CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION With the understanding that it is valid on the interval (0, )

Both parts of the Fundamental Theorem establish or on the interval (–, 0). This is true despite the fact that
connections between antiderivatives and definite integrals. the general antiderivative of the function f(x) = 1/x2, x  0,
is
Part 1 says that if f is continuous, then  ax f(t) dt is an  1
 - x + C1 if x < 0
b
F(x)  1
antiderivative of f. Part 2 says that a f ( x) dx can be - + C 2 if x > 0
 x
found by evaluating F(b) – F(a), where F is an antiderivative SECTION - A : STANDARD INTEGRAL
of f. We need a convenient notation for antiderivatives that
ELEMENTARY INTEGRALS
makes them easy to work with. Because of the relation
given by the Fundamental Theorem between antiderivatives ( ax  b ) n 1
1.  (ax  b)n dx =
a (n  1)
+ c n  –1
and integrals, the notation  f(x) dx is traditionally used for dx 1
antiderivative of f and is called and indefinite integral. 2.  = n |ax + b| + c
ax + b a
Thus
1 ax + b
3.  e dx = a e
ax +b
+c
 f ( x) dx = F(x) + C means F '(x) = f(x)
For example, we can write a px q
 x3 
4.  a px  q dx =
p n a
(a > 0) + c
x3 d
   C  = x2
2
x dx  C because  3 
 sin (ax  b) dx = –
3 dx   1
5. cos (ax + b) + c
a
So we can regard an indefinite integral as representing an
entire family of function (one antiderivative for each value
of the constant C).
6.  cos (ax  b) dx = 1 sin (ax + b) + c
a
You should distinguish carefully between definite and 1
b
7.  tan(ax  b) dx  a n sec |ax + b| + c
indefinite integrals. A definite integral a f ( x) dx is a
1
8.  cot (ax  b) dx  a n sin | ax  b |  c
number, whereas an indefinite integral  f ( x) dx is family 1
 sec
2
of functions. The connection between them is given by part 9. ( ax  b) dx  tan ( ax  b)  c
a
2 of the Fundamental Theorem. If f is continuous on [a, b] 1
 cosec
2
then 10. (ax  b) dx  
a
cot ( ax  b)  c

b
b 1
a f ( x ) dx   f ( x ) dx
a
11.  sec (ax  b). tan(ax  b) dx  a sec (ax  b)  c
The effectiveness of the Fundamental Theorem depends 1
12.  co s ec ( a x  b ) . co t ( a x  b ) d x   co s e c ( a x  b )  c
on having a supply of antiderivatives of functions. a
We adopt the convention that when a formula for a general
indefinite integral is given, it is valid only on an interval.
13.  sec x dx  ln | sec x  tan x |  c
Thus, we write OR
 x
1 1 
 x2 dx   x  C ln tan
4 2
+ c OR – ln |sec x – tan x| + c

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1.2 Indefinite Integration

Multiplying and dividing by (1 + tan x – sec x),

14.  cos ec x dx  ln | cosec  cot x |  c we get
OR
sin x( 1  tan x  sec x )
ln tan
x
+c OR – ln |cosecx + cot x| + c
=  ( 1  tan x )2  sec 2 x
dx
2
sin x (1  tan x  sec x)
=  2 tan x
dx

INTEGRATION BY TRANSFORMATION 1 1
=
2  cos x(1  tan x  sec x) dx  2  (cos x  sin x  1) dx
EXAMPLE 1
1
1 1  x4 = (sinx – cosx – x ) + c
Integrate  + sec x tan x. w. r. t. x 2
x3 / 4 1 x
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 4
Here
Integrate
x  (1  x  x  sec x tan x dx
3 / 4 2
I= dx   x3 ) dx 
5 cos3 x  2sin 3 x 1  2 sin x 1  cos 2 x
[ (1 – xn) / (1 – x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 +..........+ xn – 1] + (1  sin 2 x ) + + w.r.t.x
.t.x
2 sin 2 x cos 2 x cos2 x 1  cos 2 x
 l = 4x1/4 + x + (x2/2) + (x3/3) + (x4/4) + sec x + c. SOLUTION
The given expression may be written as
EXAMPLE 2
1  sin x  5 cos3 x  2sin 3 x
Integrate 1  cos x w.r.t.x.
+ (cos2 x  sin 2 x  2sin x cos x)
  2 sin 2 x cos 2 x

