FIBER - OPTICAL

COMMUNICATION

Dr. S. SUJATHA
Associate Professor,
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
School of Engineering and Technology,
CHRIST (Deemed to be University),
Kengeri Campus, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.

Published by
SK Research Group of Companies
The International Journals, Conferences and Books – SKRGC Publication
142, Periyar Nagar, Madakulam,
Madurai – 625 003, Tamil Nadu, India.
skrgc.publisher@gmail.com / +91 9790120237
www.skrgcpublication.org/isbn
TITLE: FIBER - OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

Author: Dr. S. SUJATHA

Published by: SK Research Group of Companies,

Madurai - 625 003, Tamil Nadu, India.

Edition Details: I

ISBN: 978-81-19980-69-7

Month & Year: October, 2023

Copyright ©: SK Research Group of Companies

Pages: 185

Price: ₹449
 CONTENT

TITLE Page No.

CHAPTER I 1-47

OVERVIEW OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to Optical Fibers

1.2 General Optical Fiber Communication System
1.2.1. Principle of Optical Fiber Communication
1.2.2. Historical Development
1.3 Applications of Optical Fiber Communications
1.4 Optical Fiber Wave Guides
1.5 Ray Theory
1.6 Total Internal Reflection
1.7 Acceptance Angle
1.8. Numerical Aperture
1.9 Skew Rays
1.10 Cylindrical Fiber
1.11. Graded Index Fibers
1.12 Single-Mode Fises
1.13 Fiber Materials
1.14 Basic Requirements and Considerations in Fiber Fabrication

CHAPTER II 48-86

SIGNAL DISTORTION IN OPTICAL FIBERS

2.1 Attenuation
2.2. Absorption
2.3 Rayleigh Scattering Losses
2.3.1. Bending Loss
2.3.2. Micro bending
2.3.3. Macro Bending
2.4. Core and Cladding Loss
2.5 Information Capacity Determination
2.6 Group Delay
2.7 Types of Dispersion
2.7.1. Material Dispersion
2.7.2. Wave Guide Dispersion
2.7.3. Chromatic Dispersion
2.7.4. Modal Dispersion
2.7.5 Higher Order Dispersion
2.7.6 Dispersion Induced Limitations
2.7.7 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
2.7.8. Pulse Broadening in GI Fibers
2.8 Optical Fiber Connectors
2.8.1 Connector Type
2.8.2. The Structure of a Typical Single-Mode Fiber

CHAPTER III 87-113

OPTICAL SOURCES

3.1 Optical Sources

3.2 Laser Diodes (LD)
3.3 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) p-n Junction
3.4 LED Structures Heterojuncitons
3.5 Surface Emitting LEDs
3.6 Edge Emitting LEDS (ELEDs)
3.7 Quantum Efficiency and Power
3.8 Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
3.9 Emission and Absorption Rates
3.10 External Quantum Efficiency
3.11 Resonant Frequencies

CHAPTER IV 114-126

OPTICAL DETECTORS AND RECEIVERS

4.1 Optical Detector and Receivers

4.2. PIN diode
4.3. Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)
4.4. Photo Detectors
4.5. Physical Principles of Photodiodes
4.5.1. Pin Photo Detector
4.6 Detector Response Time
4.7 Error Sources
4.8 Receiver Configuration
127-164
CHAPTER V
OPTICAL SYSTEM DESIGN

5.1 System Design Factors

5.2 System Design Considerations
5.2.1. System Consideration
5.2.2. System Performance
5.3 Component Choice
5.3.1. Optical Fiber Type and Parameters
5.4 Multiplexing
5.5 Point-to-Point Links
5.6 Link Power Budget
5.6.1. Links Power Budget
5.7 Rise Time Budget
5.7.1. Transmitter Rise-time (ttx)
5.8 WDM
5.8.1. Need of WDM
5.9 CWDM VS DWDM
5.10. Operational Principles of WDM
5.10.1. WDM Operating Regions
5.10.2 Generic WDM Link
5.10.3 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
5.10.4 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)

CHAPTER VI 165-185

OPTICAL NETWORK EVOLUTION AND CONCEPTS

6.1 Optical Network Evolution and Concepts

6.2 Optical Networking Terminology
6.2.1 Optical Network Topologies
6.3 Public Telecommunication Network Overview
6.4 Optical Network Transmission Modes, Layers and Protocols
6.5 Optical Transport Network
 Fiber - Optical Communication

CHAPTER I

OVERVIEW OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to Optical Fibers

Based on findings made by John Tyndall a few years earlier, Kapany

constructed optical fibres that are still being studied, developed technologically, and
used in various applications. A lot of data may be transferred between two locations
(emitter and receiver) using optical fibres. Fiber-optic cables have the benefit of being
extremely light in comparison to conductive wires, which are frequently employed
for information transmission.
Regarding its physical attributes, an optical fibre is frequently likened to a
human hair, with a diameter of approximately 120 μm. They have the ability to
transmit up to 20 billion light pulses per second in terms of information. These days,
information may be sent more than 100 kilometers across optical fibres without the
use of repeaters, thanks to their great transmission capacity and minimal absorption
losses. Three fundamental components, as shown in Figure 1, must be taken into
account in order to carry out the transmission of information over a fiber-optic
system:

A transmitter that feeds the information to be communicated with a wave

signal to be broadcast.
Fiber-optic cable, which is the conduit through which data is transmitted from
the source to the recipient.
The receiving system, which gets the supplied information.

Fig: 1.1 Basic Schema of an Optical Communication System

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Fiber - Optical Communication

The optical fibre is made up of three primary components in order to provide

mechanical support and complete reflection of the light passing through the fibre,
preventing absorption.

 The fiber's core, or the fiber-optic glass through which the light to be
transferred travels.
 The cladding, which is a thin layer of material with the goal of achieving 100%
internal reflection to reflect light in the fibre and keep it from leaving.
 The plastic coating, akin to that found on copper cables, that shields the fibre
from environmental elements, corrosion, and external harm.

Fig: 1.2 Principal Elements of an Optical Fiber

The optical fibres are composed of glass and plastic because they are easy to
manufacture, but optical glass fibres work best because of their efficiency and
transmission length.

There are essentially two kinds of optical fibres, and the distinction between
them is based on the information that they can transfer, indicating the kind of
application. Those fiber types are mentioned next:

 Single-mode Fibers: Glass and plastic can be used to easily manufacture optical
fibres, however optical glass fibres perform better and are more widely utilised
because of their transmission length and efficiency. Basically, there are two
kinds of optical fibres, and the type of application they are used for determines
which kind of fibre it is.

 Multimode Fibers: On a single fibre, they can send several data packets at once.
Its diameter, which can range from 50 to 62.5 μm and allows light to enter at
varied angles, is somewhat greater than that of single-mode fibres. The

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expected behaviour in the two types of the fibres indicated is graphically

compared in Figure 3, where the information transmission mechanism between
the fibres is visible.

Fig: 1.3 Simple Graphical Comparison between Single-Mode and Multimode

Optical Fibers

It is feasible to perceive the significant efficiency gain when comparing the

copper transmission capacity, which permits a few million pulses per second, to the
over 20 million pulses that can be sent in an optical fibre. It makes sense that
businesses in the communications industry have access to vast volumes of data,
something that conductive wires would not allow. As a result, there has been a
significant growth in the transfer of information that is visible on the Internet and
the World Wide Web.

1.2 General Optical Fiber Communication System

1.2.1. Principle of Optical Fiber Communication:

Using optical fibre as a transmission medium and light as an information

carrier, optical fibre communication is a communication technique. An optical signal,
which is a form of wired communication, is first transformed into an electrical signal.
It is then transferred by an optical fibre. Modulated light can then be sent. Fiber-optic
communication technologies have been at the forefront of the digital revolution in
telecommunications since the 1980s. The transmission capacity of optical fibre
communication is high, and its confidentiality is good. Nowadays, fiber-optic
communication has surpassed all other wired forms of communication in
importance.

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The fundamental components of fibre optic communication are, in theory,

photo detectors, light sources, and fibre optics. Optical fibres are frequently
categorized based on their applications; they can be divided into communication
optical fibres and sensor optical fibres in addition to being categorized based on the
manufacturing method, material composition, and optical qualities.

The term "function device fibre" refers to an optical fibre that can perform
various functions such as amplification, shaping, frequency division, frequency
multiplication, modulation, and optical oscillation of light waves. It is commonly
used for specific functional devices. The two types of transmission medium fibre are
general purpose and special purpose.

Fig: 1.4 Optical Fiber Communication

The working principle of optical fibre communication is as follows:

information to be transmitted (such as voice) is first converted into an electrical
signal at the transmitting end. The information is then modulated onto the laser
beam that the laser emits, causing the light's intensity to change in accordance with
the amplitude (frequency) of the electrical signal as it travels through the optical
fibre. The concept of total reflection is conveyed; upon reception of the optical signal,
the detector transforms it into an electrical signal, which is then demodulated to
recover the original data.

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 Fiber - Optical Communication

The principle of entire reflection is employed in optical communication. Long-

distance transmission can be accomplished when light injection angle meets specific
requirements and forms entire reflection in the optical fibre. An optical fiber's ability
to guide light is dependent on its ability to fully reflect light at the interfaces between
the cladding and core, which restricts light transmission within the core. The fibre
contains two different kinds of light: oblique and meridional rays. The light rays on
the meridional plane are known as meridional rays, while the light transmitted via
the fibre axis is known as an oblique ray.

The process of transferring light pulses across an optical fibre to transfer data
from one location to another is known as fiber-optic communication. Information is
carried via an electromagnetic carrier wave that is created when light is modified.
When high bandwidth, long distance, or immunity to electromagnetic interference
are needed, fibre is recommended over electrical cabling. Voice, video, and telemetry
can all be transmitted with this kind of communication over long distances or via
computer networks and local area networks.

Many telecommunications firms utilise optical fibre to send cable television

signals, Internet traffic, and phone transmissions. Using fiber-optic transmission, Bell
Labs researchers have achieved internet rates of more than 100 petabit ×kilometer
per second. The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following
basic steps:

 Using a transmitter to create the optical signal, typically from an Electrical

Signal.
 Repeating the signal across the fibre while watching out that it doesn't get too
distorted or weak.
 Catching up with the Optical Signal.
 Transforming it into a Signal Electrical.

1.2.2. Historical Development

Fiber-optics, which were first created in the 1970s, have revolutionized the
telecommunications sector and contributed significantly to the onset of the
Information Age. In the industrialized world, copper wire communications have
mostly been supplanted by optical fibres in core networks due to their benefits over
electrical transmission.

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Fiber - Optical Communication

At Bell's newly founded Volta Laboratory in Washington, D.C., in 1880,

Alexander Graham Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter invented the Photo
phone, a very early forerunner of fiber-optic communications. Bell regarded it as his
most significant creation. Through the use of this gadget, sound might be transmitted
along a light beam. Bell carried out the first wireless telephone transmission in
history on June 3, 1880, between two buildings that were roughly 213 metres apart.
The Photo phone would not be feasible until advancements in laser and optical fibre
technologies allowed for the secure transfer of light, as it relies on an air transmission
medium. Many decades later, the photo phone was put to use for the first time in
military communication systems.

It was demonstrated by Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany in 1954

that light could pass through rolled fibre glass. At first, it was believed that light
could only travel through straight materials. In 1963, Japanese physicist Jun-ichi
Nishizawa of Tohoku University advocated using optical fibres for communication.
Nishizawa made two inventions that aided in the advancement of optical fibre
communications: the static induction transistor and the PIN diode.

Charles K. Kao and George Hockham at STC Laboratories (STL)

demonstrated in 1966 that impurities that might be eliminated were the cause of the
1,000 dB/km losses in conventional glass (as opposed to 5–10 dB/km in coaxial
cable). In 1970, Corning Glass Works successfully developed optical fibre with an
attenuation of roughly 20 dB/km, which was low enough for communication. At the
same time, compact Gaas semiconductor lasers were developed, making them
appropriate for long-distance light transmission via fibre optic cables.

