Building materials & construction I Lecture Note

Chapter Four
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Concrete is a composite material made up of inert materials of varying sizes, which are bound
together by a binding medium. Concrete contains coarse aggregate in addition to cement, water,
air and fine aggregate. The cement, water, and air combine to form a paste that binds the
aggregates together. Thus, the strength of concrete is dependent on the strength of the aggregate
matrix bond.

Portland cement
Water Paste
Air (entrapped or entrained)
Concrete

Fine aggregate (sand)

Coarse aggregate (gravel) Aggregate
Admixture (if required)

The entire mass of the concrete is deposited or placed in a plastic state and almost immediately
begins to develop strength (harden), a process which, under proper curing conditions, may
continue for' years. Because concrete is initially in a plastic state, it lends itself to all kinds of
construction, regardless of size or shape. For practical concrete mixes, the cement, water and
aggregates should be so proportioned that the resulting concrete has the following properties:
1. When freshly mixed it is workable enough for easy uniform placement, but not
excessively fluid.
2. When hardened it possesses strength and durability adequate to the purpose for which it
is intended.
3. It involves minimum cost consistent with acceptable quality.
Typical Concrete composition
Voids 1-2 %
Cement past (cement + water) 25-40 %
Aggregate (coarse + fine) 60-75 %

Types and use of Concrete

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1. Plain mass concrete: with graded or predominantly small sized aggregate, for foundations,
floors, paving, monolithic walls (in some cases), bricks, tiles, hollow blocks, pipes.
2. No-fines concrete: a lightweight concrete with only single size coarse aggregate (dense or
lightweight) leaving voids between them, suitable for load bearing and non-load bearing walls,
in-fill walls in framed structures or base coarse for floor slabs. No-fines concrete provides an
excellent key for rendering, good thermal insulation (due to air gaps), and low drying shrinkage.
The large voids also prevent capillary action.
3. Lightweight aggregate concrete: using expanded clay, foamed blast furnace slag, sintered fly
ash, pumice, or other light aggregate, for thermal insulating walls and components, and for
lightweight building blocks.
4. Aerated concrete: made by introducing air or gas into a cement-sand mix (without coarse
aggregate), for thermal insulating, non-structural uses and lightweight building blocks.
5. Reinforced concrete: also known as RCC (reinforced cement concrete), which incorporates
steel bars in sections of the concrete which are in tension (to supplement the low tensile strength
of mass concrete and control thermal and shrinkage cracking), for floor slabs, beams, lintels,
columns, stairways, frame structures, long-span elements, angular or curved shell structures, etc.,
all these cast in situ or pre- cast. Where deformed bars (which have ribs to inhibit longitudinal
movement after casting) are available, they should be given preference, as they are far more
effective than plain bars, so that up to 30 % of steel can be saved.
6. Pre stressed concrete: which is reinforced concrete with the steel reinforcement held under
tension during production, to achieve stiffness, crack resistance and lighter constructions of
components, such as beams, slabs, trusses, stairways and other large-span units. By pre stressing,
less steel is needed and the concrete is held under compression, enabling it to carry much higher
loads before this compression is overcome. Pre stressing is achieved either by pre-tensioning (in
which the steel is stressed before the concrete is cast) or by post-tensioning (after the concrete
has reached an adequate strength, allowing the steel to be passed through straight or curved
ducts, which are filled with grout after the reinforcement has been tensioned and anchored). This
is essentially a factory operation, requiring expensive, special equipment (jacks, anchorages, pre
stressing beds, etc.), not suitable for low-cost housing.

