UNIT III

MOBILE IP

Mobile IP – agent discovery and registration –

DHCP – AdHoc – Proactive protocol –
DSDV, Reactive Routing Protocols – DSR,
AODV, Hybrid routing – ZRP, Multicast
Routing – ODMRP, Vehicular Ad Hoc
networks(VANET) – MANET Vs VANET –
Security
Mobile IP
• Mobile Internet Protocol
• It is designed by Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF)
• IP is a communication protocol

• Designed to allow mobile device users to move from

one network to another without changing their IP
address

Mobile IP = Mobility + Internet Protocol(IP)

🡺The Main goal of the mobile IP is to enable packet
transmission efficiently without any packet loss and
disruptions in the presence of destination host mobility

Features of Mobile IP:

1. Compatibility
2. Security
3. Transparency (invisible to higher layers).
4. Efficient and Scalability.
Mobile IP Terminologies:
• Mobile Node : It is a handheld equipment with
roaming. Eg: cell phone, laptop…
• Correspondent Node : Partner of the mobile node
• Home Network : It is the network with respect to the
IP address of the MN. No Mobile IP support is
needed.
• Foreign Network : It is the current subnet the MN
visits and which is not the home network, Simply it is
the network in which a mobile node is operating
when away from its home network.
• Foreign Agent : When MN visits the foreign network, the
foreign agent can provide several services,
It has Care of Address(COA), acting as a end point and
forwarding packets to the MN
It can be the default router for the MN.
• COA : It is an address that identifies the current location of the
Mobile Node.
• Home Agent : The HA stores information about all mobile
nodes whose permanent home address is in the network
assigned to the HA.
• Home Address : It is the IP address assigned to the device
within its home network.
IP Packet Delivery (Working of Mobile IP)
STEP 1: CN sends the Packet to the IP address(home address) of
the MN
STEP 2: Internet Routes the Packet to the router of the
MN’s home network. The HA examines the packet to find
whether the MN is present in its current home network or not.
If the MN is not present, then the HA encapsulates that
datagram in a new packet.
STEP 3: The encapsulated packet is tunneled to the FA, which
act as the new destination address. Then FA performs
decapsulation to remove the additional header Then forwards
the decapsulated packet to the MN.
STEP 4: MN after receiving the packet from CN forwards
a reply packet to the CN by specifying its own IP address along
with the address of the CN.
Mobile IP operation stages
THREE STAGES:
• Agent Discovery
• Registration
• Tunneling & Encapsulation

AGENT DISCOVERY:
• It is used whenever mobile node is not in
home network
• Hence then we need to search for foreign
agent.
Agent Discovery methods:
• Agent Advertisement
• Agent Solicitation.
Agent advertisement
Functions:
• It allows the MN to find whether an agent is
its HA or a FA.
• If it is FA then get the COA.
• Generally the foreign agent and home agents
advertise their presence through periodic
agent advertisement messages.
• Agent solicitation:
– In case of MN does not receive any COA, then the
MN should send an agent solicitation message.
– MN can send upto 3 solicitation messages (one
per second) when it enters a new network.
Types of COA:
– Foreign Agent COA - The IP address of a foreign
agent (FA) on a visited network
– Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned
to the MN.
REGISTRATION
– If the MN discovers that it is on the home
network, then it operates normally without
Mobile IP
– If the MN has moved to a new network & obtain
the COA from a FA, then this address should be
registered with the HA.
– Registration – A MN uses an authenticated
registration procedure to inform the HA of its
COA.
– Registration messages uses UDP Protocol.
TUNNELING AND ENCAPSULTION
• Tunneling (data transfer) – It is a process of
sending a packets via a tunnel.
• A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data
packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel
endpoint.
Two primary functions:
• Encapsulation
• De-capsulation
OPTIMAIZATIONS(ROUTE OPTIMIZATION)
• One of the problem with the mobile IP -
"Triangular Routing“