The first optical communication systems were contracted by APA to

Optelecom, Inc., which was co-founded by Gordon Gould, the creator of the laser.
This contract was awarded in 1973. This system, which was created for the Army
Missile Command in Huntsville, Alabama, used a laser on the ground and an optical
fibre spout that was fired by a missile to send a modulated signal five kilometres
away.

Following research beginning in 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic

communications system was created using GaAs semiconductor lasers operating at
a wavelength of approximately 0.8 μm. This first-generation system had repeater
spacing of up to 10 km and ran at a bit rate of 45 Mbit/s. Soon after, on April 22,
1977, General Telephone and Electronics in Long Beach, California, sent the first live

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phone call through fibre optics with a rate of six megabits per second.

Corning Glass and CSELT signed a development contract in October 1973

with the goal of testing fibre optics in an urban setting. The second cable in this test
series, COS-2, was experimentally deployed in two lines (9 km) in Turin in
September 1977, marking the first time fibre optics was used in a major city at a speed
of 140 Mbit/s.

The second generation of fiber-optic communication, which employed In

GaAsP semiconductor lasers and operated at 1.3 μm, was developed for commercial
usage in the early 1980s. The multimode fibre dispersion that initially hindered these
early systems was eventually overcome in 1981 by the discovery that single-mode
fibre could significantly increase system performance.

Nevertheless, the development of useful connectors that could operate with

single mode fibre proved to be challenging. At the time, Sask Tel, a Canadian service
provider, had finished building the longest commercial fibre optic network in the
world, spanning 3,268 km (2,031 mi) and connecting 52 municipalities. These
systems could operate at up to 1.7 Gb/s bit rates with 50 km (31 mi) repeater spacing
by 1987.

The TAT-8 transatlantic telephone cable, which used Desurvire enhanced

laser amplification technology, was the first to use optical fibre. In 1988, it
commenced operations. Third-generation fiber-optic systems had losses of roughly
0.2 dB/km and operated at 1.55 μm.

The discovery of indium gallium arsenide and Pearsall's invention of the

indium gallium arsenide photodiode served as catalysts for this advancement.
Earlier challenges with pulse-spreading at that wavelength were overcome by
engineers utilising traditional In GaAsP semiconductor lasers. By restricting the laser
spectrum to a single longitudinal mode or employing dispersion-shifted fibres with
negligible dispersion at 1.55 μm, scientists were able to overcome this challenge.

Third-generation systems were eventually able to function commercially at

2.5 Gbit/s with repeater spacing exceeding 100 km (62 mi) thanks to these
advancements. Wavelength-division multiplexing was used to boost data capacity
and optical amplification was utilised to decrease the requirement for repeaters in
the fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems. These two
enhancements set off a chain reaction that doubled the system capacity every six

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months beginning in 1992 and reaching a bit rate of 10 Tb/s by 2001. Using optical
amplifiers, a bit-rate of 14 Tbit/s was achieved in 2006 across a single 160 km (99 mi)
line.

The goal of fifth generation fiber-optic communications development is to

increase the wavelength range that a wavelength division multiplexer (WDM)
system can operate in. Dry fibre offers a low-loss window that promises an extension
of the traditional wavelength window, also known as the C band, to 1.30–1.65 μm.
The C band covers the wavelength range 1.53–1.57 μm. Using pulses of a certain
shape to balance the effects of dispersion with the nonlinear effects of the fibre, a
concept known as "optical solutions" has also been developed.

Industry advocates and research firms like KMI and RHK projected sharp
rises in the need for communications capacity between the late 1990s and early 2000s
as a result of growing Internet usage and the launch of several consumer services
that require a lot of bandwidth, like video on demand.

The amount of data traffic on Internet protocols was growing exponentially,

surpassing the rate of increase in integrated circuit complexity due to Moore's Law.
However, the primary trend in the sector from the dot-com bubble burst until 2006
was company consolidation and manufacturing outsourcing as a cost-cutting
measure. Fiber-optic communications has allowed businesses like Verizon and
AT&T to provide a range of high-throughput data and internet services directly to
customers' homes.

Advantages of Fiber Optic Transmission

Because optical fibres provide benefits over electrical transmission, they have
essentially supplanted copper wire communications in core networks in the
developed world. The primary benefits of fibre optic transmission are listed below.

Extremely High Bandwidth: Fibre delivers a bandwidth that is unmatched by any

other cable-based data transfer technology. Compared to copper cables, fibre optic
cables can transfer significantly more data in a given amount of time.

Longer Distance: Longer Transmission Distance: Optical cables with low power loss
allow signals to travel farther than those carried by copper cables in fibre optic
transmission.

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Resistance to Electromagnetic Interference: Environments like power substations,

HVAC systems, and other industrial sources of interference are unavoidable in
actual cable deployment. However, because fibre is so resistant to electromagnetic
interference, it has an extremely low rate of bit error (10 EXP-13). Transmission over
fibre optics is essentially noise-free.

Low Security Risk: The adoption of alternative raw materials and growing
awareness of data security issues are the primary factors propelling the growth of
the fibre optic communication market. In fibre optic transmission, light is used to
transfer signals or data. As a result, information is completely secure since it is
impossible to intercept data being sent by "listening in" to electromagnetic energy
that is "leaking" via the connection.

Small Size: The diameter of fibre optic cable is incredibly tiny. A single OM3
multimode fibre, for example, has a cable diameter of roughly 2 mm, which is less
than that of coaxial copper cable. More room is saved in fibre optic transmission by
small size.

Light Weight: Compared to copper cables, fibre optic cables are thinner and
composed of glass or plastic. These reduce its weight and facilitate installation.

Easy to Accommodate Increasing Bandwidth: It is possible to add additional

equipment to the current cable infrastructure by using fibre optic cable. Due to the
fact that optical cable can offer significantly higher capacity than originally installed
cable. Additionally, WDM (wavelength division multiplexing) technologies, such as
CWDM and DWDM, allow fibre cables to carry higher bandwidth.

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Fiber - Optical Communication

Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Transmission

Fibre optic communication has many benefits, but it also has drawbacks that
should not be disregarded.

Fragility: Since optical fibre cables are typically composed of glass, they are more
brittle than electrical wires. Glass can also be impacted by a variety of substances,
such as hydrogen gas, which can be problematic for underwater cables. For this
reason, glass needs to be handled more carefully when it is submerged.

Difficult to Install: Fibre optic cable splicing is difficult. Additionally, they will
shatter if you bend them too much. Additionally, fibre cable is very prone to being
damaged or cut during building or installation work. These all make installation
challenging.

Attenuation & Dispersion: Light will attenuate and spread as transmission distance
increases, necessitating the addition of more optical components like EDFA.

Cost is higher than Copper Cable: Installing fibre optic cabling is still more
expensive than installing copper connections, even if the cost of doing so can
decrease by as much as 60% annually. Because, unlike fibre connections, copper
wires do not require special installation care. Nonetheless, optical fibre is still making
its way into local loops, allowing broadband access for subscribers and end users
through technologies like FTTx (fibre to the home, premises, etc.) and PONs (passive
optical networks).

Special Equipment is often required: Certain specialised equipment is required to

guarantee the quality of fibre optic transmission. To effectively test optical fibre, for
instance, apparatus like optical time-domain reflectometry (OTDR) and costly,
specialised optical test equipment like optical probes and power metres are needed
at the majority of fibre endpoints.

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1.3 Applications of Optical Fiber Communications

There are several applications and uses for fibre optic cables across numerous
sectors. Among the applications for fibre optic cables are:

 Medical: Utilized as Surgical Lasers, Imaging Instruments, and Light Guides

 Defense / Government: Utilized as Surgical Lasers, Imaging Instruments, and
Light Guides
 Data Storage: Used for Data Transmission
 Telecommunications: Fiber is laid and used for Transmitting and Receiving
Purposes
 Networking: Used to Improve Data Transmission Speed and Accuracy by
establishing connections between users and servers in a range of Network
Environments.
 Industrial / Commercial: Utilized as sensing devices to detect temperature,
pressure, and other parameters, as wiring in cars and in industrial settings, as
imaging in difficult-to-reach places, and as wiring when electromagnetic
interference (EMI) is a concern
 Broadcast / CATV: Fibre optic cables are used by broadcast and cable providers
to wire CATV, HDTV, internet, video on-demand, and other applications.

Fibre optic cables serve as sensors to measure and keep an eye on a wide range
of variables, as well as lighting and image applications. In all of the aforementioned
businesses, fibre optic cables are also utilized for testing and research.

The Optical Fibers have Many Applications. Some of them are as follows −

 Used in Telephone Systems

 Used in Sub-marine Cable Networks
 Used in Data Link for Computer Networks, CATV Systems
 Used in CCTV Surveillance Cameras
 Used for Connecting Fire, Police, and other Emergency Services
 Used in Hospitals, Schools, and Traffic Management Systems
 They have many industrial uses and also used for in Heavy Duty Constructions

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Fiber - Optical Communication

 Block Diagram of Optical Fiber Communication System

Fig: 1:5 Block Diagram of Optical Fiber Communication System

 Message Origin:

Transducers transform non-electrical messages into electrical signals, which

is typically where messages originate. Mice that convert sound waves into currents
and video (TV) cameras that translate images into currents are common examples.
In computer-to-computer data transfer, the message is already in electrical form.

 Modulator:

The modulator has two main functions.

1) It formats the Electrical Message Correctly.

2) It imprints this Signal on the wave that the Carrier Source Produces.

There are two different types of Modulation used: Digital Modulation and
Analogue Modulation.

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 Carrier Source:

The wave that is used to transport the information is created by the carrier
source. We refer to this wave as the carrier. A light emitting diode (LED) or laser
diode (LD) is utilised in fibre optic systems. Known as optic oscillators, they generate
steady, single-frequency waves with enough strength to travel great distances.

 Channel Coupler:

Power is fed into the information channel using a coupler. The channel
coupler in an atmospheric optic system is a lens that collimates light coming from
the source and directs it towards the receiver.

The modulated light beam needs to be transferred from the source to the optic
fibre by the coupler in an effective manner. Because of the potential for significant
losses, the design of the channel coupler is a crucial component of the fibre system.

 Information Channel:

The information channel is the path between the sender and recipient. The
channel in fibre optic communications is a glass or plastic fibre. Large light
acceptance cone angle and low attenuation are desirable features for the information
channel.

Weak signals are given more power using optical amplifiers. In order to give
the receiver enough power across very long lines, amplifiers are required. Relays are
limited to usage with digital systems.

They create new digital pulse trains for transmission after converting weak
and distorted optical signals to electrical ones. The propagation time of the waves
moving via the information channel is another crucial characteristic.

A signal that is travelling via a fibre typically distributes its power along
multiple ray routes and encompasses a range of fibre optic frequencies. The
propagation signal gets distorted as a result. This distortion manifests as the pulses
spreading and deforming in a digital system. The spreading is so severe that
neighbouring pulses start to blend together and can no longer be distinguished as
distinct information.

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 Optical Detector:

A detector picks up the information that has started to be broadcast. A photo

detector in the fibre system transforms the optical wave into an electric current. The
power of the incident optical wave determines how much current the detector
develops. The conveyed data is contained in the detector output current. After
filtering out the continuous bias, the detector output is amplified.

Small size, affordability, extended life, low power consumption, great

sensitivity to optical signals, and quick reaction to abrupt changes in optical power
are among photo detectors' key characteristics.

Amplification and filtering are examples of signal processing. A well-

designed filter maximize the signal-to-unwanted-power ratio. A decision circuit is
an extra block for a digital system. For high-quality communications, there should
be extremely little bit error rate (BER).

 Signal Processing:

A detector picks up the information that has started to be broadcast. A photo

detector in the fibre system transforms the optical wave into an electric current. The
power of the incident optical wave determines how much current the detector
develops. The conveyed data is contained in the detector output current. After
filtering out the continuous bias, the detector output is amplified.

Small size, affordability, extended life, low power consumption, great

sensitivity to optical signals, and quick reaction to abrupt changes in optical power
are among photo detectors' key characteristics.