SOLUTION 1 2sin x 2sin 2 x

Here + + +
cos 2 x cos 2 x 2 cos 2 x
x x
1  2 sin cos 5
1  sin x 2 2 dx = cosecx cotx + secx tanx + cosx
l=  1  cos x
dx   2 sin 2
x 2
2 + sin x + sec2 x + 2 sec x tan x + 2 (sec2 x – 1)
1 x x 5
 cos ec  cot 2 dx
2 = cosec x cot x + 3 sec x tan x + cos x + sin x + 3 sec2 x – 2.
= dx 
2 2 2
x  x Now integrating, we get
= – cot + 2 log  sin  +c
2  2 5
l=
2  cos ec x cot x dx  3  sec x tan x dx  c
EXAMPLE 3
 cos x dx   sin x dx  3 sec  dx
2
x dx  2
dx
Evaluate  tan x  cot x  sec x  cos ec x 5
= – cosec x + 3 sec x + sin x – cos x + 3 tan x – 2x + c.
SOLUTION 2

dx
Here, l =  tan x  cot x  sec x  cos ec x EXAMPLE 5

dx sec x
  sin x  cos x  1

1
Integrate
3  tan x
w.r.t.x.

cos x sin x cos x sin x SOLUTION

(sin x cos x ) dx We have
=  1 sin x  cos x 1
sec x dx
 
sin x cos x dx dx
=  1  tan x  sec x
dx 
3  tan x

3
sin x   3 cos  sin x
cos x

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 Indefinite Integration 1.3

 1
 sin q 1 x  c if q  1,

1

dx

1 dx
 
1  
cos ec  x   dx  sin q x cos x dx   q  1
n | sin x |  c
2 3 cos x sin x 2   2  3  if q  1,
 sin  x  
2 2  3
 cos
m
If follows that x sinn x dx can be readily evaluated,
1 x  if any one of m or n is an odd positive integer.
 log tan     c
2 2 6
EXAMPLE 7
CONSIDER INTEGRALS OF THE TYPES Integrate

 cos  sin
3 5
 cos ax cos bx dx,  sin ax cos bx dx,  sin ax sin bx dx, 1. 4x dx , 2. x cos4 x dx
In which a  b SOLUTION
We can use these addition formulae to change products to 1 The above example illustrates that the method just
sums or differences, and the later can be integrated easily. described is applicable to odd positive integer powers of
the sine or cosine (i.e., either m or n may be zero). We
1 obtain
1) cos ax cos bx = cos  a  b  x  cos  a  b  x 
2
 cos 4x dx =  cos 4 x cos 4 x dx
3 2

1
2) sin ax cos bx =  sin  a  b  x  sin  a  b  x 
 (1  sin 4x) cos 4 x dx
2
2 =
1
 cos  a  b  x  cos  a  b  x   cos 4x dx –  sin 4 x cos 4 x dx
2
3) sin ax sin bx = =
2
1 1
= sin 4x – sin34x + c.
4 12
EXAMPLE 6 2. Here the exponent of sine is an odd positive
integer.
Integrate  sin 8x sin 3x dx
 sin  (sin
5
x cos 4 x dx  2
x )2 cos 4 x sin x dx
SOLUTION
1
 (1  cos
2
sin 8x sin 3x = (cos 5x – cos 11x), so = x) 2 cos 4 x sin x dx
2
1
 sin 8x sin 3x dx = 2  (cos 5x  cos11x) dx =  (1  2cos
2
x  cos 4 x) cos 4 x sin x dx

1 1
= sin 5x – sin 11x + c,
 cos  
4
10 22 = x sin x dx  cos8 x sin x dx  2 cos6 x sin x dx

 cos
m
We next consider integrals of the type x sin n x dx , in
1 2 1
which at least one of the exponents m or n is an odd positive = – cos5x + cos7x – cos9x + c.
5 7 9
to integer (the other exponent need to be a real number).
Suppose that m = 2k + 1, where k is a non-negative integer. The third type of integral we consider consists of those of
Then cosmx sinnx = cos2k + 1 x sinn x = (cos2x)k sinn x cos x.
 cos
m
the form x sin n x dx ,
Using the identity cos2 x = 1 – sin2x,
we obtain
in which both m and n are even non-negative integers. These
 cos m . x sin n x dx   (1  sin 2 x)k sin n x cos x dx. functions are not so simple to integrate as those containing
The factor (1 – sin2x)k can be expanded by the Binomial an odd power. We first consider the special case in which
either m = 0 or n = 0. The simplest non-trivial examples are
 cos
m
Theorem, and the result is that x sin n x dx can be