• Triangular Routing:
– An inefficient behavior of a non- optimized mobile
IP
– The triangle is made of the three
• segments,
• CN to HA
• HA to COA/MN
• MN back to CN.
– Involves two IP routes - Causes unnecessary
network traffic overhead & higher latency
Reverse tunneling is a tunneling from mobile
host to home agent, and makes it possible for
the mobile host from foreign network to
communication in the network
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a
network management protocol
• DHCP is used to merge the world of mobile phones
with the internet and to support mobility.
• Automatically assigns a unique IP address to each
device that connects to a network.
• There are many versions of DCHP are available for
use in IPV4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) and IPV6
(Internet Protocol Version 6).
• DHCP was developed based on “Bootstrap
Protocol” (BOOTP).
• BOOTP protocol used for booting the
computer from network
Problems in BOOTP protocol:
BOOTP protocol does not handle the mobility
- related issues when a host moves from one
network to another.
• There is no need to manually assign IP addresses to new
devices.
• Therefore, there is no requirement for any user configuration
to connect to a DHCP based network.
• DHCP can be implemented on local networks as well as large
enterprise networks.
• DHCP is the default protocol used by the most routers and
networking equipment.
DHCP is based on client server model
DHCP Initialization
 Important mechanisms that are supported by DHCP
for IP address allocation are:
• Automatic Allocation
Here DHCP assigns a permanent IP address to a
particular client.
• Dynamic Allocation
Here DHCP assigns IP address to a client for a specific
period of time.
• Manual Allocation
Here, client IP address is assigned by the network
administrator, where the DHCP is used to inform the
address assigned to the client
Components of DHCP:
When working with DHCP, it is important to understand
the following components
• DHCP Server
• DHCP Client
• IP address pool
• Lease
• DHCP relay
Ad-hoc Network
🡺 An ad-hoc network is one that is spontaneously
formed when devices connect and communicate with
each other.
The wireless network without any wire is called an
ad-hoc network.
It does not have any fixed infrastructure
Types:
• MANET
• VANET
MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORK (MANET)
Types of wireless network:
• Infrastructured:
– The MN can move while communicating
– The BSs are fixed
-- As the node goes out of the range of a BS, it gets
into the range of another BS.
• Infra structure-less or Mobile ad-hoc
(MANET):

– The MN can move while communicating

– There are no fixed BSs.
– All the nodes in the network need to act as
routers.
ADHOC MOBILE ROUTING PROTOCOLS
• Routing is a process of finding an efficient,
reliable and secure path from a source node to
a destination node via intermediate nodes in a
network.
• Efficiency of the path is measured in various
metrics like, Number of hops, traffic, security,
etc.
TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS
• Not suitable for MANET.
• Popularly used in packet switching n/w
TYPES OF TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS
– LSP (Link State Protocol)
– DVP (Distance Vector Protocol)
• Both of these needs to find the next hop along
the shortest path towards the destination
LINK STATE ROUTING
• Link – connection of one router to its
neighboring router
• Each router maintains:
– LSPDB (Link State Data Base) - Router store its
local connectivity information & flood this through
“Link state advertisement”
• Routing Table
• Content of (LSP) Link Sate Packet or (LSA) Link
State Advertisement:
Procedure:
• Find the neighbors.
• Compute the cost between the neighbors
• Build up LSP.
• Flooding LSP – Broadcast the LSP
• Compute the new path using Dijkstra’s
algorithm
• DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DV) Protocols
– The routing decisions are made on the distance to the
destination.
– Denoted as vectors (distance, direction) of distances to
other nodes in the network.
– Distance – no. of hops b/w 2 nodes
– Direction – Next hop router to which the packet is
forwarded
– Use Bellman-Ford algorithm
– Each router maintain routing table.
• All available destination (Dest)
• Next node to reach to destination (Next)
• No. of hops to reach the destination (Metrics)
• Periodically advertises its routing table to its neighbors
• Neighbors updates its own routing table by examining the
received information, which in inform its neighbors.
• Computes shortest path to each host based on the
information advertised by its neighbours.
MANET ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Types of communication in MANET:
• Unicast
🡺 Single way of communication (1 – 1)
• Multicast
Multiple way of communication (M – M)
Eg: Switch
• Broadcast
Multiple way of communication (1 – M)
Eg: Hub
 PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS
• Maintain the global topology information in
the form of tables at every node.
• These tables are updated frequently in order
to maintain consistent and accurate network
state information.
• EX: DSDV.
 DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR
ROUTING (DSDV)
• Based on Proactive method
• Enhanced version of the distributed
Bellman-Ford algorithm or Distance
Vector(DV) Routing Protocol
DSDV adds two things to the distance vector
algorithm
1. Sequence Number
2. Damping
Eg:

For each node N1 maintain a table that contain;

• The Destination
• The next hop toward this node
• The metric (number of hops)
• The sequence number
• The time at which the path has been installed
first.
steps in the operation of DSDV:
• Each router(node) in the network collects route information
from its neighbours.
• After gathering information, the node determines the shortest
path to the destination based on the gathered information.
• Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is
generated.
• The router broadcasts this table to its neighbours. On receipt
by neighbours, the neighbour nodes recompute their
respective routing tables.
• This process continues till the routing information becomes
stable.
Advantages
– Simple Method of Routing
– Loop free through destination seq. numbers
– No latency caused by route discovery

