is taller than the Asian elephant, reaching heights of 12 ft and weights of 8
tons, but is comparatively slender considering its greater size. It has larger ears (to provide more
cooling for its bigger body) and tusks and the tallest point of its body is its head, rather than back in
the case of the Asian elephant. The African elephant is less amenable to being tamed than the Asian.

Horse (Ghota) see p. BeXX

Many breeds of horse have been introduced to India from as early as the Aryan migration. It is an
important and valuable animal in India. The Muslims brought several of their species of horse to
Indian, including the impressive Arab, as highly valued in India as it is anywhere.

Jackal (Siyar) see p. BeXX

The jackal resembles something like the cross between a fox and a wolf, however, they are more
likely to be heard than seen. They live on the verges of civilization and enter towns looking for
scavenge, but are very timorous and flee at the first sight of a human.

At night jackals indulge in choral howling, a disturbing and ominous sound to those unused to it.

Jackals are crafty and intelligent. If caught young they can be tamed.

Leopard (Chita) see p. BeXX

Of the great cats, the leopard is one of the smallest. It makes up for this by being crafty. Leopards
spend a good deal of time in trees, where they take their prey to avoid interlopers. Despite being one
of nature's greatest killers, the leopard is preyed upon itself, by the tiger and lion. With these two
animals dwindling, the leopard is now the paramount predator in the Indian jungle.

Lion (Singh) see p. BeXX

The lion was once king of the Indian jungle, but as humans have encroached on its territory it has
dwindled to a small protected enclave in the Gir forest in Gujarat. As in other lands where lions have
roamed, the nobility of lions is recognized in India; Ashoka used the lion on his monuments (an odd
symbol for a pacifist perhaps).

Mongoose (Nakul) see p. BeXX

The mongoose ranges across India. Its fame as an enemy of snakes comes mainly from its being
pitted against them in captivity for show. All the same, the mongoose is an effective fighter of
snakes, which it achieves by keeping above the snake, which must strike downwards.

Monkey (Bandar) see p. BeXX

ST: 5 Speed/Dodge: 9/7 Size: 1

DX: 17 PD/DR: 0/0 Weight: 20-40 lbs.

IQ: 6 Damage: 1d-4 cr Habitat: J, F, P

HT: 13/4-5 Reach: C

India is home to a number of species of monkey. The most common are the Hanuman langur found
across India, the rhesus found in the north, and bonnet macaque found in the south. The statistics
above are for the Hanuman. The Hanuman langur is slender and long limbed, having a distinctly
human appearance, and are particularly dexterous. Their fur is silver and their faces and extremities
dark gray or black. Normally placid they have little respect for humans and adult monkeys are
particularly brave. They form troupes of any size between 10 and 100 (depending on the ability of
their territory to sustain them) and live in a variety of habitats from thick jungle to semi-desert and
are found in cities all over India.

The rhesus and the bonnet macaque, both of the macaque genus, are smaller than the Hanuman,
averaging between 15 and 25 lbs, but are stockier. They are slightly less strong and less dexterous.
They are typically colored brown with a light colored face.

Monkeys are feared for their strength and petulance. They can be particularly dangerous when they
contract rabies. However, monkeys are worshipped in India, particularly the Hanuman langur
because of its association with Hanuman. In regions where monkeys proliferate temples to Hanuman
are often built.

Rhinoceros (Gandak) see p. BeXX

The Indian or gray rhinoceros is as big as the white rhino of Africa. It has only one horn and its skin
is arranged into thick armor-like plates.

In addition to its horn and its trample, the Indian rhino can attack with its sharp tusk-like teeth for
1d+1 cutting damage.

The range of rhinos has decreased considerably and is now only found in the far east of India. Its
population has dwindled as its habitat has been taken over by humans and it has been hunted, its
horn and skin being considered potent magical substances.

Snake (Naga) see p. BeXX

There are many, many species of snake in India. The different varieties of snake vary from monsters
several yards long to snakes so small they are veritably cute. They can be found anywhere, in the
grass, in the dust, in the water, in the home.

The most notorious of India's snakes is the king cobra. It is the largest of the poisonous snakes with a
venom that can kill an elephant. The cobra's signature is its ability to stretch its neck to create a hood
below its head making it seem larger. It does this in the striking-ready pose, hissing menacingly, and
perhaps slithering forward -- positively terrifying.

Other notable snakes in India are various varieties of python and viper and other varieties of cobra.

Snakes are spiritually potent in India. They are regarded with a mixture of respect, awe, and fear.
They are respected from a pragmatic point of view because they can be so dangerous, but this
menace, combined with their otherworldliness lead them to being considered hallowed and
possessing great spirituality. There are quite a number of cosmic serpents, many of them having
multiple heads.

Tiger (Badh) see p. BeXX

The Bengal tiger is one of the largest subspecies of tiger and it is India's most effective and
magnificent hunters. However, its very beauty and formidableness have led to its downfall as has
been hunted to near extinction.