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Properties and Advantages of concrete

Concrete has many properties that make it a popular construction material. The correct
proportion of ingredients, placement, and curing are needed in order for these properties to be
optimal.
Good-quality concrete has many advantages that add to its popularity.
 It is economical when ingredients are readily available.
 Concrete's long life and relatively low maintenance requirements increase its economic
benefits.
 Concrete is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay as other building materials.
 Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast into almost any desired shape.
 Concrete is a non-combustible material that can resist fire and able withstand high
temperatures.
 Building of the molds and casting can occur on the work-site which reduces costs.
 High compressive strength, resistant to weathering, impact and abrasion.
 Low tensile strength (but can be overcome with steel reinforcement)

Disadvantage of Concrete
Some of disadvantages of concrete are:
 High cost of cement, steel and formwork ( in developing countries)
 Difficult quality control on building sites, with the risk of cracking and gradual
deterioration, if wrongly mixed, placed and insufficiently cured with water.
 In moist climates or coastal regions, corrosion of reinforcement (if insufficiently
protected), leading to expansion cracks.
 Demolishing concrete is difficult.
Ingredients of Concrete
Concrete is composed mainly of three materials, namely, cement, water and aggregate (“inert”
mineral fillers), and an additional material, known as an admixture, is sometimes added to
modify certain of its properties. When these materials are mixed and placed in forms and allowed
to cure the chemical reaction between the water and cement forms a hardened binding medium

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of cement paste, which surrounds and holds together the aggregates by adhering them to a
varying degree.

1. CEMENT
Usually, Portland cement is specified for general concrete construction work and should confirm
to standard specifications. Various types of Portland cement as well as physical & chemical
requirements were discussed in the previous course.

2. WATER

Water fit for drinking is generally suitable for making concrete. Water serves two purposes in
making concrete. First of all, it causes the hydration of cement and secondly, it makes the mix
fluid and workable. Clean water is important for the same reasons, as is clean aggregate; any
impurities present will affect bond strength between the paste and aggregate.
The total amount of water required per unit volume of fresh concrete depends on the following
factors.
1. The desired consistency of the concrete, which may be expressed, as will be seen by the
slump or ball penetration test.
2. The maximum size, particle shape and grading of the aggregate.
3. Water reducing or air entraining admixtures.

Drinking water with a noticeable taste or odor should not be used until it is tasted for organic
impurities.
Some of the impurities in mixing water that cause these undesirable effects in the final concrete
are
1. Dissolved Chemicals. 2. Seawater
3. Sugar 4. Algae
Impurities in mixing water may cause anyone or all of the following:
1. Abnormal setting time 4. Efflorescence
2. Decreased strength 5. Corrosion of reinforcement

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3. Volume changes
Dissolved chemicals may either accelerate or retard the set and can substantially reduce the
concrete strength further such dissolved chemicals can actively attack the cement sand bond
leading to early disintegration of the concrete.
Seawater containing less than three percent salt is generally acceptable for plain concrete but not
for reinforced concrete. The presence of salt can lead to corrosion of the reinforcing bars and a
decrease in concrete strength by some 10-15%.
If sugar is present in even small amounts, it can cause rapid setting and reduced concrete
strength. Algae can cause a reduction in the strength of concrete by increasing the amount of air
captured in the paste and reducing the bond strength between the paste and the aggregate.
Although water is an essential ingredient, too much water added during mixing results in a weak
concrete. Very little water is necessary to cause the hydration process. Therefore, as a general
rule, no more water should be added than necessary to make the mix workable.

Water/Cement Ratio

It is the relationship between the total free water and the cement. For a given type of cement and
aggregate, the strength and porosity of the paste-structure are dependent almost entirely upon the
water-cement ratio. For a given consistency, the lower the water cement ratio in the fresh
concrete, the less voids and more strength, less drying shrinkage and more durability, meaning
all in all a better resulting concrete.
3. AGGREGATES

Aggregates are the filler materials which make up a large portion (roughly 60- 75%) of the
concrete volume. Though the term inert mineral fillers is often used to describe aggregates, they
are not truly inert. Their physical, thermal and at times chemical properties influence those of the
concrete. In choosing aggregate for use in a particular concrete attention should be given, among
other things, to three important requirements:
1. Workability when fresh for which the size and gradation of the aggregate should be such that
undue labour in mixing and placing will not be required.
2. Strength and durability when hardened - for which the aggregate should:
(a) Be stronger than the required concrete strength
(b) Contain no impurities, which adversely affect strength and durability.