Disadvantages
– No sleeping nodes
– Overhead
REACTIVE PROTOCOLS (On Demand Routing
Protocols)
• They execute the path-finding process and
exchange routing information only when a
path is required by a node to communicate
with a destination.
• i.e., a route is discovered only when it is
necessary.
• Source initiates route discovery
2 step process
1. Route Discovery
2. Route Maintenance

Example:
1. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
2. Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING PROTOCOLS (DSR)
• DSR is a source initiated (reactive) routing
protocol for ad-hoc network
• On Demand Routing
• Designed to restrict the bandwidth consumed
by packets by eliminating the periodic
table-update messages.
• Each mobile node participating in the protocol
maintains a “routing cache” which contains
the list of all routes that the node has learnt
Working of DSR:
DSR works in 2 Phases
• Route Discovery
• Route Maintenance
The basic message set consists of:
– RREQ – Route request
– RREP – Route reply 🡺 Route Discovery

– RERR – Route error 🡺 Route Maintenance

Route Discovery:
Route Discovery Process takes place by :
• Broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to
all its neighbours.
• The Route request (RREQ) packet contains the
– Source address
– Request id
– Route Record
• Route Record, in which the sequence of hops
traversed by the request packet before
reaching the destination is recorded
A node after receiving RREQ
🡺 If the node is an intermediate node then
– If the message has the same AD i.e. has seen it before,
then the node discards this message,
– If not, the node appends its own address to the route
record in the ROUTE REQUEST message then
propagates the message to the next hop neighbours.
🡺 If the node is the Target (Destination) then
– Returns a Route Reply (RREP) message to the sender
– Copies the accumulated route record from RREQ into
RREP
Broadcasting the RREQ packets
Propagation of RREP packets back to source
Route Maintenance:
• A known route can get broken due to the movement of some
node or the battery of a node getting exhaused.
• Route maintenance : The process of monitoring the correct
operation of a route in use & taking corrective action when
needed.
Steps:
• When a node detects that one of its next hop neighbour node
is not responding, it sends back a route error(RERR) packet
containing its own address and the address of the hop that is
not working
• As Soon as source node receives the RERR message it deletes
the broken link route from its cache.
• If it has another route to the destination, it starts to
retransmit the packet using the alternative route.
• Otherwise it initiates the route discovery process again.
Advantages:
– A perfect route is discovered always.
– Highly efficient.
– Low bandwidth Consumption.