The tiger is master the Indian wilds, with no enemies other than humans. They are the stealthy
solitary hunters of the jungle, able to remain hidden in undergrowth by their camouflage before
bursting forth in a furious attack, grabbing their victim by the throat and breaking its neck or
strangling it. They are consummate predators, stealthy, alert, and indomitable in a fray.

Though they are formidable animals, humans generally should not fear tigers as they will only attack
if they believe they are under attack themselves, which they will believe if you get too close. Some
tigers do decide that humans are good prey, generally these tigers are injured, weak, or have
contracted rabies. The tigers of the Sunderbans though have developed a taste for humans and scores
of people are killed by tigers there every year.

The tiger's attractive pelt and fearsome reputation has made it the foremost trophy prey of
recreational hunters. Despite being a peerless hunting/killing machine, the tiger has no answer to the
gun. Extravagant royal hunts would slaughter dozens of tigers in a single foray. Hunting, as much as
loss of habitat, is the cause of the destruction of the populations of tigers. Tiger hunting is now
illegal but poaching still continues. The protection and regeneration of the tiger population is a
priority of the Indian government

Wolf (Bhediya) see p. Bexx

The Indian wolf is slightly smaller than the average wolf. Wolves are found in northern India, as far
south as the Deccan, but not in south India. It is unwelcome in India and has nearly been
exterminated.

Creatures of Rumour
Indian mythology mentions a number of animals which are not now seen in India. Quite likely they
exist only in myth, but the possibility of them still living in the jungles and waters of India will be an
exciting prospect for cryptozoologists.

Ihamriga
ST: 220-250 Speed/Dodge: 4/4 Size: 10

DX: 9 PD/DR: 3/4 Weight: 5 tons

IQ: 6 Damage: 3d cr Habitat: FW

HT: 17/40-45 Reach: C, 1, 2

The ihamriga is an aquatic elephant that inhabits the rivers and lakes of India. It differs from the
terrestrial elephant only that it has no legs, Instead has huge fins on its torso with which it swims.

Fins or legs, the natural element for an elephant is the land. The ihamriga is a poor swimmer, being
slow and not greatly mobile. Still, with its bulk and its tusks it can be a danger to boats and
swimmers.

Sharabha

ST: 50-75 Speed/Dodge: 9/5 Size: 3

DX: 10 PD/DR: 5/2 Weight: 1 ton

IQ: 4 Damage: 2d# Habitat: J, P

HT: 16/30-40 Reach: C

The most formidable animal of the mythical Indian jungle is not the tiger, it the sharabha, a
fearsome creature that scares even India's great predators. The sharabha is a large, but not greatly
bulky, creature that runs on 6 or 8 legs. It has 2 horns on its head and often one on its nose like a
rhinoceros, the charging blow of which causes 2d crushing damage. Most fearsomely, its body is
covered in stiff, arrow-like spikes. These spikes make the sharabha very hard and very dangerous to
hit in close combat. Every time a blow is landed on the sharababha's body, a DX roll must be made
to avoid 1d impaling damage to the attackers arm.

The sharabha is a rare animal, which is very lucky as it is aggressive and relentless.

Shardula

ST: 24-30 Speed/Dodge: 10/6 Size: 2

DX: 13 PD/DR: 1/1 Weight: 300-600 lbs.

IQ: 4 Damage: 2d-2 cut Habitat: J, P

HT: 15/16-20 Reach: C,1

The shardula is a lion with a beak rather than a maw. It cannot roar like a lion, and instead shrieks.

Yali

ST: 24-30 Speed/Dodge: 10/6 Size: 2

DX: 13 PD/DR: 1/1 Weight: 300-600 lbs.

IQ: 4 Damage: 2d-2 cut Habitat: J, P

HT: 15/16-20 Reach: C,1

The yali is quite an unusual animal, being essentially a lion with an elephant's trunk. The yali's trunk
is proportionally smaller than that of an elephant, having a strength of only 6 and a reach of 1, but is
just as versatile.

Supernatural Creatures
Within India's enormous body of mythology are contained myriad supernatural creatures. This
section details those that have not been published elsewhere. To this list of creatures should be
appended: chordewa (p. BT85 passim), cushna (p. FB20), dundubhis (p. FB22), ghormuha (p.
FB26), kaliya (p. FB36), makara (p. FB43), panchajana (p. FB50), pishaca (p. UN83), preta (p.
UN73 passim), vetala (pp. BT86, UN83), and vritra (p. FB94).

Note that most of the supernatural creatures below are sentient, some of them sufficiently so to be
considered intelligent races and are detailed with race templates rather than simply stats. GMs can
therefore generate instances of the race in all their variety. Some too might be used as PC races.

