SOUND

Sources

Any vibrating object can be a source of sound e.g. vibrating guitar string, Vibrating tuning fork, Vibrating
air inside a trumpet.

LONGITUDINAL NATURE OF SOUND WAVES

When a loud speaker cone vibrates it moves forwards and backward very fast. This squashes and
stretches the air in front. It results in a series of compressions (squashes) and rarefactions (stretches)
through air and these are sound waves. The distance between successive compressions or rarefactions is
wavelength.

PROPAGATION

Sound waves being longitudinal in nature require a material medium (i.e. solid, liquid, gas) for it to
travel. To demonstrate this, place an electric bell in an air tight container. Remove the air using a
vacuum pump and watch the bell. The clapper continues to vibrate but sound heard by the listener
diminishes. The bell is heard again when air is restored.
AUDIBLE SOUND FREQUENCIES

The human ear is not capable of hearing sounds of all frequencies. Humans are sensitive to a limited
range of sound frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Other animals like dogs can detect sound
frequencies up to 50 000 Hz and bats up to 120 000 Hz. Sounds above 20 000 Hz (audible range) are
called ULTRASOUNDS OR ULTRASONIC SOUNDS. Bats use ultrasounds to locate insects and other
objects. They send out a series of ultrasounds pulses and use specialized shaped ears to pick the
reflections. This is called echo location.

APPLICATIONS (USES) OF ULTRASOUNDS

(i) CLEANING: Delicate machinery is immersed in a tank of liquid, where vibrations of high
powered ultrasounds are used to dislodge (remove) dirt or grease.
(ii) ECHO SOUNDING/SONAR DEPTH SENSING: Ships use echo sounding to measure the depth
of water beneath them. Pulses of ultrasounds are sent downwards to the sea bed. The time
taken (t) for the echo reflection to return is recorded. Knowing the speed of sound in water
to be 1400 m/s the distance travelled by the sound wave can be measured.

S=

Where S = distance (m)

V = speed (m/s)

time taken by the sound to the bottom only.

(iii) SCANNING: Echo sounding principle is used. The transmitter sends ultrasounds into the
mother’s womb. It also acts as a detector and picks up reflected pulses from the body. The
pulses are processed by the computer which puts an image on the screen.
NOISE POLLUTION: Noise is defined as sound of irregular frequency or simply unwanted sound. Too high
levels cause stress and disturb concentration.

MEASUREMENT OF SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

(i) FLASH AND BANG METHOD: We assume light travels instantaneously. Record the time
interval between the arrival of the flash and bang (sound) produced by the gun at a known
distance (s) from the observer.

V=

Where V = speed (m/s)

S = distance (m)

t = time (s)

In order to eliminate the effect of any wind the speed (v) should be measured for sound travelling each
way and then the average taken.

(ii) CLAP-ECHO METHOD: Sound heard after reflection is called echo. Stand at a distance (s) from
a reflecting surface and clap two pieces of wood together in such a way that each clap made
coincides with the echo of the previous clap. Clap (N) number of times in a time t.

V=

Sound travels a total distance of 2sN in a time t.

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OF SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound varies from one medium to another. Even in the same medium changes in
temperature can also cause variation in speed. Some examples are given in the following table.

Medium Speed (m/s)

Air(dry) at 0 °C 330
Air(dry) at 30 °C 350
Water(pure) at 0 °C 1400
Concrete 5000

As it can be seen sound travels faster through solids followed by liquids and lastly gases.

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVES

Sound waves are reflected well from hard flat surfaces such as walls, or cliffs and obey the laws of
reflection just like light. Reflected sound is called an echo.

FREQUENCY AND PITCH

Different frequencies sound different to the ear. We hear high frequencies as high notes or high pitch.
We hear low frequencies as low notes or low pitch.

(a) High frequency and Pitch (small wavelength)

(b) Low frequency and Pitch

 AMPLITUDE AND LOUDNESS

A loud note has large amplitude and a soft note has small amplitude.

(a) Sound is louder with a large amplitude

(b) Sound is soft with a small amplitude

QUALITY (TIMBRE)

Each instrument is said to have typical sound quality i.e. same note on different instruments sounds
different. The sound waves produced by musical instruments can be regarded as a combination of
different frequencies.

The strong one is called the fundamental (main) frequency and it determines the pitch. The other
frequencies are called over tunes or harmonics. The over tunes determine the quality of sound. When
the fundamental frequency and over tunes are combined they produce the characteristic sound of the
instrument.
Following figures shows notes of the same frequency (pitch) but different quality.

EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS OF SOUND WAVES (ACOUSTICS) ON THE QUALITY OF SOUND

A large empty hall with hard walls, floors and ceiling sounds echoey. Sound is reflected from one surface
to another so on and so on and it may take several seconds for the wave energy to be absorbed so that
sound dies away. The effect is called REVERBERATION. If there is too much reverberation it is difficult to
hear sound clearly.