Drawback:
– Packet header size (Non Uniform Packet Size)
grows when intermediate node increases.
AD-HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR
ROUTING (AODV)
• Based on Reactive method (establishes a route only
on –demand)
• It is almost similar to DSR
• When a source requires sending a message to a
destination and does not have a valid route to the
latter, the source initiates a route discovery process.
• Basic messages are:
– RREQ – Route request
– RREP – Route reply
DSR vs AODV:
– Major problem of DSR is its non-uniform packet size
because it includes source routes in its packet header which
degrades the performance. If a packet is large, it has to be
split into smaller packets.
– The packet size in AODV is uniform unlike DSR.
– AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing
tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not have to
contain routes.
– AODV holds the desirable feature of DSR that routes are
maintained only between nodes which need to
communicate.
Steps:
• The node that needs a route to a specific destination
generates a route request(RREQ).
• The route request(RREQ) is forwarded by intermediate
nodes which also learn a reverse route from the source to
themselves.
• When the request reaches a node with route to destination, it
generates a route reply(RREP) containing the number of
hops required to reach the destination.
• All nodes that participate in forwarding this reply to the
source node create a forward route to destination.
• This route created from each node from source to
destination is a hop- by-hop route.
Example: Suppose Node S needs a routing path
to Node D
– Node S creates a RREQ packet & broadcasts to its
neighbours. RREQ [Dest, seq no, source, seq no,
hop count]
Sequence number 🡺 Increased by 1
2. Node A rebroadcasts RREQ to all its neighbours.
 3. Since, Node C known a route to Node D
• Node C creates a RREP & unicasts RREP to A.
• Set forward path in C's routing table.
4. Node A creates a RREP & unicasts RREP to S
5. Set forward path in A's routing table
6. Set forward path in S's routing table
 HYBRID PROTOCOLS
• Combines the best features of both proactive & reactive
routing protocols.
• One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone
Routing Protocol (ZRP).
ZRP:
• It is Hybrid Protocol
• Based on the concept of zones.
• A routing zone is defined for each node separately and zones
of neighbouring nodes overlap.
• The routing zone has a radius expressed in hops.
i.e., Zone radius: Number of hops
The whole network is divided into different zones and then
the position of source and destination mobile node is
observed.
• Key concept in ZRP to:
– Use a proactive routing scheme within a limited zone
– Use a reactive routing scheme for nodes beyond this
zone.
Routing is divided into two parts:
• Intrazone routing: 1st the packet is sent within
the routing zone of the source node to reach the
peripheral nodes
• Interzone routing: The packet is sent from the
peripheral nodes towards the destination node
Working Procedure:
• The source sends a Route Request packet (RREQ) to the
border nodes of its zone, containing its
(i) own address
(ii) destination address.
• Each border nodes checks its local zone for the destination.
• If the destination is not a member of local zone, then the
border node adds its own address to the route request
packet and forwards the packet to its own border nodes.
• When the destination node is reached in this process, a route
reply (RREP) is sent on the reverse path back to the source.
• The source saves the path which is mentioned in Route Reply
to send data packets to the destination
MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL
• Multicast is the delivery of a message to a
group of destination nodes in a single
transmission.
Multicast Protocols are
Tree based Protocol
Mesh based Protocol
Tree based Protocol
• This establishes a single path between any two nodes
in the multicast group.
• Minimum number of copies are sent along the
branches of the tree, so they are bandwidth efficient.
• When mobility increases, link failures trigger the
reconfiguration of the entire tree
• The complexity is to maintain the shared tree
Mesh Based Protocol
• This establishes a multiple path between source - receiver
pair.
• Example: ODMRP
• Tree based protocols, may not perform well in the presence of
highly mobile nodes because multicast tree structure is fragile
and needs to be frequently readjusted.
• Each node in a mesh can have multiple parents.
• Multiple links exist and other links are immediately available
when the primary link is broken due to node mobility. This
avoids frequent reconfigurations.
Drawback of this scheme is that multiple copies of the
same packet are forwarded through the mesh.
ON-DEMAND MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL
(ODMRP)
• OMDRP creates route on demand, rather that creating routes
proactively.
• It helps to reduce network traffic.
• Supplies multiple route for one particular destination.
• To reduce the route delay, it sends the first data packet along
with the route discovery packet
• Similar to on-demand unicast routing protocols, ODMRP has
both a request phase and a reply phase.
Operation of ODMRP:
• A sender node wishing to send multicast packets periodically
floods a JOIN REQUEST to entire network.
• A Node receiving a non-duplicate JOIN REQUEST, stores the
upstream node ID (i.e. backward learning) into routing table &
rebroadcasts the packet.
• A multicast receiver getting the JOIN REQUEST creates
or updates the source entry in its member table.
• As long as valid entries in receiver's member table, JOIN
TABLE are broadcasted periodically
• An intermediate node, receiving the JOINT TABLE,
compares it's Node ID with the entries of that table.
• If there's a match, it is a member of the forwarding
group. Then it sets FG- FLAG & broadcasts its JOIN
TABLE.
• This process is going to create a mesh between all
forwarding group members.
• JOIN TABLE is propagated by each forwarding
Group member until it reaches source via a shortest
path.
• Routes from source to receivers builds a mesh of
nodes called "Forwarding Group"
Drawbacks:
🡺 Multicast routing is much more difficult to achieve
in MANET compared to any other network. This is due
to
• Host Mobility
• Nature of wireless environment
• Interference from noise
FEATURES OF MANET
• MANET can be formed without any
pre-existing infrastructure.
• Autonomous Terminal.
• It follows dynamic network topology.
• Every node in the MANET can assist in routing
of packets in the network.
• Multi hop Routing.
 VANET: VEHICULAR AD-HOC
NETWORK
• The Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network, or VANET, is a technology
that uses moves cars as nodes in a network to create a mobile
network.
• Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are created by
applying the principles of mobile ad-hoc network (MANETs) -
the spontaneous creation of a wireless network for data
exchange - to the domain of vehicles.
• They are a key component of Intelligent Transportation
System (ITS).
• The term VANET became mostly synonymous with the
more generic term inter-vehicle communication (IVC).
In ITS, each vehicle takes a role of sender, receiver and
router to broadcast information to the vehicular
network.