Some of the creatures live in other realms, or at least, part of their population lives in another realm.
These are the apsaras and ghandarvas, nagas, yakshas, rakshasas, hataka, bhutas, kumbhandas.
How these creatures travel between earth and the other realms depends on the relationship between
the realms in a particular campaign. If the realms are on different planes then some form of gate
magic is required. It may be that the creature may only travel when sent by a god; the hataka for
example, as servants of Shiva might reside only in their home, Vitala, until transported to earth by
Shiva. Alternatively, there may be some of the race who know Gate Magic, specifically the spells
Plane Shift and Plane Shift Other or Create Gate. This might be the case for the naga, rakshasa, and
yaksha. If the races are able to move between the planes freely then each member of the race should
have a Plane Shift as a Knack. For the case of the apsaras and ghandarvas, Plane Shift Knacks
might be the norm, or it might be an advantage held only by a few, or not by any with the aid of gods
being required to move between planes. (In the description of apsaras and ghandarvas below it is
assumed Plane Shift is a Knack for all. If this is taken away decrease the cost of the template by 40
points.) If the different realms are simply different levels of the same physical earth then no magic is
required.

Apsara and Gandharva

The apsaras are gandharvas are celestial beings; female and male respectively. They live in heaven
(Indra's court in particular) and entertain the gods with music, dance, games, artistry, and sexual arts.
Their ministrations are also a reward for meritorious mortals.

In appearance apsaras are gandharvas look like exceedingly attractive and sensuous humans. They
can be identified as heavenly as they dress in the fashions of heaven rather than of earth. They are all
but irresistible to mortals and make a pastime out of seducing humans. It requires great willpower to
resist their seductions and only the truly holy and self-controlled can manage it. If their powers of
compulsion do not work, they can use their powers of magic, most commonly involving illusions
that cause confusion and madness.

As servants of the gods, they are often ordered to earth for the purposes of seducing humans,
particularly rishis in their austerities. Their relationships with humans can have more depth however;
they can be helpful and have been known to fall in love with humans marked with evident destiny.
Gandharvas often aid virtuous warriors, but being stout fighters themselves, their aid is commonly
only offered if the supplicant agrees to a duel with the gandharva.

The first apsaraa were born at the churning of the ocean (see Amrit, p. xx). As well as living in
heaven, the gandharvas have their own city, the roving Visapana. Apsaras and gandharvas also have
the aspects of nature spirits and can be found living in trees and cavorting in the wilds, sometimes in
less attractive, more savage guises -- even satyr-like, having animal limbs for example.

Apsaras and Gandarvas 262

Advantages: Very Handsome/Beautiful [25]; Divine Favor [25]; Doesn't Sleep [20]; Immortality
[140]; Inherent Magic (Persuasion) [20]; Inherent Magic (Plane Shift) [40]; Limited Magery 1 (Mind
Control Spells) [10]; Music Ability 5 [5].

Disadvantages: Compulsive Carousing [-5]; Duties (to the gods) [-5]; Short Attention Span [-10];
Social Stigma (Non-Human) [-15].

Skils Bonuses:Artistic Skills +2 [12]; Carousing +2 [2]; Sex Appeal +3 [3].

Bhuta

If the correct rituals are not performed for the dead, the spirit will become a ghost or bhuta.

Bhutas are generally invisible and incorporeal, so their actions on the physical world are subtle,
typically accomplished through curses. The curses of bhutas are usually motivated by jealousy or
spite. They can only cause malice, so the only bhutas that will be encountered will be evil spirits.

Sometimes a bhuta who has great unsatisfied desires can take a physical form. The most common
form of bodied bhuta is the unmarried woman. Such a bhuta will often waylay young men who are
typically found dead the next day. Stories have been told of men marrying these bhutas, only to have
their nature revealed to them later (e.g. by the bhuta stretching her fingers unnaturally when reaching
for something).

The world is rarely cleansed of bhutas so their number is constantly increasing. They often live in
trees, sometimes restricting themselves to this dwelling, but will often be found in their mortal
remains if not disposed of properly. Bhutas have keen hearing and will usually come when their
name is called.

Guhyaka

The guhyaka are one of a number of races that serve Kubera, the God of Riches.

Incredibly secretive, the guhyaka live in hideouts in the jungle and in caves, guarding the wealth of
Kubera. Their natural form is as a human with an angelic appearance, but when in battle they appear
demonic. They are masters of concealment also know mantras that help to keep them in seclusion
from humans (these include Avoid, Hide, Hush, and Invisibility).

The term "guhyaka" is also used to refer generally to spirits of concealment.

Guhyaka 20 points

Advantages: Handsome [15], Divine Favor (Kubera, not a particularly powerful god who will rarely
help) [10], Magical Aptitude [15], Silence [5]
Disadvantages: Bezerk [-15] (temporary disadvantage Monstrous while bezerk), Social Stigma
(Non-Human) [-15]

Racial Skill Bonuses: Stealth +3 [4], Camouflage +2 [1]

Hataka

ST: 35 Speed/Dodge: 7/5 Size: 1

DX: 9 PD/DR: 0/2 Weight: 400-500 lbs.