Amplification and filtering are examples of signal processing. A well-

designed filter maximise the signal-to-unwanted-power ratio. A decision circuit is
an extra block for a digital system. For high-quality communications, there should
be extremely little bit error rate (BER).

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 Message Output:

The message's electrical form is transformed into a sound wave or visual

representation by the signal processor. On rare occasions, these signals can be used
directly when machines or other devices are connected by fibre.

 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves include light and radio waves. In hertz (Hz), their
frequency (f) is the rate at which their polarity alternates. In open space, the speed of
an electromagnetic wave (c) is about 3 x 108 m/sec. Wavelength is the length of time
that a cycle travels. (λ) It is more practical to utilise the wavelength of light in fibre
optics rather than the frequency of light; wavelength is frequently expressed in
microns or nanometers.

1 micron (µ) = 1

Micrometre (1 x 10-6) 1 nano (n) = 10-9 meter.

Infrared and visible light are used in fibre optics. All fibre optic
communications often employ infrared light, which has a rather broad wavelength
range. Typically, visible light is transmitted over extremely small distances using
plastic fibre.

Fig: 1.6 Electromagnetic Spectrum

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1.4 Optical Fiber Wave Guides

Light travels have a maximum speed of 3 x 108 m/s, or 186 x 103 miles/sec,
in free space. The rules of reflection and refraction explain specific behaviours that
light exhibits when it passes through different materials.

Fig: 1.7 Optical Fiber Wave guides

A structure that "guides" light by preventing it from travelling along a specific

targeted path is known as an optical wave guide. Total internal reflection and
geometrical optics can be used to explain the operation of the optical wave guide if
the transverse dimensions of the guide are significantly bigger than the guided light's
wavelength.

By enclosing a guiding region, known as the core, composed of a material

with an index of refraction with a material known as the cladding, also composed of
a material with an index of refraction, a wave guide captures light.

 Ncladding <ncore.

Light Entering is trapped as long as sinθ > ncladding/nncore.

Fig: 1.8 Ncladding <ncore.

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Optical fibres and planar or rectangular wave guides are two ways that light
can be steered. The core, cladding, and outer coating—often referred to as the
buffer—are the three concentric components that make up an optical fibre. Typically,
the core is composed of plastic or glass. The part of the fibre that carries light is called
the core. The core is surrounded by the cladding. A substance with a little lower
index of refraction than the core is used to make the cladding. Total internal
reflection happens at the core-cladding border along the fiber's length due to this
disparity in indices.

Fig: 1.9 Battery

 Fiber Optic Core: The inner, highly refractive index light-carrying

component.

 Cladding: The intermediate layer, which keeps light contained within the
core. Its index of refraction is lower.

 Buffer: The exterior layer, which acts as a "shock absorber" to shield the
cladding and core from harm. In order to shield the fibre from the outside
elements, the coating typically consists of one or more layers of a plastic
substance. Occasionally, the coating is enhanced with metallic sheaths to
provide further physical protection.

Fig: 1.10 Buffer

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When light is injected into the fibre optic core, it is reflected back into the core
when it strikes the core-to-cladding interface at an angle bigger than the critical
angle. The light ray continues to zigzag down the length of the fibre since the angles
of incident and reflection are equal. The core contains the imprisoned light. When
light hits the interface at an angle smaller than the crucial one, it gets lost and
becomes absorbed by the cladding.

Fig: 1.11 Multimode Step Index Fiber

Step-index fibres are defined as those whose refractive index at the core-
cladding interface quickly changes and whose refractive index of the core remains
constant. Step-index fibres come in core sizes ranging from 100 mm to 1000 mm.
Applications needing high power densities, such providing laser power for
industrial and medical uses, are a good fit for them.

Step-index multimode fibres with many modes each have a unique entrance
angle, allowing them to trap light at a wide range of entrance angles. As a result,
each mode takes a unique course through the fibre.

Velocity varies across different spreading modes. An optical pulse starts to

spread as it moves through a multimode fibre. Over time, pulses that arrive at
different times will eventually overlap. This reduces the amount of distance that the
fibre can carry data. Multimode step-index fibres are not ideal for communications
or data transmission.

The index of refraction of the core in a multimode graded-index fibre falls

with increasing radial distance from the core centre. As a result, light moves more
quickly towards the core's border than it does towards its centre.

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In vacuum and air, the refractive index is 1.0; in water, it is 1.3; and in glass, it
is 1.5. Here, n represents the medium's refractive index.

Depending on the refractive indices of the media, a light beam impacted at the
interface of two distinct media will bend either away from or towards the normal.
According to Snell’s law, refraction can be represented as

= Refractive Index of First Medium

= Angle of Incidence

= Refractive Index of Second Medium

= Angle of Refraction

For n1 >n2, θ2 is always greater than θ1. Or to put it in different words, light
moving from a medium of high refractive index (glass) to a medium of lower
refractive index (air) will move away from the normal.

1.6 Total Internal Reflection

When analyzing how light propagates within an optical fibre using the ray
theory model, the refractive index of the dielectric medium must be taken into
consideration.

What distinguishes an optical material is its index of refraction, or n. The

refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of light velocity in that medium
to light velocity in a vacuum.

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The angles of incidence and refraction are related to each other and to the
refractive indices of the dielectrics by Snell’s law of refraction, which states that:

Fig: 1.19 Refraction is described by Snell’s Law

Additionally, a tiny quantity of light is reflected back into the original

dielectric medium (Partial Internal Reflection). The angle of refraction is always
greater than the angle of incidence because n is bigger than n.

Consequently, the angle of incidence must be less than 90° when the angle of
refraction is 90° and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface between the
dielectrics.

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Light is reflected back into the original dielectric medium (total internal
reflection) with high efficiency (about 99.9%) at angles of incidence greater than the
critical angle.

Therefore, total internal reflection happens at the interface between two

dielectrics with different refractive indices when light is incident on the lower-index
dielectric from the higher-index dielectric and the angle of incidence of the ray is
greater than the critical value. This is the process by which light can be said to
propagate down an optical fibre with minimal loss when it is at a shallow enough
angle (less than 90°).

The transmission of a light beam through an optical fibre through a sequence

of total internal reflections at the interface between the silica core and the silica
cladding, which has a slightly lower refractive index. At the contact, the ray's angle
of incidence (φ) is greater than the critical angle and it is reflected back to the normal
at the same angle.

Fig: 1.20 Transmission of a Light Ray

Since the light beam in Figure goes through the fibre core's axis, it is referred
to as a meridional ray. Since it is the easiest to explain, this kind of ray is typically
used to demonstrate the basic transmission characteristics of optical fibres.

It should be emphasized that the light transmission shown in predicated on

a perfect fibre, and that any flaws or discontinuities at the interface between the core
and the cladding would likely cause refraction rather than complete internal
reflection, which would then cause the light ray to be lost into the cladding.

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1.9 Skew Rays:

A bound ray in a multimode optical fibre is referred to as a "skew ray" if it

follows a helical path along the fibre and is not parallel to the fibre axis, does not lie
in a meridional plane, and does not cross the fibre axis.

Fig: 1.25 Core Axis

Rays that pass through an optical fibre without going through its axis are
known as skew rays.
The figure depicts a potential path for skew ray propagation. Front view in
view (b) and an angled view in view (a).
Skewed rays are defined as rays that travel in a helical pattern but are not
limited to a single plane. Since skew rays are not restricted to a single plane,
tracking them is difficult. For results purposes, it is sufficient to analyses the
meridional rays instead of the skew rays because the latter produce more
power loss.
Skewed rays travel without going via the fiber's centre axis. In comparison to
meridional rays, skew rays have a broader acceptance angle.
The computation of light acceptance in an optical fibre frequently makes use
of skew rays. A fiber's light capacity is increased when skew rays are added.

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are derived directly from Maxwell's equations—are used to analyses it.

Fig: 1.27 Ray Theory Illustrations showing two of the Possible Fiber
Perturbations which give Mode Coupling: (a) Irregularity at the Core–Cladding
Interface; (b) Fiber Bend

 Step Index Fibers

Step index fibre is the type of optical fibre that was discussed in the sections
before it, having a core with a constant refractive index of n1 and a cladding with a
slightly lower index of n2. This is because, which depicts the two main forms of step
index fibre, shows, the refractive index profile for this type of fibre makes a step
change at the core–cladding interface. The refractive index profile may be defined as

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Fig: 1.28 The Refractive Index Profile and Ray Transmission in step Index Fibres

 Multi-Mode step Index Fiber, Single-Mode Step Fibres

A multimode step index fibre with a core diameter of at least 50µm is seen in
Figure. This fiber's size permits the propagation of numerous modes inside the fibre
core. This is demonstrated by the several alternative ray routes through the fibre in
Figure.

The single-mode or mono mode step index fibre depicted in permits the
propagation of a single transverse electromagnetic mode, usually HE11. As a result,
the core diameter needs to be between 2 and 10µm. Depicts the propagation of a
single mode as matching to a single ray route (often represented as the axial ray)
through the fibre.

Since only one mode is transmitted, single-mode step index fibres have the
distinct advantage of having low inter modal dispersion (broadening of transmitted
light pulses).

In contrast, multimode step index fibres may experience significant

dispersion because of the different group velocities of the propagating modes.
Consequently, the highest bandwidth possible with multimode step index fibres is
limited, particularly in comparison to single-mode fibres. Nonetheless, multimode

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fibres outperform single-mode fibres in a number of ways for lower bandwidth

applications.

These are:
 The use of Spatially Incoherent Optical Sources (e.g. most light-emitting diodes)
which cannot be efficiently coupled to Single-mode Fibers.
 Larger numerical apertures, as well as core Diameters, Facilitating easier
Coupling to Optical Sources.
 Lower tolerance requirements on Fiber Connectors.

A finite number of guided modes can propagate along the channel in

multimode step index fibres. The physical characteristics of the fibre (i.e., relative
refractive index difference, core radius) and the transmitted light wavelengths that
are included in the fiber's normalized frequency V determine the number of guided
modes. Below cutoff, mode propagation does not completely stop. Along the fibre,
modes can spread as unguided or leaky modes that can go quite far.

Nonetheless, since guided modes are limited to the entire length of the fibre,
they are crucial to optical fibre communications. Using the approximate expression
that relates the total number of guided modes or mode volume MS for a step index
fibre to the fiber's V value enables an estimation of the number of guided modes
propagating in a certain multimode step index fibre.

1.11. Graded Index Fibers

Graded index fibres have a decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance
from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the core radius
an in the cladding instead of a constant refractive index in the core*. This variation
in the index can be shown as:

The distinctive refractive index profile of the fibre core is given by the profile
parameter α, where is the relative refractive index difference. The refractive index
profile of the fibre core can be easily expressed as a variation of α using equation,
which also permits the description of the step index profile when α = ∞, a parabolic
profile when α = 2, and a triangle profile when α = 1. Figure shows this spectrum of
refractive index profiles.

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Fiber - Optical Communication

Fig: 1.29 Possible Fiber Refractive Index profiles for Different Values of a (Given
Equation)

The graded index profiles with ~~2 have a near parabolic refractive index
profile core, which currently yields the best results for multimode optical
propagation. Since fibres with these core index profiles are well-known, they are
typically referred to when the term "graded index" is used without qualification.

Fig: 1.30 Radial Distance from Fiber Axis

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Where r = Radial Distance from Fiber Axis

a = Core Radius

n1= Refractive Index of Core

n2 = Refractive Index of Cladding

α = Shape of Index Profile.

Profile parameter α determines the characteristic refractive index profile of

fiber core. Because of this, we discuss the wave guiding characteristics of graded
index fibre with a parabolic refractive index profile core in this section.

Figure shows a multimode graded index fibre with a parabolic index profile
core. The meridional rays displayed appear to go along curved routes through the
fibre core.

Geometric optics principles can be used to explain how the rays are efficiently
incident on a large number of high to low index surfaces due to the steady drop in
refractive index from the core's centre.

Figure provides an illustration of this mechanism by showing how a ray is

constantly refracted as it travels back towards the core axis after gradually curving
at an ever-increasing angle of incidence until the conditions for total internal
reflection are satisfied.