WORKING OF VANET
• VANET turns every participating car into a wireless
router or node, allowing cars approximately 100 to
300 meters of each other to connect and, in turn,
create a network with a wide range.
• As cars fall out of the signal range and drop out of the
network, other cars can join in, connecting vehicles to
one another so that a mobile Internet is created.
The main uses of VANET are:
• It can help drivers to get advance information and
warnings from a nearby environment via message
exchanges.
• It is estimated that the first systems that will integrate
this technology are police and fire vehicles to
communicate with each other for safety purposes.
 COMMUNICATION IN VANET
Three types of communication are provided in the
VANET.
1. Pure wireless ad hoc network where vehicle to
vehicle without any support of infrastructure.
2. Vehicle to Infrastructure Communication (V2I)
3. Inter Infrastructure Communication
Vehicle to vehicle communication
Vehicle to Infrastructure Communication Inter Infrastructure Communication
ARCHITECTURE OF VANET
Each node in VANET is equipped with two
types of unit i.e.
On Board Unit(OBU) and
Application Unit (AU).
• OBU has the communicational capability
• whereas AU executes the program making
OBU‘s communicational capabilities.
TECHNOLOGY USED IN VANET
• To establish a VANET, IEEE has defined the
standard 802.16 (Wi-Max).
• Coverage area: 50 to 90 Kms.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VANET
• High Mobility
• Rapidly changing network topology
• Unbounded network size
• Frequent exchange of information
• Wireless Communication
APPLICATIONS OF VANET
Safety Related Application:
These applications are used to increase the safety on the
roads. These applications can be further categorized in
following way.
• Collision Avoidance
• Cooperative Driving
• Traffic optimization
User Based Application:
These applications provide the user infotainment. A VANET
can be utilized to provide following services for the user apart
from safety:
• Peer to peer application
• Internet Connectivity
• Other services
 MANET VANET
Collection of mobile nodes that Nodes(vehicles) can communicate with
communicate with each other over certain roadside infrastructures or base
bandwidth constrained wireless links stations.
without any infrastructure support.

The node movement is more random in The node mobility is constrained to the
nature road topologies.

Power is a major constrained The battery power available in a vehicle is

quite adequate.

Cost of production is cheap Expensive

Change in network topology is slow Frequent & very fast
Node lifetime depends on power resource depends on lifetime of vehicles

Multi-hop routing is available. Weakly available.

Attribute based addressing scheme Location-based
CHALLENGING ISSUES IN VANET
• Network Management
• Congestion and Collision Control
• Environmental Impact
• MAC Design
• Security
Applications:
• Defense applications
• Crisis management applications
• Telemedicine
• Virtual Navigation
• Education via the internet
Applications of VANET
Registration Process:
 – Encapsulations – Mechanism of taking a packet
consisting of packet header and data and putting it
into the data part of a new packet.
• HA encapsulates all the packets addressed to
MN & forward them to FA.
– Decapsulation - The reverse operation, taking a
packet out of the data part of another packet
• FA dencapsulates all the packets addressed to
MN & forward them.
• Content of (LSP) Link Sate Packet or (LSA) Link State
Advertisement:
– Identity of the router originating the message
– Identities of all its neighbors
– Delay along various link to its neighbors
– Unique seq.no, which is formed by increasing the count
every time the router forms a new link state advertisement.
Procedure:
• Exchange of HELLO messages to find the neighbors.
• Compute the cost between the neighbors
• Build up LSP.
• Flooding LSP – Broadcast the LSP
• Compute the new path using Dijkstra’s algorithm
CHARACTERISTICS OF MANET

• Lack of fixed infrastructure

• Dynamic topologies
• Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity link
• Energy constrained operation
• Increased vulnerability
• Peer to peer mode of operation
DESIGN ISSUES OF MANET
• Limited bandwidth
• Dynamic topology
• Routing Overhead
• Hidden terminal problem
• Packet losses due to transmission errors
• Battery constraints
• Security threats
SECURITY ISSUES IN VANET
• Lack of physical boundary
• Low power RF transmission
• Limited computational capabilities
• Limited power supply
• Real time Constraint
• Data Consistency Liability
• Low tolerance for error
 REFERENCES: (Book)
1. Jochen Schiller, ―Mobile Communicationsǁ,
PHI, Second Edition, 2003.
2. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, Rajib Mall,
―Fundamentals of Mobile Computingǁ, PHI
Learning Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi –2012.
3. Dharma Prakash Agarval, Qing and An Zeng,
"Introduction to Wireless and Mobile
systems",Thomson Asia Pvt Ltd, 2005.
 ONLINE REFERENCES
1. https://archive.nptel.ac.in/courses/106/106/
106106147/
2. https://www.javatpoint.com/mobile-computi
ng
3. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/wireless-mo
bile-computing-technologies/
APPLICATIONS
• Emergency services
• Education
• Entertainment
• Business Applications
• Military battlefield