IQ: 7 Damage: 2d-1 cut (bite) Habitat: caves

HT: 20 Reach: C, 1

Dwelling in caves and underground caverns, the hatakas are a race of savage ogres. No friends to
humanity, they live on raw meat and dress in rags. They are hulking, hirsute beasts with oversized
teeth.

The hatakas are worshippers and servants of Shiva. They represent his primitive side and the
connection between human and beast. Shiva uses them to do his work so their motives are often
unfathomable.

Kimpurusha

The kimpurushas are a race of wilderness people living far from human civilization, with their
largest population in the Himalayas. They are comely and graceful, often clad in fine clothing. As a
race they are adept at magic.

In kimpurusha society, there is equality between the sexes and when they marry they are rarely
found without their partner.

Kimpurusha 41 points

ST -1 [-10]; DX +1 [10]; HT -1 [-10]

Advantages:Animal Empathy [5]; Attractive [5], Decreased Life Support [10]; Magical Aptitude 1
[15] High Technology +1 [20].

Disadvantages:Intolerance [-5]; Social Stigma (Non-Human) [-15]

Racial Skill Bonuses:Animal Skills +1 [6]

Kinnara

In Kubera's court, the kinnara are his musicians. They have horses heads and their bodies are
typically human, though bird-bodied kinnaras are also known.

Kumbhanda.

ST: 40 Speed/Dodge: 13/8 Size: 1

DX: 15 PD/DR: 1/2 Weight: 300-400 lbs

IQ: 4 Damage: 2d impale (claws, bite) Habitat:

HT: 35 Reach: C

The kumbhandas are a hideous race of monsters. These tall ogres are covered in wiry bristles, have
sharp fangs and claws, huge bloodshot eyes, and have repulsive, capacious genitalia. Their breath is
putrid and can cause madness (as the Madness spell, p. M58).

Naga

BODY-2CL:The nagas are an ancient race of serpent people. They are physically half human, half
snake, with their lower quarters being that of a huge snake.

Nagas were once lords of the earth, but ceded it to the Aryans. They are now only rarely found on
earth and live chiefly in their kingdom of Patala. The art, science, and magic of the nagas is superior
to that of humans. It was recognized by the Aryans that the nagas were culturally advanced even
though they didn't sacrifice to the Aryan gods. However, the Aryans were fearful of the power the
nagas obtained from their serpent patrons so they drove them from India rather than try to learn from
them.

Nagas are an important part of the mythology of India and they are described in various ways. An
alternative description has them simply as snake-worshipping humans. To nagas are ascribed the
maintenance of aspects of the natural earth, the waterways and cycles of rain in particular.

Note that the nagas should not necessarily be equated with the people of Nagaland who are also
called Nagas.

Naga 53 points

DX +1 [10], IQ +1 [10]

Advantages: High Technology +1 [20]; Magical Aptitude [15]; Speak with Snakes (an instance of
Speak with Animals) [5]

Disadvantages:Social Stigma (Non-Human/Non-Aryan) [-15]

Skill Bonuses:Soft Sciences +1 [6]; Hard Sciences +2 [12]

Nishada

Driven into the wilderness by the encroachments of the Aryans, the nishadas are a race of dwarfs,
black in complexion with red eyes. They are perpetually a tech-level behind humans.

Nishada 2 points

HT +1 [10].

Advantages:Fit [5].

Disadvantages:Primitive -1 [-5];Social Stigma (Non-Aryan) [-15]; Unattractive [-5].

Racial Skill Bonuses:Craft Skills +1 [6]; Outdoor Skills +1 [6].

Pramatha

ST: 9 Speed/Dodge: 5/5 Size: 1

DX: 10 PD/DR: 0/0 Weight: 60-90 lbs

IQ: 8-9 Damage: Weapon Habitat: graveyards, rubbish dumps

HT: 9 Reach: Weapon

Skils:Hand weapon (e.g. garrote, knife, shortsword, spear) 10

Attendents of Shiva, the pramathas are ugly and malicious goblin-like beings. They are short and
misshapen, with crooked limbs, squashed faces, and ruddy, leathery skin. If they bother to dress they
will wear little more than rags and will typically carry nothing more than a dagger. Of no great
intelligence and with a spiteful sense of humor, a pramatha enjoys nothing more than harassing
people, scaring them and stealing their belongings.

They are typically found in graveyards as they have a taste for carrion.

Some pramathas possess evil magic (curses chiefly) that they can cast on people who have not
performed their religious rituals or ablutions properly.

Rakshasa

ST: 25 Speed/Dodge: 7/8 Size: 1

DX: 16 PD/DR: 1/1 Weight: 300-400 lbs

IQ: 9 Damage: 1d+1 cut or by weapon Habitat: various

HT: 20 Reach: C

Typical Skills: Hand Weapon 18

The rakshasa are the despoilers of sacrifices and the enemies of humanity.