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(c) Not undergo into undesirable reaction with the cement.

(d) Be resistant to weathering action.
3. Economy of the mixture - meaning to say that the aggregate should be:
(a) Available from local and easily accessible deposit or quarry.
(b) Well graded in order to minimize paste, hence cement requirement.

Classification of Aggregates

Aggregates are generally classified based on their source, their chemical composition, their
weight, their size or the mode of preparation.
Based on source

(i) Natural aggregates: obtained from river beds (sand, gravel) or the quarries (crushed rock)
(ii) Artificial aggregates: generally obtained from industrial wastes such as the blast furnace
slag.
Based on chemical composition

(i) Argillaceous: composed primarily of aluminium (Al2O3), the chief component of clay.
(ii) Siliceous: composed primarily of silicon dioxide (SiO 2), the principal ingredient of quartz
sand.
(iii) Calcareous: composed primarily of calcium carbonate or lime (CaCO3).

Based on weight
(i) Heavy weight aggregates: includes hematite, barite, limonite, magnetite, and iron and steel-
punching (weight from 2800 to 6400Kg/m3) concrete is used for radiation shielding.
(ii) Normal weight aggregates: includes sand, gravel, crushed stone, and air cooled blast
furnace (weight from 2160 to 2560 Kg/m3)
(iii) Lightweight aggregates. (Weight from 1360 kg/m3 to 1840Kg/m3) for structural
concrete, expanded clay, shale, slate, and slag are used whereas for insulating concrete
pumice, scoria, perlite, vermiculite, and diatomite are used.
Based on size (widely used classification method)
Coarse aggregates: aggregate predominantly retained on the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve. (Bigger
than 4.75mm)

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Fine aggregates: aggregate particles passing the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve and retained on the No.
200 (75-µm) sieve. (Smaller than 4.75mm)

Common terms of Aggregate

Some typical terms used in describing aggregates are:
1. Crushed gravel (gravel and sand) - that has been put through a crusher either to break many
of the rounded gravel particles to a smaller size or to produce rough surfaces.
2. Crushed rock- aggregate from the crushing of rock. All particles are angular, not rounded as
in gravel.
3. Screenings- the chips and dust or powders that are produced in the crushing of rock for
aggregates.
4. All-in-aggregate- aggregate composed of both fine and coarse aggregate.
5. Concrete sand- sand that has been washed (usually) to remove dust & fines.
6. Fines- silty-clay or dust particles smaller than 75 .u m (No. 200 sieve) usually undesirable
impurities in aggregates.
Properties of Aggregate
Important properties of aggregates include:
 Grading (grain size distribution)
 Shape and surface texture
 Bulk unit weight
 Specific gravity (relative density)
 Absorption
 Hardness (resistance to abrasion or wear)
 Durability (resistance to weathering)
 Crushing strength
 Cleanliness (deleterious substances)
 Chemical stability
1. Grading (grain size distribution) of Aggregate

The grading of an aggregate defines the proportions of particles of different size in the aggregate.
The size normally used in concrete varies from 37.5 to 0.15 mm. Grading is the most important

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factor in concrete mix design having considerable effect on the workability and stability of the
mix.