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Fig: 1.31 Multimode Graded Index Fibre

Because of their refractive index profile, multimode graded index fibres show
far less inter modal dispersion than multimode step index fibres. The graded index
fibre excites a wide variety of modes, however the index grading tends to
normalisation the various group velocities of the modes. Using ray theory once more,
rays that go near the fibre axis have shorter trajectories than rays that travel.

Fig: 1.32 A Helical Skew Ray Path within a Granded Index Fiber

The near axial rays, on the other hand, move more slowly than the more
extreme rays because they pass through an area with a greater refractive index. This
lessens dispersion within the fibre and makes up for the shorter path lengths. Skew
rays that travel longer helical trajectories encounter a similar circumstance.

These primarily travel at higher speeds in the lower index zone, providing a
similar method of mode transit time equalization. Therefore, the trans-mission

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 Attenuation Units

As attenuation leads to a loss of power along the fiber, the output power is
significantly less than the couples power. Let the couples optical power is p(0) i.e. at
origin (z = 0). Then the power at distance z is given by,

Where, αp is fiber attenuation constant (per km)

This parameter is known as fiber loss or fiber attenuation. Attenuation is also

a function of wavelength. Optical fiber wavelength as a function of wavelength.

Fig: 2.1 Optical Fiber Wavelength as a Function of Wavelength

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Example 2.1.1: A low loss fiber has average loss of 3 dB/km at 900 nm. Compute the
length over which –

a) Power decreases by 50 %
b) Power decreases by 75 %.

Solution: α = 3 dB/km

a) Power decreases by 50 % is given by,

z = 1 km… Ans.

b) Since power decrease by 75%.

z = 2 km… Ans.

Example 2.1.2: For a 30 km long fiber attenuation 0.8 dB/km at 1300nm. If a 200 µwatt
power is launched into the fiber, find the output power.

Solution: z = 30 km

= 0.8 dB/km

P(0) = 200

µW

Attenuation in optical fiber is given by,

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Example 2.1.3 : When mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 12
µW, the mean optical power at the fiber output is 3 µW. Determine –Overall signal
attenuation in dB.The overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the
same fiber with splices at 1 km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB.

Solution: Given: z = 8 km ; P(0) = 120 µW P(z) = 3 µW P(0) = 120 µW P(z) = 3 µW

1. Overall Attenuation is given by,

2. Overall attenuation for 10 km, Attenuation per km in 10 Attenuation

Km link = 2.00 x 10 = 20 Db. In 10 km link there will be 9 splices at 1 km interval.

Each splice introducing attenuation of dB.

Total attenuation = 20 dB + 9 dB = 29 dB

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Example 2.1.4: A continuous 12 km long optical fiber link has a loss of 1.5 dB/km.

 What is the minimum optical power level that must be launched into the fiber
to maintain as optical power level of 0.3 µW at the receiving end.

 What is the required input power if the fiber has a loss of 2.5 dB/km

Solution: Given data: z = 12 km

=1.5 dB/km P(0) = 0.3 µW

Attenuation in optical fiber is given by,

= 1.80

Optical power output = 4.76 x 10-9 W…

ii) Input power = P(0)

When α = 2.5 dB/km

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P(0) = 4.76 µW

Input power= 4.76 µW

Example 2.1.5: Optical power launched into fiber at transmitter end is 150 µW. The
power at the end of 10 km length of the link working in first windows is – 38.2 dBm.
48.75 µW is another system with the same length operating in the second window.
A system of the same length operating in the third window has 50% launched power.
Determine the fibre attenuation in each scenario and include the operating
wavelength.

Solution : Given data:

P(0) = 150 µW

z= 10 km

Attenuation in 1st window:

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Attenuation in 2nd window:

Attenuation in 3rd window

Wavelength in 1 window is 850 nm. Wavelength in 2nd window is 1300 nm.

st

Wavelength in 3rd window is 1550 nm

Example 2.1.6: The input power to an optical fiber is 2 mW while the power
measured at the output end is 2 µW. If the fiber attenuation is 0.5 dB/km, calculate
the length of the fiber.

Solution: Given: P(0) = 2 mwatt = 2 x 10-3 watt

P(z) = 2 µwatt = 2 x 10-6 wattα = 0.5 dB/km

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2.2. Absorption

The fiber's construction method and material composition have an impact on

absorption loss. A portion of the optical power in the fibre cable is lost due to
absorption loss. Even though glass fibres are incredibly pure, certain contaminants
persist as residue following the purifying process. The wavelength of the light and
the concentration of these contaminants determine how much of it they absorb.

 These three Mechanisms are responsible for Absorption in Optical Fibre.

1. Absorption by atomic flaws in the composition of the glass

2. The glass material's intrinsic absorption by impurity atoms

3. Intrinsic absorption by the fibre material's fundamental component atoms.

 Absorption by Atomic Defects

Atomic defects are flaws like missing molecules or highly concentrated atom
group clusters in the atomic structure of the fibre materials. Comparing these
absorption losses to extrinsic and intrinsic losses, they are insignificant. When fibre
is exposed to ionizing radiation in a nuclear reactor, during medical treatment,
during space missions, etc., the absorption effect is most noticeable. Radiation
weakens the inside Structure of fiber. The strength of the ionizing particles
determines the extent of the damages. As a result, optical radiation is absorbed and
attenuation caused by atomic flaws increases. The measurement used to measure the
amount of radiation absorbed in bulk silicon is rad (Si), which is used to describe the
total dosage received by a material.

1 rad (Si) = 0.01 J.kg

The higher the radiation intensity more the attenuation.

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Fig: 2.2 Absorption by Atomic Defects

 Extrinsic Absorption

Electronic shifts between energy levels and charge transfers between ions are
the causes of extrinsic absorption. The transition of metal impurity ions, including
iron, chromium, cobalt, and copper, is a significant source of attenuation. The range
of these losses is 1 to 10 dB/km. Refining glass processes can lessen the impact of
metallic contaminants.

Fig: 2.3 Extrinsic Absorption

Another large extrinsic loss is caused by absorption as a result of dissolved OH

(Hydroxil) ions impurities in glass. Vibrations occur at wavelengths between 2.7 and 4.2 µm.
*The wavelengths of the three absorption peaks are 950, 750, and 1400 nm. The first, second,

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and third overtones are corresponding to these. The silica OH group's absorption spectra is
displayed. There are low attenuation areas in between these absorption peaks.

Intrinsic Absorption

 When a substance is completely pure, has no density variation, and has no in

homo genetics, it absorbs intrinsically. Therefore, for every given material,
intrinsic absorption establishes the fundamental lower limit on absorption.

 Atomic vibration bands in the near-infrared range and electronic absorption

bands in the UV region are the sources of intrinsic absorption. The band gaps
of amorphous glass materials correspond to the electronic absorption bands.
When a photon interacts with an electron in the van der Waals band and raises
its energy level, absorption takes place. The decrease of UV absorption increases
exponentially with wavelength (λ).

 The presence of OH ions and the innate IR absorption of the component

materials dictate the optical wave guide loss in the IR (infrared) region above
1.2 µm. The interaction between the optical signal's vibrating band and
electromagnetic field causes energy to be transferred from the field to the band,
which results in inherent infrared absorption. The strength of this absorption is
attributed to the many bonds found in the fibre. The ultraviolet loss at any
wavelength is expressed as,

Where, x is mole fraction of GeO2. λ is operating wavelength. αuv is in

dB/km. The loss in infrared (IR) region (above 1.2 µm) is given by expression: The
expression is derived for GeO2-SiO2 glass fiber.

2.3 Rayleigh Scattering Losses

Microscopic differences in the density and composition of the material create

scattering losses in optical fibres. Glass is primarily made up of oxides (such as SiO2,
GeO2, and P2O5) and a randomly connected network of molecules, which are the
main sources of compositional structural fluctuation.

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These two factors cause changes in the refractive index and light scattering of
the Rayleigh type. Little, localized variations in the refractive index of the core and
cladding material cause Rayleigh scattering of light.

There are two causes during the Manufacturing of Fiber.

 The first is the result of a tiny variation in the component mixing process. One
cannot entirely eradicate the haphazard alterations resulting from this.

 The silica's minor change in density during cooling and solidification is the
second explanation. Such zones disperse light rays in all directions when they
come into contact with them.

 The shortest wavelength (highest frequency) experiences the most scattering

since the quantity of scattering is determined by the magnitude of the
discontinuity in relation to the light's wavelength.

Fig: 2.4 Scattering Loss

Graphically the relationship between Wavelength and Rayleigh Scattering

Loss. Scattering Loss for Single Component Glass is given by,

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A negative sign indicates that the lowest wavelength upper sideband signal
comes before the maximum wavelength lower sideband signal.). The dispersion is
measured in ps/nm.km. The chemical makeup of glass determines how much
material disperses.

Example 2.6.1: An LED operating at 850 nm has a spectral width of 45 nm. What is
the pulse spreading in ns/km due to material dispersion?

Solution: Given: λ = 850 nm

σ = 45 nm Pulse broadening due to material dispersion is given by,

σm = σ LM

Considering length L = 1 metre

For LED source operating at 850 nm,

=0.025

M = 9.8 ps/nm/km σm = 441 ns/km …Ans.

2.7.2. Wave Guide Dispersion

The dispersion is measured in ps/nm.km. The chemical makeup of glass

determines how much material disperses. Wave guide dispersion only matters for
fibres with fewer than five to ten modes. Multimode optical fibers have no
discernible wave guide dispersion because they carry hundreds of modes. The
group delay (τwg) arising due to wave guide dispersion.

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Where, b = Normalized propagation constant

k = 2π / λ (group velocity)

Normalized frequency V,

The second term is wave guide dispersion and is mode dependent term. Since
wavelength determines frequency, the energy's group velocity fluctuates with
frequency.

Additional losses are produced by the (wave guide dispersion). The

wavelength-dependent variations in the propagation constant (b) are caused by
factors other than material dispersion.

2.7.3. Chromatic Dispersion

Chromatic dispersion is the result of combining material dispersion and wave

guide dispersion. The transmitter's spectral breadth and the appropriate wavelength
selection are the main causes of these losses.

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Z = Total fiber length

c = Velocity of light in air

= Fractional refractive index

Putting in above equation

Example 2.6.3: For a single mode fiber n2 = 1.48 and = 0.2 % operating at A = 1320
nm, compute the wave guide dispersion if

Solution: n2 = 1.48

0.2

= 1320 nm

Waveguide Dispersion is given by, z

S. -1.943 picosec/nm . km.

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2.7.5 Higher Order Dispersion

Higher order dispersive effective effects are governed by dispersion slope

where, D is total dispersion. Also,

Where, β2 and β3 are second and third order dispersion parameters.

Dispersion slope S is crucial for developing a WDM system.

2.7.6 Dispersion Induced Limitations

The width and form of the input pulses determine how much the pulses are
broadened. The wave equation is used to study the pulse broadening.

 Basic Propagation Equation

The fundamental propagation equation provided by, controls the evolution

of pulses in a single mode fibre.

Where,

β1, β2 and β3 are different dispersion parameters.

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1300 nm – Optimized Fibers: These are most popularly used fibers. The two
configurations of 1300 nm – optimized single mode fibers are

Fig: 2.12 Matched Cladding and Dressed Cladding

 Matched Cladding

Matched cladding fibers have uniform refractive index throughout its cladding.
Typical diameter is 9.0 µm and ∆ = 0.35 %.

 Dressed Cladding Fibers

Dressed Cladding Fibers have the innermost Cladding Portion has low
Refractive Index than out Cladding Region. Typical Diameter is 8.4 µm and ∆1 = 0.25
%, ∆2 = 0.12 %.