Epic India is populated by a vast number of rakshasas. They are a constant bother to heroes in the
wilderness and there are whole kingdoms of rakshasas, Ravana's kingdom at Lanka for example.
They come in a variety of forms (rakshasas are the favorite supernatural being in Indian myth and
have been described in many different ways in many different sources), the typical rakshasa, for
which stats above are provided, is huge and strong with long powerful limbs, bulbous red eyes, long
tongues, and curved fangs too big even for its oversized mouth. However, it is common for a
rakshasa to differ from the above description in at least one significant way that makes them even
more unnatural and hideous. Examples are multiple heads or limbs, preternaturally long limbs, or
extraordinarily large mouths that can consume enormous quantities. One peculiar rakshasa was
nothing more than a mound of flesh with a mouth and one eye.

One breed of rakshasa had tiger heads and were the enemies of Agni. (It may be however that the
term "rakshasa" has been broadened here to include a whole other class of beings.)

(Compare also the raksha ogres of GURPS China, p. 120. These are certainly the same creatures as
Indian rakshasas, or at least a sub-breed, though their culture may have diverged somewhat over the
years.)

Rakshasas are the principal enemies of humans and in Indian fantasy setting are likely to be the most
important and commonly encountered supernatural beings. The GM should customize rakshasa to fit
the campaign. They may be inhuman, blood-drinking demons with an appearance much like that
above, more powerful at night than during the day. Alternatively they may have a civilization as
cultivated as that of humans, though debased due to their shunning of the Vedic sacrifice. In
appearance they may be indistinguishable from humans (Ravana is sometimes depicted as being
human, his exceptional number of heads notwithstanding). They may each be possessed of
supernatural powers (shape-changing and speeds faster than the wind are two powers often ascribed
to them) or instead it may only be trained sorcerer rakshasas that can use magical powers. In a
modern fantasy campaign they may hide themselves amongst humans with their powers of shape-
changing or illusion. They might even be found in futuristic and sci-fi settings; in Roger Zelazny's
Lord of Light the rakshasas are an alien race indigenous to a planet colonized by humans.

The racial template below can be modified as the GM sees fit.

Rakshasa 390 points

ST +15 [150]; DX +6 [80]; IQ -1 [-10]; HT +10 [175]

Advantages: Claws (Sharp) [25]; Early Maturation 6 [30]; Magical Aptitude [15]; Night Vision [10];
Teeth (Fangs) [10]; Toughness DR1 [10]

Disadvantages: Horrific [-30]; Bloodthirst [-15]; Frightens Animals [-10]; Increased Life Support [-
10]; Odious Personal Habits [-5]; Sadism [-15]; Social Stigma (Enemy of Humanity) [-20]

Vanara

The vanara, Hanuman's people, are a race of intelligent monkeys. They live chiefly in the forests of
India central regions (vana = forest). Here they have established kingdoms of fair sophistication.

There are suggestions that there are tribes of other intelligent animals, bears being an example.

An Aryan-centric view of ancient India has the north populated by humans, Aryans, the central
regions populated by anthropomorphic animals, friendly non-Aryan tribes, and the south populated
by rakshasa, hostile non-Aryan kingdoms.

Vanara 31 points

ST -5 [-40]; DX +7 [100]; IQ -1 [-10]; HT +3 [30].

Advantages: Decreased Life Support [10]; Extra Arms x 2 (Short Arms, temporary disadvantage
Legless when in use) [6]; Penetrating Call [5]; Perfect Balance [15]; Super Climbing +2 [6]; Super
Jump +2 [20].

Disadvantages: Cannot Swim [0]; Distractible [-1]; Edgy [-5]; Reduced Hit Points -9 [-45]; Semi-
Upright [-5]; Short Lifespan 2 [-20]; Sleepy [-10]; Social Stigma (Non-Aryan) [-15].

Yaksha

The yaksha are a group of beings more varied even than the rakshasa. They come in any form (and
in fact are generally able to change shape at will) and may have either a malicious, neutral, or
benevolent. They overlap with rakshasa and bhuta, as well as seemingly being a generic name for
spirits. They are the most commonly occurring beasts in folklore (as rakshasa are in myth and epics)
and may in fact be a wide range of creatures and spirits, rather than a single variegated race.

The class or breed of yaksha described in the racial template below are those that attend to Kubera.
These yaksha have a society as sophisticated as that of humans and they live in splendid
underground settlements and cities in other realms. They may have temperaments of any sort, from
virtuous to evil, though their personalities are generally more pronounced than human's; their
warriors are more valiant and their brahmins are more devout. Like their master, they are squat,
bow-legged, and pot-bellied.

Yaksha -1 points

Advantages:Divine Favor (Kubera, not a particularly powerful god who will rarely help) [10];
Comfortable [10]

Disadvantages:Unattractive [-5], Bowlegged [-1]; Social Stigma (Non-human) [-15]

Quirks:Characters must take at least three quirks and as many as six.