The gradation or grain size distribution of the aggregate influences:

 The amount of paste required
 The workability of the concrete
 The strength and
 Water tightness of the finished product.
In general, it is desirable that the size increases uniformly from fine sand to the maximum
allowed for a given job. Most specifications for concrete require a grain size distribution that
will provide a dense, strong mixture.
Aggregates may be dense, gap-graded, uniform, well graded, or open- graded. The terms "dense"
and "well-graded" are essentially the same, as are "gap", "uniform" and "open-graded"
The use of well graded mixture of aggregates results in improved workability of the concrete and
economy of the cement since such aggregate has a decreased amount of voids between the
particles and consequently requires less cement paste. For a given consistence & cement content,
a well-graded aggregate produces a stronger concrete than a poorly graded one because less
water required to give suitable workability.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
The grading or particle size distribution of aggregate is determined by sieve analysis. A sample
of aggregate for sieve analysis is first surface dried and then sieved through the series, starting
with the largest. Any sieve down the list has half the clear opening of the one above. The weight
retained on each sieve is recorded and the percentage computed. The table below gives standard
series of sieves of square openings, which are used in the sieve analysis of fine & coarse
aggregates.

Standard size and square openings

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For sieve analysis, a sample of aggregate is first surface dried and then sieved though the series,
staring with the largest. The weight retained on each sieve is recorded and the percentage
computed. The summation of the cumulative percentage of the material retained on the sieves
(not including the intermediate sieves) divided by 100 is called Fineness modulus (FM).

F.M = ∑% Cumulative Retained

100

Fineness modulus is used an index to the fineness or coarseness and uniformity of aggregate
supplied, but it is not an indication of grading since there could be an infinite number of grading
which will produce a given fineness modulus.
The smaller the value of the fineness modulus, the finer the sand. The finesse modulus for good
sand should range between 2.25 -3.25.
Very fine sand and very coarse sand are objectionable, fine sand is uneconomical and coarse
sand gives harsh unworkable mixes.

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Fineness modulus of sand varies as under:

 Fine sand: 2.25 to 2.6
 Medium sand: 2.6 to 2.9
 Coarse sand: 2.9 to 3.25
Note: 2", 1”, ½ " sieves are called "Intermediate" are not included for the fineness modulus
calculations.

Example 1. Sieve analysis of fine aggregate:

Find the Percentage Passing and Fines Modulus of the given fine aggregate. W=500g

Sieve size Weight retained % retained Cumulative % Cumulative %

(gr) retained passing
9.5mm 0 0 0 100
4.75mm 30 6 6 94
2.36mm 40 8 14 86
1.18mm 80 16 30 70
600m 160 32 62 38
300m 140 28 90 10
150m 40 8 98 2
Passing 150m 10 2 100 0
Total 500 100 300

Fineness modulus =

Example 2. Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate (19 - 5mm):

Find the Percentage Passing and Fines Modulus of the given Coarse Aggregate. W=5000g

Sieve size Weight retained % Retained Cumulative % Cumulative %

(gr) retained passing
37.5mm 0 0 0
*25.44mm 95 1.90 1.90
19mm 730 14.60 16.50
*13.2mm 2818 56.36 72.86
9.5mm 886 17.72 90.58
4.75mm 471 9.42 100.00
2.36mm 0 0 100.00
1.18mm 0 0 100.00
600m 0 0 100.00

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300m 0 0 100.00
150m 0 0 100.00
#
Total 5000 100 707.08
*Intermediate sieves.
#
Sum doesn’t include intermediate sieves.

Fineness modulus

Grading Charts

The results obtained as percent passing or percent coarser can be shown graphically in aggregate
grading charts. On the horizontal axis the sieve openings are read with arithmetic or logarithmic
scale. They are arranged with increasing sieve-opening sizes from left to right. On the vertical
scale on the left side of the chart the total percentage coarser are indicated as 0 to 100, from
bottom to top. The corresponding values for the percentage passing are read on the right side of
the chart.
A grading chart is especially useful in checking whether the results obtained from the sieve
analysis of a given sample fall within the limits specified by standards. If they fall within the
limits then they are said to satisfy the standard.