 cos  sin
2 2
written as a sum of constant multiples of integrals of the the two integrals x dx and x dx , which can be

 sin
q
form x cos x dx .
1
Since integrated by means of the identities cos2x = (1 + cos 2x),
2

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1.4 Indefinite Integration

SOME STANDARD SUBSTITUTIONS

1
sin2x = (1 – cos 2x) dx
2
1.  x( x n  1) n  N take xn common & put 1 + x–n = t.
Evaluation of the two integrals is now a simple matter. We get
dx
 cos 2 x dx 
1
 (1  cos 2 x) dx 
x 1
 sin 2 x  c , 2.  x2 ( x n  1)(n1) / n n  N, take x n common &
2 2 4
put 1 + x–n = tn
1 x 1
 sin  (1  cos 2 x) dx  2  4 sin 2 x  c .
2 dx
x dx 
2 3.  xn (1  xn )1/ n take xn common and put 1 + x–n = t.
Going on to the higher powers, consider the integral
x 
4..  dx or

( x   ) (   x) ;
 cos  x
2i
x dx , where i is an arbitrary positive integer..
put x =  cos2 +  sin2
We write
x 
1  1
i
i
5.  x
dx or
 (x  )(x  ) ;
cos2i x= (cos2 x)i =  (1  cos 2 x)   i (1  cos 2 x)
 2  2 put x =  sec2 –  tan2
We expand using binomial theorem and integrate the terms SOLVED EXAMPLE
using previous methods.
SECTION - B EXAMPLE 8
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
 (x
2
Evaluate  1)2 (2 x) dx .
Let g be a function whose range is an interval l, and let f be
a function that is continuous on l. If g is differentiable on its SOLUTION
domain and F is an antiderivative of f on l, Letting g(x) = x2 + 1,
we obtain g'(x) = 2x and f(g(x)) = [g(x)]2.
then  f ( g ( x)) g '( x) dx = F(g(x)) + C. From this, we can recognize that the integrand and follow
the f(g(x)) g'(x) pattern.
If u = g(x), then du = g'(x) and  f (u) du  F (u)  C . Thus, we can write

GUIDELINES FOR MAKING A CHANGE OF   

2
[ g ( x )] g '( x )
 1 2
VARIABLE 3
( x 2  1)2 (2 x) dx = 3 (x + 1) + C.
1. Choose a substitution u = g(x). Usually, it is best to

choose the inner part of a composite function, such
as a quantity raised to a power.
EXAMPLE 9
2. Compute du = g'(x) dx.
3. Rewrite the integral in terms of the variable u. 4x
4. Evaluate the resulting integral in terms of u. Evaluate  (1  2x2 )2 dx

5. Replace u by g(x) to obtain an antiderivative in

terms of x. SOLUTION
Let 1 – 2x2 = t
THE GENERAL POWER RULE FOR –4x dx = dt
INTEGRATION
dt 1 1
If g is a differentiable function of x, then
 t2  t

1  2 x2
c
[ g ( x)]n  1
 [ g ( x)]n g '( x) dx 
n 1
+ C, n  –1

RATIONALIZING SUBSTITUTIONS
Some irrational functions can be changed into rational
functions by means of appropriate substitutions. In particular,
when an integrand contains an expression of the form
n g ( x) , then the substitution u = n g ( x) may be effective.