Yatu

ST: 15 Speed/Dodge: 6/5 Size: 1

DX: 10 PD/DR: 0/0 Weight: 200-250 lbs

IQ: 9 Damage: 1d-1 cut Habitat: various

HT: 15 Reach: C

The yatus are a degenerate breed of sub-rakshasa. They will almost always be found in the presence
of their more powerful cousins, feeding on the scraps of carrion the rakshasas do not finish. In their
natural form they appear similar to rakshasas but are smaller and typically hoofed. If the rakshasas
of a campaign can learn magic then so can the yatus, but at a much less powerful level.
Indian Glossary
Adivasis: A general name for the many primitive tribes living in the wildernesses of India, even in
the modern day. They are also known as tribals and junglis.

Ahimsa: Non-violence.

Ajivika: An extinct religion formulated at the same time as Jainism. Ajivikas believe in the
inevitability of destiny.

Akasha: 1. The ether. One of the five elements of the sankhya and one of the five non-physical
realities of the vaisheshika philosophy.

2. Magical energy.

Amrit: Divine elixir of immortality.

Arthashastra: Ancient Machiavellian text on statecraft.

Aryan: A culture of Indo-European language speakers. Believed to have migrated to India in the 2nd
millennium B.C. One of the major influences on Indian culture.

Ashramas: Four phases of life. The brahmacharya ashrama student phase, grihastha ashrama
homemaker phase, vanaprastha ashrama "forest" stage, and sannyasa ashrama mendicant phase.

Ashvamedha: Horse sacrifice in which a raja proves his dominion and power over his neighbors.

Asuras: A classification of gods opposing the devas who make up the majority of the Hindu
pantheon.

Atman: The individual soul.

Avatara: An incarnation of a god on earth.

Ayurveda: Tradition of holistic medicine.

Bhakti: Devotion.

Bhakti Yoga: The path to moksha through devotion.

Brahman: The soul of the universe.

Brahmanda: The golden egg that contains creation.

Brahmin: One of the four varnas whose role is that of priest or scholar.

Buddha, The: The Enlightened One. After Siddhartha Gautama discovered the four Noble Truths of
Buddhism he became the Buddha.

Buddhism: Religion founded by Buddha based overcoming the misery of life by overcoming desire.
Adherents are called Buddhists.
Caste: A division of society. In India it typically refers to jati, but is sometimes taken to refer to
varna or any general division of society.

Chakra: 1. Wheel.

2. A critical point of the body activated by the kundalini.

Chakravartin: One For Whom the Wheel Turns. Universal Emperor.

Darshan: 1. Vision.

2. Six schools of Indian philosophy: nyaya, vaisheshika, sankhya, yoga, mimamsa, and vedanta.

Deccan: South. Generally used to refer to the plateau of peninsular India.

Devas: Gods.

Dharma: Righteousness, but in a very strong sense. A cosmic righteousness, ordained by a power
beyond the gods, and beyond even thought. The particular dharma for an individual depends on what
varna they were born in and which ashrama they are in.

Dhimmis: People of the Book. People of religions related to Islam who are spared annihilation but
must pay the jizya. This status was extended even to Hinduism.

Digambara: Jain sect believing clothes should not be worn by the devout.

Din-I-Ilahi: Religion established by Akbar.

Dowry: Payment by a bride's family to her groom and often the rest of his family. Ostensibly for her
security but essentially a gift to the groom.

East India Company: British company with monopoly rights to trade with the East. Came to rule
most of India.

Factory: Trading post.

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, (Mahatma): Social reformer and freedom fighter par
excellence. Using assertive non-violence compelled British to leave India.

Ghi: Clarified butter.

Great Game, The: Machinations between Imperial Russia and Britain conducted mostly in Central
Asia.

Greater Vehicle: See Mahayana.

Gupta Empire: Empire spanning northern India in the 4th to 6th centuries A.D. Coincided with
what is generally considered a golden age in Hindu culture.

Guru: Teacher.

Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca expected to be performed by all Muslims.

Harem: Section of a palace set aside for the female and children royal members (including wives,
mistresses, and daughters).

Himalayas: Abode of the Clouds. Mountain range running across the north of India.

Hinduism: The religion of India's majority. Based on a belief in reincarnation determined by one's
actions. Characterized also by a large pantheon and a doctrine of social division. Adherents are
called Hindus.

Howdah: Platform for riding an elephant.

Imam: Islamic prayer leader.

Islam: Monotheistic religion founded by Mohammed. Although originating in the Middle East,
Islam became an important religion in India. Adherents are called Muslims.

Jainism: Religion founded by Mahavira. Its principal tenet is that action ties the immortal soul to the
corrupt physical world. Followers are called Jains.

Jati: A uniquely Indian division of society into tribe-like endogamous communities, defined in large
part by occupation.

Jihad: Holy war.

Jizya: Tax on non-Muslims.

Jnana Yoga: The path to moksha through knowledge. Pronounced "gyana yoga."

Kamasutra: Manual on hedonistic living. Famously including sections on erotics.

Karma: A measure of one's good and bad actions in life. One's karma determines one's
reincarnation.

Karma Yoga: The path to moksha through selfless toil.