Maximum Size of Aggregate

It is not necessary that 100% of the particles of an aggregate be within the specified size range
for construction purposes. A small amount, unusually 5% or 10% is allowed to be either larger or
smaller than the specified size, as it would be economically impossible to ensure that 100% of
the particles are within any specified range. Therefore, if 19mm (3/4") is the maximum size of
aggregate desired for concrete mix, specifications would indicate, the nominal maximum size is
19mm. In this case, 90% of the sample must be smaller than 19mm & 100% smaller than the
next higher standard size, 25mm (1 ").
Fine aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 4.75 (No.4 sieve) Therefore specifications will
require that 100% of the aggregate pass the 9.5mm (3/6") sieve, and 90 (or 95%) pass 4.75mm.
With a given sectional dimension of a concrete structural member and spacing of reinforcements,
it is in general recommended to select the maximum possible size of aggregate.
The maximum size and grading are important because they affect:

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1. The relative volume occupied by the aggregate, hence the economy in producing concrete
2. The surface area of the aggregate which determines the amount of water used to wet all
the solids
3. The workability of the mixture
4. The tendency of segregation
5. The porosity & shrinkage

2. Shape and Surface Texture

The particle shape and the surface texture of aggregates influence the properties of fresh concrete
more than those of hardened concrete.
Particle shape: is classified as rounded, irregular, angular, flaky, elongated, flaky and elongated.

El
F
R I Fl
An
R &El

Rounded: fully water worn or completely shaped

Irregular: naturally irregular
Flaky: materials of which thickness is smaller than the other dimensions (t<< L and B)
Angular: possessing well defined edges.
Elongated: materials having length is considerably larger than (L>> t or B)
Flaky and Elongated: L>>B>>t

Surface texture: is assessed as glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline or honeycombed

Bond:
• A rougher texture results in a greater adhesion or bond between the particles and the
cement matrix.
• The same true for angular aggregates due to its larger surface area.
• A better bond is also obtained with softer, porous and mineralogically heterogeneous
particles.
Strength: should be greater than or at least equal to the compressive strength of concrete.
 Even though is difficult to test the crushing strength of the aggregate by itself,
 The required information is usually obtained from indirect tests: crushing test, abrasion
test, impact test, etc.

3. Bulk Unit Weight

The bulk unit weight of an aggregate is the weight of the aggregate divided by the total volume
occupied by it. The total volume includes the volume of aggregate particles and the volume of
voids. In other words it is the amount of material which can be placed in a container of unit

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volume. The amount may vary, depending on the method used to fill the container, grading and
shape of the aggregates. The normal range of bulk unit weight for aggregates for normal weight
concrete is from 1200 to 1760 kg/m3.
The range of aggregates that could be used in concrete is as follows: - Heavyweight,
Lightweight, Normal Weight
The highest volume of material in concrete is the aggregate and as consequence the properties of
the aggregate can have a major influence on the performance and appearance of the concrete.
The majority of concrete that is placed uses normal weight aggregate, however heavy weight can
be used for special nuclear shielding purpose and lightweight concrete applications include
reduced weight and fire resistance
4. Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of an aggregate is another characteristic of the material which needs to be
determined. The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio between the weight of the substance
and that of the same volume of water. The definition assumes that the substance is solid
throughout.
5. Absorption

Over a 24-hr period lightweight aggregates may absorb water in the amount of 5 to 20 percent of
their own dry weight, depending on the type of aggregate and its pore structure .A tendency of
this sort must be taken into account when concrete is made with lightweight aggregate. To make
light weight mixtures as uniform as possible, how ever, aggregates should be pre wetted , but not
saturated, 24 hr before they are to be used.

6. Moisture Content
Two types of moisture are recognized in aggregates: absorbed moisture and surface moisture.
Absorbed moisture is that which is taken in by the voids in aggregate particles and may not be
apparent on the surface, while surface moisture is that which clings to the surface of the particle.
Conditions of aggregates are designated as follows:
 Oven-Dry: In this condition they are fully absorbent.
 Air-Dry: Particles are dry at the surface but contain some interior moisture. They are
therefore somewhat absorbent.