 Dispersion Shifted Fibers

Fig: 2.13 Dispersion Shifted Fibers

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The addition of wavelength and material dispersion can shift the zero
dispersion point of longer wavelength. Two configurations of dispersion shifted
fibers are

 Dispersion Flattened

Displacement The design of flattened fibres is more difficult. It provides a far

wider range of wavelengths to accommodate desired qualities. Two configurations
are:

Fig: 2.14 Disprersion Flattened

 Dispersion Calculations

The total dispersion consists of material and wave guide dispersions. The
resultant intermodal dispersion is given as,

Where, τ is group delay per unit length of fiber. The broadening σ of an optical
pulse is given σ = D (λ) Lσ λ. where, σλ is half power spectral width of source. As the
dispersion changes depending on the fibre type and wavelength. Dispersions are
computed using several formulas for different types of fibre at various wavelengths.

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Fig: 2.15 Shows Dispersion Performance curve for Non-dispersion Shifted Fibers
in 1270 – 1340 nm Region.

For a non-dispersion-shifted fibre with a wavelength between 1270 and 1340

nm, the expression for dispersion is given as: Where, λ0 is zero dispersion
wavelength. S0 is value at dispersion slop at λ0. Maximum dispersion specified as 3.5
ps/(nm . km) marked as dotted line in Figure.

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 The Cut-off Frequency of an Optical Fiber

An optical fiber's cut-off frequency is influenced by the degree of material

dispersion brought on by the transmitter's spectral width in addition to the fibre itself
(modal dispersion in the case of multimode fibres and wave guide dispersion in the
case of single mode fibres).

 Bending Loss Limitations

In single mode fibres operating in the 1550 nm area, there are notable
macrobending and microbending losses; the lower cut-off wavelengths have a
greater impact. Fig shows macrobending losses.

Fig: 2.16 Bending Loss Limitations

The relationship between bending losses and mode-field diameter is as

follows: the smaller the mode-field diameter, the lower the bending loss. Loss
resulting from mode-field diameter is depicted in Fig. The bend-radius of curvature
also affects the bending losses. Bending losses increase with decreasing bend radius
and decrease with increasing radius.

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Fig: 2.17 Diameter variation

2.8 Optical Fiber Connectors

Compared to splicing, an optical fibre connector allows for faster connection

and separation by terminating the end of the fibre. To allow light to flow, the
connectors mechanically link and align the fibre cores. Because of reflection or
misalignment of the fibres, better connectors lose relatively little light.
Approximately one hundred distinct varieties of fibre optic connections have been
released onto the market.

A flexible tool for quickly connecting and disconnecting fibre lines is an

optical fibre connector. Optical fibres can connect two fibre connections together
without splicing or terminate fiber-optic connections to fibre equipment. There are
hundreds of varieties of optical fibre connectors available, but the mechanical
coupling methods and size are what really set them apart. Because they guarantee
optical smoothness at the fibre ends and correct alignment of the end-to-end
positions, optical fibre connectors guarantee stable connections.

Another name for an optical fibre connector is a fibre optic connector. The
1980s. Springs are used to secure most fibre connectors. An optical fibre connector's
ferrule, sub-assembly body, cable, stress relief boot, and connector housing are its
essential parts. The ferrule, which assures alignment during connector mating, is
mostly composed of hardened materials like tungsten carbide and stainless steel. The
male-female configuration is achieved by the coupling device, which retains the
ferrule, and the connection body.

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CHAPTER III

OPTICAL SOURCES

3.1 Optical Sources

Electrical input signal is converted into a comparable optical signal by an

optical transmitter. After that, the optical signal is fired into the fibre. The main
element of an optical transmitter is an optical source. Semiconductor and Light
Emitting Diode (LED) are common types of optical transmitters.

3.2 Laser Diodes (LD)

 Characteristics of Light Source of Communication

The following qualities are necessary for a light source to be functional in an optical
link:

For several years, the gadget must be able to run continuously at different
temperatures.

The light output must be able to be modulated across a large range of

modulating frequencies. When using fibre links, the output wavelength should
line up with one of the transmission windows for the chosen type of fibre.

The emission area of an optical fibre must be tiny in order to couple a high
power level into it.

A narrow output spectrum is desirable in an optical fibre link to minimise

material dispersion.

Its operation requires a minimal amount of power.

The light source needs to work with today's solid state electronics.

It is necessary to directly regulate the optical output power by altering the

device's input current.

Improved linearity to reduce distortion from intermodulation and harmonics.

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High effectiveness of coupling.

Increased optical power output.

High dependability.

Light cost and light weight.

Two types of light sources used in fiber optics are light emitting diodes
(LEDs) and laser diodes (LDs).

3.3 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)p-n Junction

Since the same semiconductor material is used on both sides of the

conventional p-n junction, it is sometimes referred to as a homojunction.
Recombination of electrons and holes happens in a comparatively thin layer of 10
μm. High current densities cannot be achieved because the carriers are not restricted
to the area immediately surrounding the junction. Placing a thin layer (= 0.1 μm)
between p-type and n-type layers will solve the carrier confinement issue. The
intermediate layer could be doped or not. The bandgap discontinuity of the
connection is the cause of the carrier confinement. The device is referred to as a
double heterostructure, and the connection is known as a heterojunction. In any
optical communication system when the requirements is 1. Bit rate f 100-2—Mb/sec.
The best optical source is LEDs, which have optical power in the tens of microwatts.

3.4 LED Structures Heterojuncitons:

 An interface separating two adjacent single-crystal semiconductors with

distinct bandgaps is called a heterojunction.
 There are two types of heterojuctions: antisotype (p-n) and isotype (n-n or p-p).

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 Features of ELED:

 Linear connection between current and optical output.

 Spectral width for λ = 0.8 – 0.9 μm ranges from 25 to 400 nm.
 Wider modulation bandwidth is used.
 They are more dependable since they are unaffected by catastrophic gradation
mechanisms.
 Surface emitters are less efficient at coupling than eldest.

 Temperature affects ELEDs.

Usage:

 LEDs are a good choice for short-range, medium-bandwidth

communications.
 Suitable for Digital Systems operating at up to 140 Mb/sec.
 Extended Analogue Connections

 Light Source Materials

Electro luminescence is the term for the

spontaneous emission resulting from carrier
recombination. The right semiconductor material
must be chosen in order to promote
Energy bandgap Recombination
electroluminescence. Direct bandgap
(eV) Br (cm3 /sec)
semiconductors are a subset of semiconductors
based on energy bandgap. Semiconductors with an
indirect bandgap. A selection of frequently used
bandgap semiconductors.
GaAs Direct : 1.43 7.21 x 10-10
GaAs Direct : 0.73 2.39 x 10-10
InAs Direct : 0.35 8.5 x 10-11
InSb Direct : 0.18 4.58 x 10-11
Si Indirect : 1.12 1.79 x 10-15
Ge Indirect : 0.67 5.25 x 10-14
GaP Indirect : 2.26 5.37 x 10-14
Table: 3.1 Semiconductor Material for Optical Sources

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The best semiconductors for this are direct bandgap ones. The crystal
momentum of the electrons and holes on either side of the band gap is equal in direct
bandgap semiconductors. Direct recombination is therefore feasible. Recombination
happens in 10-8 to 10-10 seconds. The minimum and maximum energy in indirect
bandgap semiconductors happen at various crystal momentum levels. These
semiconductors have very slow recombination rates, between 10^-2 and 10^-3 sec.
The semiconductor material used in the active layer needs to have a direct bandgap.
Electrons and holes in a direct bandgap semiconductor can recombine directly,
conserving momentum without the requirement for a third particle. These materials
have a sufficiently high optical radiation. These materials are combinations of group
V (P, As, Sb) and group III (Al, Ga, and In) elements. There are also some tertiary
allos Ga1-x Alx As in use.

Fig: 3.6 Emission Spectrum of Ga1-x AlxAs LED

At 810 nm, the output power reaches its maximum. Full width half maximum
(FWHM) spectral width is the width of emission spectrum at half power (0.5). The
LED's given FWHM is 36 nm. The gap energy E and frequency v basic quantum
mechanical connection is given as

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Where wavelength (λ) is measured in metres and energy (E) is expressed in

joules. For this application, express the wavelength (λ) in micrometers and the gap
energy (Eg) in electron volts.

 Different Materials and Alloys have different Band Gap Energies

Within the direct bandgap area, two compositional parameters, x and y, can
affect the bandgap energy (Eg). The primary material used in these LEDs is the
quartenary alloy In1-x Gax Asy P1-y. Two expression relating Eg and x,y are –

Example 3.1.1: Compute the emitted wavelength from an optical source having x =
0.07.

Solution:

x = 0.07

Eg = 1.513 eV now

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Example 3.1.2: For an alloy In0.74 Ga0.26 As0.57 P0.43 to be sued in Led. Find the
wavelength emitted by this source.

Solution: Comparing the alloy with the quartenary alloy composition. In1-x Gax As

P1-y it is found that

x = 0.26 and y= 0.57

Eg = 1.35 – 0.72 y + 0.12 y2

Using

Eg = 1.35-(0.72 x 0.57) + 0.12 x 0.572

Eg = 0.978 Ev now

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3.10 External Quantum Efficiency

The number of photons released for each electron-hole pair recombination

over threshold is known as the external quantum efficiency.

The external quantum efficiency ηext is given by –

Where,

ηi = Internal quantum efficiency (0.6-0.7).gth = Threshold gain.

α = Absorption coefficient

Typical value of ηext for standard semiconductor laser is ranging between 15-20 %.

3.11 Resonant Frequencies

At threshold lasing

2β L = 2π m

where, (propagation constant) m is an integer.

Since

c = vλ

Substituting λ in 3.1.30

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Gain in any laser is a function of frequency. For a Gaussian output the gain
and frequency are related by expression.

Where, g(0) is maximum gain. λ0 is center wavelength in spectrum.is

spectral width of the gain. The frequency spacing between the two successive
modes is –

 Optical Characteristics of LED and Laser

The drive current flowing through a laser diode determines its output. The
laser functions as an inefficient LED when the drive current is low.

The laser starts to work when the drive current reaches a certain threshold.

A graph comparing the optical powers of LED operation (owing to

spontaneous emission) and laser operation is shown in Figure (due to stimulated
emission).

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CHAPTER IV

OPTICAL DETECTORS AND RECEIVERS

4.1 Optical Detector and Receivers

 In actuality, the photo-diode is a p-n junction used in the exact opposite way
from an LED.

 The incident light determines how much the current varies.

 Utilization of the semiconductor material's enhanced light absorption to

produce electron-hole pairs.

 The difference in circuit current is caused by the energy of the absorbed

photons that move electrons from the ground to the excited state.

 For the material to react to the incoming photons, the energy of the absorbed
photon must at least match the band-gap of the material.

4.2. PIN Diode

 Adding a layer of undoped or sparingly doped semiconductor material

between the p–n junctions is an easy method to widen the depletion-region.

 This type of arrangement is called a p–i–n photodiode because the middle

layer is made up of almost entirely intrinsic material.

 A photon enters the photodetector, is absorbed by the low band gap

absorption layer, and produces an electron-hole pair. We refer to this pair of
electrons as a photocarrier.

 These photocarriers produce photocurrent proportionate to the number of

incident photons when they are subjected to a strong electric field produced
by a reverse bias potential difference across the device, as depicted in the
picture.

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 Working of APD

With the exception of the addition of a high intensity electric field area, APD
and PIN diodes are comparable. Primary electron hole pairs are created in this region
by incident photons that are able to collide with the atoms in the area and produce
more electron hole pairs by absorbing enough kinetic energy from the strong electric
field.

Impact ionization is the name of the physical process that underlies the
internal current gain. In ordinary reverse bias, this impact ionisation causes an
avalanche breakdown. The new carriers produced by impact ionisation must have a
very high reverse bias voltage in order for them to generate more carriers through
the same method.

The avalanche effect is the process of producing multiple electron-hole pairs

from an incoming photon by ionisation. Photodiode current is amplified as a result
of avalanche multiplication. Factor of multiplication:

APD's internal gain is measured by the multiplication factor M. The ratio of the
main unmultiplied current to the total multiplied output current is its definition.
M=IIpM=IIp. Where I is the primary unmultiplied current and Ip is the total
multiplied output current.

The photo detector device's operational and physical parameters determine

the multiplicity. The avalanche region's width, the electric field's strength, and the
kind of semiconductor material used are examples of operational characteristics.