Khalsa, The: Sikh military brotherhood, the Army of the Pure, which all male Sikhs belong to.

Koh-i-Noor: Mountain of Light. A famous diamond.

Koran: Muslim holy book.

Kshatriya: One of the four varna whose roles include ruling and fighting.

Kumbha Mela: India's largest festival, occurring once every three years at one of four locations in a
12 year cycle.

Kundalini: A snake-like energy that can be induced to rise up the spine, bringing enlightenment.

Kurukshetra: Field on which the great battle of the Mahabharata was fought.

Left Hand Path: See Vamachara.

Lesser Vechicle: See Theravada.

Mahabharata: Great India. One of Hinduism two great epics.

Mahajanapada: Tribal kingdoms.

Maharaja: Literally "great king" but generally referring to a king of no particular authority.

Mahayana: The Great Vehicle of Buddhism. A sect that believes that all humans are raised towards
enlightenment together, with the help of already enlightened bodhisattvas.

Mamluk: Slave soldier of Islam.

Mansab: An official of the Moghul Empire.

Mantra: Spoken spell.

Marathas: Warrior caste of western India.

Marga: Path.

Martial Races: Those peoples deemed sufficiently trustworthy by the British to join the Indian
army.

Mauryan Empire: Indian empire of the 3rd and 4th centuries B.C. Distinguished by being the first
large empire of India and for Ashoka, the saintly emperor.

Masala: Mixture.

Maya: Illusion.

Moghul, (Great): Ruler of the Moghul Empire (16th to 18th centuries).

Moksha: Release from samsara. Realized by a union of the atman with Brahman.

Mulla: Islamic religious teacher or sage.

Muslim: Follower of Islam.

Nadi: Channel within the sukshama sharira carrying prana.

Nawab: Govenor.

Nirvana: The indescribable state reached when one is released from samsara. Simultaneously a state
of being and non-being.

Nizam: Ruler of Hyderabad.

Papa: Sins.

Pardah: The practice of keeping women out of sight of non-family members.

Parsi: The Indian name for a follower of Zoroastrianism. Refugees from Persia.

Partition: When British India became independent it was partitioned into two countries, India and
Pakistan.

Peacock Throne: Gem-encrusted throne of the Moghul Empire.

People of the Book: See dhimmis.

Peshwa: Prime-minister of the Maratha kingdom. Became effective ruler.

Prana: Vital air. Ethereal effluvium carried in the nadis.

Puja: Ritual prayer.

Punya: Virtuous deeds.

Puranas: Hindu books of mythology.

Rakshasa: Evil creatures. Enemies of humanity.

Raj, The: British rule of India.

Raja: King or chief.

Raja Yoga: The path to moksha and magical powers through psycho-physical discipline.

Rajput: Esteemed warrior caste.

Rama: Hero of Ramayana, avatara of God, and symbol for righteous Hindu rule.

Ramayana: The story of Rama. One of Hinduism two great epics.

Rani: Queen.

Reincarnation: Rebirth in new life but with the same atman.

Resident: British observer/governor in independent princely states.

Rishi: Sage.

Rita: Cosmic dharma.

Sadhu: Wandering ascetic.

Samsara: The cycle of birth and rebirth. Reincarnation.

Sannyasi: One who has abandoned the world to live as a mendicant.

Sati: Widow suicide.

Satyagraha: Truth force. Philosophy of absolute non-violence and faith in one's cause pioneered by
Mahatma Gandhi.

Sepoys: Native infantrymen in British Indian Army.

Shaivism: Hindu sect venerating Shiva.

Shakti: Power.

Shaktism: Hindu sect glorifying goddesses.

Shariat: Islamic law.

Shia: Islamic sect. Descendents of those who believed Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law, should have
been the first caliph.

Shramana: Non-brahminic religious savant of Vedic times.

Shreni: Guild.

Shudra: One of the four varnas whose place it is to serve.

Sikhism: Religion fusing elements of Hinduism and Islam founded by Nanak. Later became
distinctly martial. Followers are Sikhs.

Sky Clad: See Digambara.

Shula Sharira: Physical body.

Shvetambaras: Jain sect that allows the wearing of clothes.

Soma: Narcotic drink used in early Hindu religious rites.

Suble Body: See sukshma sharira.

Sufism: Islamic mysticism.

Sukshma Sharira: Subtle body. Bodily home of the soul.

Sunni: Islamic sect. Descendents of those who supported Abu Bakr, Mohammed's father-in-law, as
the first caliph.

Tantras: Holy books of Shaktism.

Tapas: Heat. Subtle magical energy created by religious rituals and austerities.

Thagi: Sect of Kali worshipers who murdered travelers.

Theravada: The Lesser Vehicle of Buddhism. A sect that believes that enlightenment can only be
achieved individually through individual effort.

Turiya: An enlightened state of consciousness attained by abandoning all maya.

Untouchable: Hindus born without a varna. To untouchables are assigned the most debased of jobs.