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 Saturated surface-Dry: In this condition there is no water on the surface, but the particle
contains all the interior moisture it will hold. It will neither absorb moisture from nor
contribute moisture to the mix.
 Damp or Wet: The particles contain an excess of moisture on the surface and will
contribute moisture to the mix.

State Oven dry Air dry Saturated surface dry Damp (moist)

Total none Less than Equal to Greater than

Moisture

Absorption Capacity, % =

Effective absorption capacity, % =

Free moisture, % =

Surface moisture in fine aggregate is the cause of a phenomenon known as bulking of sand.
Surface moisture holds the particles apart, causing an increase in volume over the same amount
of sand in a surface dry condition. The amount of bulking will depend on the fineness of the
sand.
The moisture present in the aggregate affects the total water needed for the mix. The ideal
moisture is "saturated surface dry" wherein all pores of the material are filled with water but no
free moisture exists on the surface. Most problems occur with the use of very wet or very dry
fine aggregate. Allowance must be made for the amount of water added under such conditions. .
7. Crushing Strength and Durability
One measure of the strength of an aggregate is its resistance to freeze thaw. This resistance is an
important characteristic in concrete which is exposed to severe weather. The freeze-thaw
resistance of an aggregate is related to its porosity, absorption, and pore structure. If a particle of
the aggregate absorbs so much water that there is no enough pore space available, it will not
accommodate the expansion, which takes place when the water freezes, and the particles will
fall. Freeze-thaw tests on aggregates are commonly carried out on specimens of concrete made
with the aggregate.

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Another test of the strength of aggregates is their ability to withstand compressive stresses. This
test is made by subjecting hardened concrete specimens made with the aggregate in question to
compression testing.
8. Cleanliness (Deleterious Substances)
The cleanliness of the aggregate affects the bond between the paste and the aggregate surface,
and therefore, affects the strength and water tightness of the concrete. Coarse aggregates may be
checked visually
Deleterious (harmful substances) have the following effects on concrete:
 weaken bondage between cement paste and aggregates
 Interfere with hydration
 Reduce strength and durability
 Affect water tightness of the concrete
 Modify setting action and
 Cause efflorescence
SILT TEST:
Fine aggregates can be checked by placing the material in a glass jar, which is then filled three-
fourths full with clean 5 cm water and sealed. Turn the jar on its side and shake vigorously for
one minute. Set the jar upright, level the sand by shaking sideways, and let it stand for about
three hours. Any silt present will be suspended by the shaking and will settle back on the sand
surface when allowed to stand. If more than (3mm) of silt skim is formed, then the sand is too
dirty to form strong concrete. In the field, a sample test may be performed by rubbing a moist
sample of sand between the palms, suitable sand will leave the hands only slightly dirty.
A colorimetric (organic impurity) test determines whether fine aggregate contains injurious
amounts of organic matter.
9. Hardness
The hardness of aggregates is expressed in terms of their resistance to abrasion. This
characteristic is important if the aggregate is used in concrete Intended for such purposes as
heavy duty floors. A common method of making this test is the Loss Angeles abrasion test and
consists of placing a specified quantity of the aggregate to be tested in a revolving steel drum.
The percentage of material worn away during the test is then determined.
10. Chemical stability
Aggregates need to be chemically stable so that they will neither react chemically with cement

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nor be affected chemically by outside influences. In some cases aggregates with certain chemical
constituents react with alkalis in cement. This reaction may cause abnormal expansion and will
results cracking of concrete.
Handling and stockpiling of aggregates
The purpose of appropriate handling and stock piling of aggregate is to avoid segregation of
aggregates.
Precautions:
 Storing on hard and dry ground or on platforms of planks, sheets, lean concrete
 Storing separately each aggregate size in compartments
 Avoiding segregation of aggregates resulting from free fall
 Damping consignments at different places,