 Comparison:

S. No. PIN Diode APD (Avalanche Photodiode)

PIN does not have high APD has high intensity electric field
1
intensity electric field region. region.
Photo current (IpIp) generated is more
Photo current (IpIp) generated compared to PIN,
is less compared to APD Ip=qNθ.M
2
Ip=qNθ, q = electron charge, q = electron charge,
Nθ = carrier number Nθ= carrier number,
M = multiplication factor

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Responsively of PIN is Responsively of APD can have much

3
limited. larger values?
They exhibit higher noise levels as
They exhibit lower noise compared to PIN due to impact
4
levels. ionization and photocurrent
multiplication.
Response time of PIN is half Response time of APD is almost double
5
that of APD. that of PIN.

Table: 4.1 Comparison of PIN and APD

For specific purposes, the PN-junction is modified to create the PIN-diode. The
PN-junction diode was initially used in 1952 as a high-power, low-frequency
rectifier, following its development in the 1940s. When using high-voltage, the
breakdown voltage can be greatly increased by the presence of an intrinsic layer.

When the device runs at high frequencies in the radio wave and microwave
spectrum, this intrinsic layer also offers fascinating features. One form of diode that
has an undoped, broad intrinsic semiconductor region sandwiched between an N-
type and P-type semiconductor region is called a PIN diode. Since these areas are
utilised for Ohmic connections, they are typically highly doped. An conventional p–
n diode is indifferent to the broader intrinsic area. Although the diode is not a good
rectifier in this region, it is still suitable for high voltage power electronics
applications, quick switches, attenuators, and photo detectors.

One kind of photo detector that transforms optical signals into electrical signals
is the PIN diode. The P-, I-, and N-areas are the three regions that make up the PIN
diode.

Since the P and N regions are used for Ohmic connections, they are usually
severely doped. Unlike a PN junction diode, the diode has an inherent area. The PIN
diode becomes a lower rectifier in this region, but it is still suitable for high voltage
power electronics applications, rapid switches, attenuators, and light detectors.

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4.4. Photo Detectors

For specific purposes, the PN-junction is modified to create the PIN-diode.

The PN-junction diode was initially used in 1952 as a high-power, low-frequency
rectifier, following its development in the 1940s. When using high-voltage, the
breakdown voltage can be greatly increased by the presence of an intrinsic layer.

When the device runs at high frequencies in the radio wave and microwave
spectrum, this intrinsic layer also offers fascinating features. One form of diode that
has an undoped, broad intrinsic semiconductor region sandwiched between an N-
type and P-type semiconductor region is called a PIN diode. Since these areas are
utilized for Ohmic connections, they are typically highly doped.

An conventional p–n diode is indifferent to the broader intrinsic area.

Although the diode is not a good rectifier in this region, it is still suitable for high
voltage power electronics applications, quick switches, attenuators, and photo
detectors. One kind of photo detector that transforms optical signals into electrical
signals is the PIN diode.

The P-, I-, and N-areas are the three regions that make up the PIN diode. Since
the P and N regions are used for Ohmic connections, they are usually severely doped.
Unlike a PN junction diode, the diode has an inherent area. The PIN diode becomes
a lower rectifier in this region, but it is still suitable for high voltage power electronics
applications, rapid switches, attenuators, and light detectors.

Some Important Parameters while discussing Photo Detectors:

 Quantum Efficiency: It is the ratio of incident photon-created primary electron-

hole pairs to incident photon-created pairs on the diode material.
 Detector Responsivity: This is the output current to optical power input ratio.
Thus, this represents the device's efficiency.
 Spectral Response Range: This is the wavelength range that the device will
function inside.
 Noise Characteristics: The device's ability to function at low input light levels
depends critically on the amount of noise it produces.
 Response Time: This represents the detector's response time to changes in the
input light intensity.

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 Photo Carriers:

 In the intrinsic area, incident photons produce free, mobile electron-hole

pairs.
 Because a photon produces these charge carriers, they are referred to as
photocarriers.

 Photo Current:

A current flow in an external circuit is created when the photocarriers are

swept out of the intrinsic area by the electric field across the device. The photocurrent
is the name given to this current flow.

 Energy-Band diagram for a pin photodiode

Fig: 4.6 Energy Band Diagram for a Pin Photodiode

An incident photon is able to boost an electron to the conduction band

only if it has an energy that is greater than or equal to the bandgap energy.

Beyond a certain wavelength, the light will not be absorbed by the material
since thewavelength of a photon is inversely proportional to its energy.

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Thus, a particular semiconductor material can be used only over a limited

wavelength range.

The upper wavelength λc cutoff is determined by the band-gap energy E g of

the material.

Some of the charge carriers recombine and vanish as they pass through the
substance.

Before recombining, the charge carriers travel L n or L p, depending on

whether they are electrons or holes. We refer to this distance as the diffusion
length.

The recombination time is equal to its life duration, τ n or τ p, respectively.

L n = (Dn τ n )1/2 and L p = (Dp τ p )1/2

Where D n and D p are the diffusion coefficients for electrons and holes
respectively.

 Photo Current

A photon flux will be absorbed as it passes through the semiconductor.

The incremental change can be expressed as follows if P (x) is the power level
at a distance x within the material and Pin is the optical power falling on the
photo detector at x=0.

Where α s ( λ) is the photon absorption coefficient at a wavelength λ. So that

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It is possible to express the optical power absorbed in the depletion area, P(x),
in terms of the incident optical power, Pin:

Wavelength has a substantial influence on the absorption coefficient αs (λ).

Any semiconductor's upper wavelength cut-off can be found using its energy gap in
the manner described below.

The absorbed power in the breadth of depletion region, w, becomes: in light

of entry face reflectivity.

4.6 Detector Response Time

The following three parameters primarily determine the photodiode's response

time in conjunction with its output circuit:

Table: 4.3 Optical Receiver Design

S.No. Parameters PIN APD

1 Sensitivity Less sensitive (0- 12 dB) More sensitive (5- 15 dB)

2 Biasing Low reverse biased voltage High reverse biased

voltage (20- 400 Volts)
(5 to 10 V)

3 Wavelengthregion 300- 1100 nm 400 -1000 nm

4 Gain No Internal gain Internal gain

 The photo carriers' travel time in the depletion region.

 The photocarriers created outside of the depletion region and their diffusion
time.
 The photodiodes and the connected circuit's RC time constant.

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binary 0 occurs, it is composed of a zero voltage level space. A voltage pulse of

duration Tb happens when a 1 is transmitted, but the voltage stays at zero when a 0
is sent. The optical transmitter's job is to transform an electric signal into an optical
signal. In this case, a 1 indicates an optical power (light) pulse with a duration of T,
while a 0 denotes the absence of any light. As the optical signal travels through the
fibre wave guide after being linked from the light source, it attenuates and distorts.
When the optical signal reaches the receiver, it is converted back to an electric format
using either an avalanche photodiode or a pin.

After that, the electric signal is filtered and amplified. A circuit for decisions
compares the signal in each time interval that has reached the threshold level, which
is a certain reference voltage. A 0 is deemed to have been received if the received
signal level is higher than the threshold level.

To increase the optical signal level prior to photo detection, an optical

amplifier may occasionally be positioned in front of the photodiode. This is done to
suppress the worsening of the signal to noise ratio brought on by thermal noise in
the receiver electronics. An optical preamplifier offers a larger bandwidth and a
higher gain factor than APDs or optical heterodyne detectors.

4.7 Error Sources

Errors are caused by a variety of noise and disturbances related to the signal
detection system, as depicted in the image below.

Fig: 4.8 Noise Sources and Disturbances in the Optical Pulse Detection
Mechanism

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CHAPTER V

OPTICAL SYSTEM DESIGN

5.1 System Design Factors

Each component of a fibre optic transmission system requires careful selection

based on operational characteristics in order to provide high-quality transmission.
The key questions are as follows: in digital systems, data rates and bit error rates; in
analogue systems, bandwidth, linearity, and signal-to-noise ratios; and in all
systems, transmission distances. These are listed in Table 10.1. The fundamental
application restrictions are defined by these issues of how far, how good, and how
fast. It's time to assess the other relevant aspects when they have been determined.

Table: 5.1 Factors for Evaluating Fiber Optic System Design

System Factor Consideration / Choices

Type of Fiber Single-mode or Multimode

Dispersion Regenerators or Dispersion Compensation

Fiber Characteristics, Wavelengths, and

Fiber Nonlinearities
Transmitter Power

Operating Wavelength 780, 850, 1310, 1550 nm, and 1625 nm typical.

Transmitter Power Typically expressed in dBm.

Source Type LED or Laser

Receiver Sensitivity/Overload
Typically expressed in dBm.
Characteristics

Detector Type PIN Diode, APD, or IDP

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System Factor Consideration / Choices

Modulation Code AM, FM, PCM, or Digital

Bit Error Rate (BER) (Digital
10 -9, 10 -12 Typical
SystemsOnly)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio Specified in decibels (dB).
Number of Connectors Loss increases with the number of connectors.
Number of Splices Loss increases with the number of splices.
Humidity, Temperature, Exposure to
Environmental Requirements
Sunlight
Mechanical Requirements Flammability, Indoor/Outdoor Application

Table: 5.2 Factors for Evaluating Fiber Optic System Design

Many of these factors have a direct bearing on other factors. For instance, the
choice of detector will influence the sensitivity of the receiver, which will influence
the required output power of the transmitter. The type of transmitter light emitter is
influenced by output power, and this in turn influences the type of connector and
usable fibre. Analysing the optical link loss budget or fibre optic link power budget
is a reasonable first step in the fibre link design process.

5.2 System Design Considerations

In optical system design major consideration involves

 Fibre Transmission Characteristics (Dispersion & Attenuation).
 Fiber's Capacity to Transport Information.
 Technology & Equipment at Terminals.
An optical communication system should have following basic required
specifications;

 Type of Transmission: Digital or Analogue

 System Integrity (BER/SNR)
 Transmission Bandwidth Required
 Appropriate Repeater Interval
 System Reliability Cost
 The Upkeep Cost.

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5.2.1. System Consideration

Prior to choosing appropriate parts, the system's working wavelength is

chosen. The selection of the operational wavelength is contingent upon both
attenuation and distance. The 800-900 nm range is preferable for shorter distances,
whereas the 100 or 1550 nm zone is preferred for longer distances because of reduced
attenuations and dispersion. The next step is selection of photo detector. While
selecting a photo detector following factors are considered –

 Minimum optical power that must fall on photo detector to satisfy BER
at specified data rate.
 Complexity of circuit.
 Cost of design.
 Bias requirements.
 Next step in system consideration is choosing a proper optical source;
Important factors to consider are –
 Signal dispersion.
 Data rate.
 Transmission distance.
 Cost.
 Optical power coupling.
 Circuit complexity.

The choice of optical fibre, between single mode and multimode fibre with
step or graded index fibre, is the final system consideration. Tolerable dispersion and
the type of optical source determine which fibre is best.

 Some Important Factors for Selection of Fiber are:

 The dispersion of the fibre linked power increases with an increase in

numerical aperture (NA).
 Features of attenuation.
 Environmental-caused losses, such as those brought on by changes in
temperature, moisture, and dust, etc.

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 System Design Considerations

 A key factor in the design of optical systems is the fiber's transmission

characteristics, namely its dispersion and attenuation.
 Fiber's capacity to transport information.

 Distance of Transmission.

In long-haul communication applications repeaters are inserted at regular

intervals as shown in Fig.

Fig: 5.1 Repeaters in Long- haul Communication System

Prior to being retransmitted as a digital optical signal, the repeater

regenerates the original data. The installation of repeaters raises the
system's cost and complexity.
An optical communication system should meet the following essential
requirements
Type of transmission (digital or analogue).
Acceptable repeater spacing; required transmission bandwidth; system
fidelity (SNR/BER); system cost; and reliability
Maintenance expenses.

5.4 Multiplexing

 The information transfer rate of a communication link is increased when

multiple signals are multiplexed onto a single fibre. Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM) improves the bandwidth utilization of a single fibre link
by interleaving and transmitting pulses from multiple channels successively.