Upanishads: Mystical texts of Hinduism. The most influential works on modern Hindu philosophy.

Vaishnavism: Hindu sect exalting Vishnu.

Vaishya: One of the four varnas whose role is that of peasant, merchant, or artisan.

Vamachara: Debased Shaktic sub-sect believing that spiritual development is brought about by
performing deviant acts.

Varna: One of four classes of society, brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, and sudra.

Veda: Knowledge. The earliest texts of Hinduism.

White Clad: See Shvetambara.

Yoga: Yoke. 1. A method of attaining moksha.

2. A system of physical and mental discipline.

Yuga: An eon.

Zoroastrianism: Religion of ancient Persia. Founded by Zoroaster, or Zarathustra. Followers are

called Zoroastrians, or Parsis in India.
Bibliography
Basham, A.L.: The Wonder That Was India (Sidgwick and Jackson, 1954). A survey of the culture of
the sub-continent before the coming of the Muslims. Cross off the title and write in "GURPS Hindu
India." A hugely useful source on pre-Islamic India; equaled only by Walker's Hindu World (see
below).

Rizvi, S.A.A.: The Wonder That Was India Volume II (Sidgwick and Jackson, 1987). A survey of the
history and culture of the India sub-continent from the coming of the Muslims to the British conquest
1200-1700. A satisfactory belated follow-up to the Hindu dominated The Wonder That Was India,
but not a patch on Basham's book.

Watson, Francis: A Concise History of India (Thames and Hudson, 1974).

Wolpert, Stanley: A New History of India (Oxford, 1977). Into its fifth edition (1997), A New History
of India is a complete (and readable, albeit dense) treatment on the history of India.

Stein, Burton: A History of India (Blackwell, 1998). Less comprehensive and less chronological than
A New History, Stein's History details the background and forces behind the history to a greater
extent. A History of India is highly recommended if you have time to read more than one text,
otherwise A New History will suffice.

Gonick, Larry: The Cartoon History of the Universe. Hilarious yet always respectful. India is dealt
with in chapter 1 ("volume 8") of The Cartoon History of the Universe II (Doubleday, 1994). The
first book, volumes 1-7 (Penguin, 1989), barely mentions India, but is also recommended.

Gascoigne, Bamber: The Great Moghuls (Jonathan Cape, 1971). A truly great exploration of the
lives and personalities of these larger-than-life emperors. Highly recommended.

Hansen, Waldemar: The Peacock Throne (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973). A ripsnorting account of
the Moghul Wars of Succession.

James, Lawrence: Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (Little, Brown and Company,
1997).

Allen, Charles, ed.: Plain Tales From the Raj (Futura, 1975). Compiled from interviews of 60
survivors of the British Raj conducted by BBC Radio, this book rings with authenticity. Nothing
offers a comparable insight into the "'Anglo-Indian' experience."

Fraser, George MacDonald: Flashman (Pan, 1970), Flashman in the Great Game (Barrie & Jenkins,
1975), Flashman and the Mountain of Light (Collins Harvill, 1990).

Noss, David S. and Noss, John B.: A History of the World's Religions (Prentice Hall, 1994). An
indispensable guide to a religion at any time in history. Treats Jainism and Sikhism where
comparable texts do not.

Ochiogrossa, Peter: The Joy of Sects (Doubleday, 1994). A spirited guide to the world's religious
traditions. Offers a fresh presentation with humor and smarts. Reverential but nearly disrespectful
(with sections like Its My Karma and I'll Cry if I Want To.). Harder to draw out a historical
perspective than the Noss' book but highly recommended all the same.

Klostermaier, Klaus K.: A Short Introduction to Hinduism (Oneworld, 1998). If you read only one
book on Hinduism it ought to be Klostermaier's. There are many good books on Hinduism out there,
make no mistake, but A Short Introduction neatly breaks the topic down into useful sections.
Curiously Klostermaier makes an error at the beginning of chapter 5 of his book. In the section on
the Puranas he credits six of the Mahapuranas to the worship of Devi, rather than to Brahma. Hmm.

Walker, Benjamin: Hindu World (George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1968). Subtitled An Encyclopedic
Survey of Hinduism, this two book series is so much more. There is little of pre-Islamic India that
does not have a clear and revealing entry. Very highly recommended. However, the book is dated in
some respects, for example, it supports the myth of the destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization
by invading Aryans, and the author is often tiresomely disparaging of Indian achievements, too
frequently attributing cultural advances to foreign imports.

Wilkins, W.J.: Hindu Mythology (Rupa, 1975). Good luck finding this book. First published in 1882,
this is a comprehensive catalogue of the heathen deities, done with a fair lack of prejudice
considering the time it was written. Contains much supplementary information about Hindu
mythology.

O'Flaherty, Wendy (trans., ed.): The Rig Veda (Penguin, 1981). Highly recommended to understand
the character of the Vedic Aryan and his relation to the universe.

Zelazny, Roger: Lord of Light (Doubleday, 1967).