FRESH CONCRETE
Fresh concrete is also known plastic concrete. The major Properties of concrete in its plastic state
are (1) workability, (2) consistency, (3) segregation, (4) bleeding and (5) Stiffening and Setting.
PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE
1. Workability: - Workability is the measure of the ease with which we can place and cast fresh
concrete. Factors that affect workability are:
 Water content
 shape of aggregate
 Grading of Aggregates
 Size of Aggregates
 Surface Texture of Aggregates

If water content is increased in the concrete mix particles settle and bleeding occurs. Cement
slurry can escape through joints of form works. Large sizes of aggregates consume less quantity
of water and cement, therefore are economical. Appropriate size depends on handling, mixing
and placing equipment, thickness of section and reinforcement bar spacing. Angular shape,
flakiness, and elongation of aggregates reduce workability. Non absorbent aggregates and
optimum percentage of fine aggregate contributes to workability.
2. Consistency refers to ease of flow of concrete and indicates wetness of concrete and thus

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workability. Concrete could have dry, plastic, semi-fluid, and fluid consistency. Concrete of
plastic consistency can be shaped into ball, while that of semi-fluid consistency spreads out
slowly and with out segregation of aggregate. Concrete of fluid consistency spreads out fast and
results in segregation of aggregates, and hence unacceptable.
MEASUREMENT OF WORKABILITY
The methods of measuring workability that is wetness or fluidity are slump test and compacting
factor test.
Slump Test: Slump is the subsidence of concrete cone after mold is lifted up. Slump test is
made in laboratory and on site to measure subsidence of a pile of concrete in a mold (slump test
apparatus of dimensions: base = 20 cm, top diameter = 10cm, and height =30 cm.) compacted
with a steel rod (16 mm diameter and 60cm long).
Types of slump (results of Slump)
 True Slump -Has even subsidence
 Shear Slump -Half of the cone slides, difficult to measure, and results from harsh mixes
deficient in fine aggregate.
 Collapse slump-difficult to measure, results from very wet mixes

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Permissible slumps for concrete mix are given as standard for different types of construction
activities and placing conditions. The slump values shall be referred before using the concrete
mix.
Slump test gives the advantage of detecting water content of successive batches of concrete of
identical mix. However, there are some limitations of slump test.
These are:
 Not applicable for aggregates size greater than 40 mm
 Applicability to plastic mixes only
 Not applicable to harsh and wet mixes
Compacting Factor Test: drier mixes do not give slump. Therefore, compaction factor test
should be done to determine degree of compaction (compacting factor) by falling the mix
through successive hoppers with standard height using a compaction factor test apparatus.

Compacting Factor =

Table: Permissible Values of Compacting Factor

Workability Compacting factor

Good workability 0.95
Medium Workability 0.92
Low workability 0.85

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For different placing conditions, degree of workability (extremely low, very low, medium, and
high), and aggregate sizes, corresponding values of Compacting factor are given as standard to
compare with.
3. Segregation or separation of coarse aggregates from the mass of concrete results from:
 Uncontrolled pumping or falling
 Placing under waters
 Placing concrete in heavily reinforced members
Precautions to control segregation:
 Careful handling, pacing, and consolidation of concrete
 Placing concrete near its final position, instead of falling from greatest heights
4. Bleeding is the appearance of water on concrete surface. As a consequence of bleeding, slum
layer will be formed making concrete weak and porous. Slum layer shall be removed before
casting new layer.
Measures to minimize bleeding:
 Using well graded and proportioned aggregates
 Increasing amount of cement
 Applying air entering agents
 Reducing amount of water

5. Stiffening and Setting: Concrete is required to remain plastic for the time to be taken to
transport, place, and consolidate it. Temperature influences the stiffening of concrete. That is,
low temperature delays while high temperature, accelerate the stiffening of concrete.

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