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 Each signal in frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is assigned a specific

range of frequencies after the optical channel bandwidth is divided into
multiple, non-overlapping frequency bands. The combined FDM signal can
be obtained with the appropriate filtering.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing, or WDM, is utilised when many optical
sources operating at different wavelengths need to be delivered over a single
fibre link. Optical filters (interference, diffraction, and prism filters) are used
at the receiving end to separate or extract optical signals.
 One further method was Space Division Multiplexing (SDM), which
employed individual fibres within a fibre bundle for every signal channel.
Better optical isolation offered by SDM removes cross-coupling between
channels.
 However, this method is not commonly used because it requires a large
number of optical components (fibre, connector, sources, detectors, etc.).

 System Architecture

From architecture point of view fiber optic communication can be classified

into three major categories.

 Point-to-point Connections,
 Distributed Networks,
 Local Area Networks.

5.5 Point-to-Point Links

 There is just one transmitter and one receiver system in a point-to-point

link.
 The foundation for analysing more complicated optical communication
networks is laid by this, the most basic type of optical communication link.
 The following crucial factors need to be taken into account when assessing
any link's performance. Distance of transmission
 Bit-error rate and channel data rate
 The characteristics of the various devices used in the link are linked to all
of the transmission link parameters mentioned above. A list of significant
elements together with their attributes is provided below.

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Fig: 5.2 Point-to-Point Links

Losses related to fibre cable rise as link length increases from 20 to 100 km.
Over the course of the fibre cable, optical amplifiers and regenerators are utilized to
offset the losses.

A regenerator is a set of receivers and transmitters that recognizes an

incoming optical signal, electronically recovers the bit stream, and then modulates
an optical source to transform it back into an optical signal. The optical bit stream is
amplified by an optical amplifier without being transformed into electrical form.

Repeater spacing (L) is the distance between two repeaters or optical

amplifiers. The bit rate B determines the repeater spacing L. For point-to-point
networks, the bit rate-distance product (BL) is used as a system performance metric.
Two important analysis for deciding performance of any fiber link are –

 Link Power Budget / Power Budget

 Rise Time Budget / Bandwidth Budget

Fig: 5.3 Simple Point to Point Link

The most basic type of transmission line is a point-to-point fibre optic cable.
Since this kind of link requires the least amount of optical fibre technology, it paves
the way for further investigation into more intricate system architecture. There are
two possible types of repeaters: optical and electrical.

The repeater spacing in this system is an important design consideration. The

system cost decreases as the spacing between repeaters grows; nevertheless, the
system cost increases when the spacing between transmitters and receivers

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increases.(For example, transmission distance and growth).

Bit rate decreases due to dispersion if L rises. Thus, a measure of system

performance that depends on operating wavelength is the product of B (bit rate) and
transmission distance (L).

Operating wavelength BL product

0.854m 1Gb/s-Kn

1.34µm 1 Tb/s-Km

1.55µm 100Tb/s-km

Table: 5.2 Operating Wavelength

Understanding the system requirements, such as the maximum transmission

distance, necessary data rate, and permitted bit error rate (BER), is necessary in order
to analyse the point-to-point link. The components that are available and their
qualities should be taken into consideration while designing the system in order to
meet these requirements.

1. Multimode (or) Single Mode Fiber (Transmission Media)

 Core Diameter
 Profile of Fibre Reactive Index
 Spread (or) Bandwidth
 Fibre Weakening
 Quantitative Aperture

2. Optical Sources (LED or Laser Diode)

 Wavelength of Emission
 Power Output Spectral Line Width
 Radiation Pattern Area of Radiation and Number of Modes Emitted
 Durability and Longevity.

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3. Light Detectors (PIN (or) APD)

 Activating
 Sensitivity
 Operating Wavelength
 Speed

5.6 Link Power Budget:

For opining link power budget an optical power loss model is to be studied
as shown in Fig. Let

 lc denotes the losses occur at connector.

 Lsp denotes the losses occur at splices.

Fig: 5.4 Optical Power Loss Model

All the losses from source to detector comprises the total loss (PT) in the
system. Link power margin considers the losses due to component aging and
temperature fluctuations. Usually a link margin of 6-8 dB is considered while
estimating link power budget. Total optical loss = Connector loss + (Splicing loss +
Fiber attenuation) + System margin (Pm) PT = 2lc + αfL + System margin (Pm)
Where, L is transmission distance.

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Example: Design as optical fiber link for transmitting 15 Mb/sec of data for a
distance of 4 km with BER of 10-9.

Solution:

Bandwidth x Length = 15 Mb/sec x 4 km = (60 Mb/sec) km

Selecting Optical Source: LED at 820 nm is suitable for short distances. The LED
generates – 10 dBm optical powers.

Selecting Optical Detector: PIN-FER optical detector is reliable and has – 50 dBm
sensitivity.

Selection Optical Fiber: Step-index multimode fiber is selected. The fiber has
bandwidth length product of 100 (Mb/s) km.

5.6.1. Links Power Budget:

 Assuming:

Splicing loss ls = 0.5 dB/slice Connector loss lc = 1.5 dB

System link power margin Pm – 8 dB

Fiber attenuation αf = 6 dB/km

Actual total loss = (2 x lc) + αfL + Pm

PT = (2 x 1.5) + (6 x 4) + 8 PT = 35 dB

Maximum allowable system loss:

Pmax = Optical source output power- optical receiver sensitivity Pmax = -10
dBm – (-50 dBm) Pmax = 40 dBm

Since actual losses in the system are less than the allowable loss, hence the
system is functional.

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Example: A transmitter has an output power of 0.1 mW. It is used with a fiber having
NA= 0.25, attenuation of 6 dB/km and length 0.5 km. The link contains two
connectors of 2 dB average loss. The receiver has a minimum acceptable power
(sensitivity) of – 35 dBm. The designer has allowed a 4 dB margin. Calculate the link
power budget.

Solution:

Source power Ps = 0.1mW Ps = -10dBm

Since NA = 0.25 Coupling loss = -10log (NA2)

= -10log (0.252)

= 12 dB

Fiber loss = αf x L

lf = (6dB/km) (0.5km) lf = 3 dB Connector loss = 2 (2 dB)

lc = 4 dB Design margin Pm = 4 dB

Actual output power Pout = Source power – (Σ Losses) Pout = 10dBm – [12 dB + 3 +
4 + 4]

Pout = -33 dBm Since receiver sensitivity given is – 35 dBm.

Pmin = -35 dBm As Pout > Pmin, the system will perform adequately over the system
operating life.

Example: In a fiber link the laser diode output power is 5 dBm, source-fiber coupling
loss= 3 dB, connector loss of 2 dB and has 50 splices of 0.1 dB loss. Fiber attenuation
loss for 100 km is 25 dB, compute the loss margin for i) APD receiver with sensitivity
– 40 dBm ii) Hybrid PINFET high impedance receiver with sensitivity -32 dBm.

Solution: Power Budget Calculations

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Source output power 5 dBm

Source fiber coupling loss 3 dB
Connector loss 2 dB
Connector loss 5 dB
Fiber attenuation 25 dB
Total loss 35 dB

Table: 5.3 Assuming

Available Power to Receiver: (5 dBm – 35 dBm) – 30 dBm

APD Receiver Sensitivity – 40 dBm

Loss margin [- 40 – (- 30)] 10dBm

H-PIN FET high0impedance receiver -32 dBm Loss margin [- 32 – (- 30)] 2 dBm

5.7 Rise Time Budget

The link components must be switched fast enough and the fiber dispersion
must be low enough to meet the bandwidth requirements of the application
adequate bandwidth for a system can be assured by developing a rise time budget.

As the light sources and detectors has a finite response time to inputs. The
device does not turn-on or turn-off instantaneously. Rise time and fall time
determines the overall response time and hence the resulting bandwidth.

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Connectors, couplers and splices do not affect system speed, they need not be
accounted in rise time budget but they appear in the link power budget. Four basic
elements that contributes to the rise-time.

5.7.1. Transmitter Rise-time (ttx)

 Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD) rise time (tGVD) Modal dispersion rise
time of fiber (tmod)
 Receiver rise time (trx)

Where,
 Brx is 3 dB – bW of receiver (MHz).

Rise time due to modal dispersion is given as

Where,

BM is bandwidth (MHz)

L is length of fiber (km)

q Is a parameter ranging between 0.5 and 1.

B0 is bandwidth of 1 km length fiber

Rise time due to group Velocity Dispersion is

Where,

D is dispersion [ns/(nm.km)]

Σλ is half-power spectral width of source L is length of fiber

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Receiver front end rise-time in nanoseconds is

Equation (6.2.1) can be written as

Example: For a multimode fiber following parameters are recorded.

LED with drive circuit has rise time of 15 ns.

LED spectral width = 40 nm

Material dispersion related rise time degradation = 21 ns over 6 km link.

Receiver bandwidth = 235 MHz

Modal dispersion rise time = 3.9 nsec. Calculate system rise time.

Solution:

ttx = 15 nsec tTmat = 21 nsec tmod = 3.9 nsec

Now

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Since

Example: A fiber link has following data

Component BW Rise time (tr)

Transmitter 200MHxz 1.75 nsec

LED (850 nm) 100 MHz 3.50 nsec

Fiber cable 90 MHz 3.89 nsec

PIN detector 350 MHz 1.00 nsec

Receiver 180 MHz 1.94 nsec

Table: 5.4 Rise Time (tr)

Compute the system rise time and bandwidth.

Solution: System rise time is given by

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System BW is given by

5.8 WDM

The technique of combing many wavelengths onto one fibre at once is known
as wavelength-division multiplexing, or WDM. The fact that each optical channel in
WDM can carry any transmission format is one of its strongest features.

WDW significantly expands a fibre network's capacity. In all network layers,

it is therefore acknowledged as the Layer 1 transport technology. This article aims to
provide a concise synopsis of WDM technology and its uses.

5.8.1. Need of WDM

Telecommunication lines are expanding quickly, necessitating the need for

higher capacity and faster data transfer rates across longer distances. Network
managers are depending more and more on fibre optics to meet these expectations.
In general, there are three ways to increase capacity:

Wavelength division multiplexing, adding more connections, and raising the

system bitrate to multiplex more signals. In many situations, especially in urban
areas, the first option—installing additional cables—will be favoured because fibre
has gotten incredibly affordable and installation techniques have improved.

However, this might not be the most economical option if conduit space is
scarce or if significant construction is required. In order to multiplex more signals,
increasing the system bitrate is another method of capacity growth.

However, boosting the system bitrate can also not be financially

advantageous. Many systems are currently operating at SONET OC-48 rates (2.5
GB/s), therefore it might not be essential to upgrade to OC-192 (10 GB/s), which is
costly, calls for replacing every electronic component in a network, and adds four
times the capacity.

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Thirdly, it has been demonstrated that WDM is the more economical

technology. In addition to supporting current electronics and fibres, it can share
fibres through the use of transmit channels with varying light wavelengths, or
colours. Furthermore, most WDM systems already use fibre optic amplifiers as
repeaters, thus they don't need to be upgraded.

We can quickly conclude that WDM is the best way to address the demand
for greater capacity and quicker data transmission rates based on the comparison of
the three options for capacity expansion shown above.

Actually, comprehending the working principle of WDM is not difficult.

Think about how many distinct colours of light you can see: red, green, yellow, blue,
etc. The colours are carried by the air together and may blend together, but with the
aid of a basic tool like a prism, they may be readily distinguished from one another.

It's as though we use a prism to divide the sun's "white" light into a range of
colours. WDM is comparable to the prism in terms of how it functions. A multiplexer
at the transmitter is used by a WDM system to combine several signals.

Simultaneously, it divides them using a demultiplexer at the receiver, as

illustrated in the diagram below. It is feasible for it to operate as an optical add-drop
multiplexer with the appropriate kind of fibre.

In the early 1980s, this method was first demonstrated using optical fibre.
Only two signals were mixed in the initial WDM systems. A basic 10 Gbit/s system
over a single fibre pair can be expanded to nearly 1.6 Tbit/s with modern systems,
which can handle up to 160 signals.

WDM systems are well-liked by telecom firms because they can increase the
network's capacity and support multiple generations of technological advancements
in optical infrastructure without requiring a complete redesign of the backbone
network.

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Fig: 5.5 Wave Length Division Multiplexing

5.9 CWDM VS DWDM

DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing) and CWDM (Coarse

Wavelength Division Multiplexing) are the two wavelength patterns that make up
WDM systems. CWDM and DWDM vary greatly in terms of spacings, DFB lasers,
and transmission distances.

CWDM and DWDM are defined by the channel spacings between individual
wavelengths sent through the same fibre. While most DWDM systems currently give
0.8 nm (100 GHz) wavelength separation in accordance with the ITU standard,
CWDM systems typically have spacing of 20 nm.

The number of channels (lambdas) accessible on the same link is greatly

decreased by the wider CWDM channel spacing; nevertheless, the optical interface
components do not need to be as exact as DWDM components. For this reason,
CWDM equipment is far less expensive than DWDM equipment.

The DFB (Distributed Feedback Lasers) is used in both CWDM and DWDM
designs. On the other hand, DFB lasers used in CWDM systems are uncooled. The
usual operating temperature range for these systems is 0 to 70°C, with a 6 nm
variation in the laser wavelength. The wavelength drift produces a total wavelength
change of roughly ±12 nm when combined with the laser wavelength of up to ±3 nm.

Conversely, larger cooled DFB lasers are needed for DWDM systems since the
wavelength of a semiconductor laser varies with temperature by roughly 0.08
nm/°C. When the temperature varies in DWDM systems, DFB lasers are cooled to
stabilise the wavelength from outside the passband of the multiplexer and

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demultiplexer filters.

Owing to their distinct characteristics, CWDM and DWDM are utilised for
varying transmission ranges. In general, CWDM may go up to 160 kilometres in any
direction. The DWDM system is the ideal option if we need to send data over a large
distance. The 1550 nm wavelength size is supported by DWDM and can be amplified
to reach hundreds of kilometres for transmission.

5.10. Operational Principles of WDM

High-quality sources have numerous independent working zones spanning

the spectrum, from the a-band through the L-band, that can be employed
simultaneously because their spectral width only takes up a small portion of optical
bandwidth. WDM was first used to increase the installed point-to-point transmission
lines' capacity.

To avoid imposing severe wavelength-tolerance requirements on the various

laser sources and the receiving wavelength splitters, this was accomplished with
wavelengths spaced by several tens up to 200 nm. Later on, the creation of lasers
with incredibly narrow spectra and emission widths made it possible to separate
wavelengths by less than a nanometer.

This is the fundamental idea of wavelength-division multiplexing, which

employs several light sources at once, each with a slightly varied peak wavelength.
Because each wavelength carries a separate signal, the link capacity is significantly
enhanced.

The key is to make sure that a source's peak wavelength is far enough apart
from its neighbour to prevent interference between their spectral extents. The
necessity that these peak wavelengths do not drift into the spectral region occupied
by neighbouring channels while a system is operating is equally crucial.

As an operational safety measure, system designers incorporate an empty

guardband between the channels in addition to strictly regulating the wavelength.
In this way, the individual messages from each source retain their fidelities in
preparation for their eventual conversion to electrical signals at the receiving end.

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5.10.1. WDM Operating Regions

By looking at the features of a high-quality optical source, one can see how
WDM can be used to create a link with an exceptionally high capacity. For instance,
the frequency spectrum of a distributed-feedback (DFB) laser is on the order of I
MHz, or 10-5 nm, in terms of spectral line width.

Simplex systems only utilise a small percentage of a fiber's transmission

bandwidth capacity at such spectral widths. Figure 3.1, which shows the attenuation
of light in a silica fibre as a function of wavelength, makes this clear.

The graph demonstrates how the two low-loss zones of a typical G.652 single-
mode fibre span the O-band wavelengths, which were formerly referred to as the
third window and the second window, respectively, spanning from roughly 1270 to
1350 nm. These regions can be viewed using optical bandwidth (the frequency band
that the light signal occupies) or spectral width (the wavelength band that the light
signal occupies).

Fig: 5.6 WDM Operating Regions

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To find the optical bandwidth corresponding to a particular spectral width in

these regions, we use the fundamental relationship c=Lamda*v, which relates the
wavelength Laamda. to the carrier frequency v, where c is the speed of light.
Differentiating this, we have

Assume for the moment that we have a fibre with the attenuation
characteristic depicted in Figure. Equation (3.1) provides the optical bandwidth.For
an acceptable spectral band, deltav= 14THz.Delta Lambda in the O-band centre is
equal to 80 nm.

Similarly, .For a useful spectral band, Deltav= 15 THz. In the low-loss zone,
which stretches from virtually the beginning of the L-band to the end of the S-band,
Delta Lamda= 120 nm. In the two low-loss windows, this results in a total fibre
bandwidth of roughly 30THz being accessible.

Before the year 2000, a WDM system's maximum wavelengths could only
have neighbouring light sources spaced 0.8 to 1.6 nm (100 to 200 GHz) apart. This
was done to allow for some flexibility in the specification and selection of the exact
peak emission wavelength for both the manufacturer and the user, as well as to
accommodate for potential drifts of the peak wavelength caused by ageing or
temperature effects.

The subsequent wave of WDM systems specified channel spacings that might
be substantially wider or much smaller based on the application and wavelength
area being employed.

Therefore, the optical source must have tight wavelength control due to the
substantially smaller spacings. However, since wavelength control requirements are
greatly loosened, the broader wavelength separations provide low-cost WDM
systems.

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5.10.2 Generic WDM Link

A range of passive and/or active components are needed to combine,

distribute, isolate, add, drop, attenuate, and amplify optical power at various
wavelengths in order to create WDM networks. Passive devices have a fixed
application in WDM networks since they don't need any outside electricity or control
to function. These passive parts are employed in wavelength channel division and
fusion, optical power distribution across several fibre lines, and portioning an optical
signal for observational purposes.

Electronic control over the performance of active devices allows for a great
deal of network flexibility. Dynamic gain equalizers, optical amplifiers, tunable light
sources, programmable add/drop multiplexers, and optical filters are examples of
active WDM components.

An example of a basic WDM link implementation is shown in Figure. A

number of separately modulated fixed-wavelength light sources, each emitting
signals at a distinct wavelength, make up the transmitting side. To connect various
optical outputs onto a single fibre and combine them into a continuous spectrum of
signals, a multiplexer, also known as a mux, is required.

A typical communication link may have passive optical power splitters, a range
of specialised active components (not shown), and different kinds of optical
amplifiers. The absence of active devices between the transmitting and receiving
endpoints is one of PONs' advantages in terms of operations and maintenance.

Fig: 5.7 Generic WDM Link

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To divide the distinct wavelengths of the independent optical signals into the
proper detecting channels for signal processing, a demultiplexer is needed at the
receiving end. Ensuring that the multiplexer at the transmitter offers a low-loss
connection from every optical source to the multiplexer output is the fundamental
design problem. Given that photo detectors typically exhibit sensitivity over a wide
range of wavelengths—which may cover all of the WDM channels—a distinct set of
requirements applies to the demultiplexer.

The demultiplexer must have narrow spectral operation, or highly reliable

optical filters with precise wavelength cutoffs must be utilised, to prevent spurious
signals from entering a receiving channel and provide good channel isolation of the
various wavelengths being used.

Depending on the application, the acceptable amounts of crosstalk between

channels can change significantly. Generally speaking, a level of -30 dB is
appropriate, while a level of -lob is insufficient.

Any optical demultiplexer can theoretically be applied as a multiplexer.

Generally speaking, the phrase "multiplexer" refers to both combining and splitting
capabilities for ease of use, unless there's a specific need to differentiate between the
two devices or functions.

5.10.3 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Different wavelength optical signals (1300-1600 nm) can propagate without

interfering with one another. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a
technique that combines various wavelengths across a single fibre.

Every input has a distinct wavelength and is produced by a different optical

source. Light from several sources is coupled to the transmission fibre by an optical
multiplexer. Before individual signals are photo detected at the receiving station, the
various carriers must be separated using an optical demultiplexer. Illustrates a basic
SDM design.

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Fig: 5.8 WDM Scheme

Narrow spectrum operation and tight wavelength cut-offs are required for the
demultiplexer in order to keep spurious signals out of the receiving channel.
Crosstalk can have a maximum of -30 dB.

Features of WDM

Important Advantages or Features of WDM are as mentioned below –

Capacity Upgrade: Because every wavelength can handle a different Gbps

data rate.
Transparency: W D M c a n t r a n s p o r t d i g i t a l , s y n c h r o n o u s , s l o w
synchronous, and fast asynchronous data.
Wavelength Routing: Digital, synchronous, slow synchronous, and rapid
asynchronous data can all be transported via WDM.
Wavelength Switching: Wavelength converters, cross connections, and
multiplexers can all be added or removed using WDM.

 Passive Components

A variety of passive and active components are needed to combine, distribute,

isolate, and amplify optical power at various wavelengths in order to perform WDM.

The primary function of passive components is to divide or merge optical

signals. These elements function within optical domains. External control is not
necessary for passive components to function. Planar optical wave guides are used

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to manufacture passive components utilizing optical fibres. Commonly required

passive components are –

 N x N Couplers
 Power Splitters
 Power Taps
 Star Couplers.

The majority of passive parts are based on simple stat couplers. Optical power
can be separated and combined using a stat coupler. Star couplers are hence devices
with multiple input and multiple output ports.

5.10.4 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing(DWDM)

 DWDM:

Dense wavelength division multiplexing, or DWDM, is an extremely efficient

and big capacity data transmission technique. Different wavelengths are assigned to
several data channels of optical signals, which are multiplexed onto a single fibre.
Transmitters, multiplexers, optical amplifiers, and demultiplexer make up a DWDM
system. An example DWDM system application.

Fig: 5.9 DWDM System

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DWDM carried multiple light pulses at different frequency using a single

mode fibre. Erbium-Doped Fibre Amplifiers (EDFA) are utilised in DWDM systems
for long-distance applications. A 100 GHz channel spacing is employed to counteract
the effects of dispersion and attenuation.

Dense wavelength division multiplexing is abbreviated as DWDW. By using

optical multiplexing, current fibre networks can have their bandwidth increased.
Multiple signals are combined and sent simultaneously at various wavelengths on a
single fibre to enable DWDM. It has completely changed how information is
transmitted across large distances. There are two types of DWDM: passive DWDM
and active DWDM. We'll go into detail about these two DWDM systems in this post.

 Passive DWDM

DWDM systems that are passive lack any active parts. The optical budget of
the transceivers utilised is the only reason the line operates. Dispersion
compensators and optical signal amplifiers are not utilised. The transmission
distance of passive DWDM systems is restricted by the optical budget of the
transceivers that are utilised, notwithstanding their high channel capacity and
possibility for extension.

High-speed communication lines with a large channel capacity and metro

networks are the primary applications of passive DWDM systems.

Fig: 5.10 Passive DWDM

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 Active DWDM

Transponder-based systems are a frequent term for active DWDM systems.

They provide a means of moving massive volumes of data between locations in an
interconnected data centre. The transponder uses an optical-electrical-optical (OEO)
DWDM conversion to transform the outputs of the SAN or IP switch, which are
typically in the short wave 850nm or long wave 1310nm format.

In the process of building long-haul DWDM networks, the line is sequentially

installed with many EDFA amplifiers. A section's maximum number of amplifiers is
determined by the type of optical cable used, the number of channels, the data
transmission rate for each channel, and the allowable OSNR value.

Fig: 5.11 Active DWDM

When employing an active DWDM system, the maximum line length is

established by taking into account not only the OSNR value and installed optical
amplifiers, but also the impact of chromatic dispersion, or the distortion of sent
signal impulses, on transmitted signals.

Permissible chromatic dispersion values for the transceivers are considered

during the design phase of the DWDM network project, and chromatic dispersion
compensation modules (DCM) are added to the line if necessary. The enhanced
section length is shortened by DCM since it adds more attenuation to the line.

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