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 Indefinite Integration 1.5

EXAMPLE 10 (u = e–x + 1; du = – e–x dx)

dx e x dx du
Evaluate  x3 cos ( x 4  2) dx .  1 ex   ex  1   u
  n | u |  C

SOLUTION = – n (e–x + 1) + c ( e–x + 1 > 0)

Let u = x4 + 2  du = 4x3 dx
1 1 EXAMPLE 14
x  cos u . 4 du  4  cos u du
3
cos( x4  2) dx =
Evaluate  sec x dx
1 1
= sin u + C = sin (x4 + 2) + C SOLUTION
4 4
Multiply the integrand sec x by sec x + tan x and divide by
the same quantity :
EXAMPLE 11
sec(sec x  tan x )
x dx2  sec x dx =  sec x  tan x
dx
Evaluate  ( x3  2)5 .
sec x tan x  sec2 x
SOLUTION
=  sec x  tan x
dx

Let u = x3 – 2. Then du = 3x2 dx, so by substitution : Now put u = sec x + tan x

 du = (sec x tan x + sec2x) dx
x 2 dx du 1 4
    u
5
du = 1 u +c
(x 3
 2) 5
3u5 3 sec x tan x  sec2 x du
3 4
we find  sec x  tan x
dx =  u
1 3 = n |u| + c
=– (x – 2)–4 + c.
12 = n|sec x + tan x| + c
EXAMPLE 12 EXAMPLE 15
x4
Evaluate  x
dx Evaluate  cos x (4  sin2 x) dx

SOLUTION SOLUTION
Put sin x = t so that cos x dx = dt. Then the given integral
Let u = x  4 . Then u2 = x + 4, so x = u2 –4 and dx = 2u du.

x4 u
=  (4  t 2 ) dt   (22  t 2 ) dt
Therefore  x
dx =  u 2  4 2u du 1 22
= t (22  t 2 ) + sin–1 (t/2) + c
2 2
u2  4
=2  u 2  4 du 
= 2 1  2  du
u 4 =
1
sin x . (4  sin 2 x) + 2 sin (1/2 sin x) + c
–1
2
du 1 u2

= 2 du  8  u 2  4 = 2u + 8 . 2.2
n
u2
+c EXAMPLE 16
Integrate
x4 2 e x  e x 10 x9  10 x .log e 10
= 2 x  4 + 2 n +c 1. , 2. w.r.t.x.
x4 2 e e x x
10 x  x10
SOLUTION
e x  e x
EXAMPLE 13 1. Let I =  e x  e x dx. Now putting ex + e–x = t,
dx
Evaluate  1 ex so that (ex – e–x) dx = dt,
dt
SOLUTION we have I =  t
= log t = log (ex + e–x) + c
Rewrite the integrand as follows :
10x9  10x .loge 10
1 e x  1  e x 2. Here I =  10x  x10
dx.
=   = x
1 e x
e x  1  ex  e 1 Now putting 10x + x10 = t, and

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1.6 Indefinite Integration

(10x loge 10 + 10x9) dx = dt, EXAMPLE 19

we have Integrate (1  sin x) w.r.t.x.
dt
I=  t
 log t  log (10x  x10 )  c SOLUTION
We have

EXAMPLE 17   
Integrate I=  (1  sin x) dx =  1  cos   x   dx
  2 
1 1
1. 2 , 2. w.r.t.x.  x 
x cos (1  log x ) x (1  log x ) m 2
SOLUTION
=  2 sin     dx
  4 2 
dx
1. Here I = x cos 2 1 log x  x  1
Now put + = t  dx = dt or dx = 2 dt,
2 4 2
dx we have
Putting 1 + log x = t, so that = dt,
x x 
we have I=  2 sin2 t (2dt)  2 2 cos     c
2 4
dt
I=  cos2 t =  sec2 t dt
= tan t = tan (1 + log x) + c. EXAMPLE 20
Integrate cos5 x w.r.t.x.
dx
2. Here I =  x 1 log x m . SOLUTION

 cos
5
dx x dx
Putting 1 + log x = t, so that  dt ,
x
 cos
4
we have = x cos x dx
 m 1
dt t
I=  tm =  m  1 =  (1  sin
2
x)2 cos x dx

put sin x = t  cos x dx = dt

(1  log x) m 1 1
 (1  t
2 2
= = (1  m) (1 + log x)1–m + c. = ) dt ,
(1  m)
EXAMPLE 18 2 3 1 5
 (1  2t
2
=  t 4 ) dt = t – t + t +c
Integrate 3 5

cot x tan x sin 5 x 2 3

1. log(sin x) 2. (log(sec x) w.r.t.x. =  sin x  sin x  c
5 3
SOLUTION EXAMPLE 21
1. log (sin x) = t
cos5 x
= cot x dx = dt Evaluate  sin 2 x dx
cot x dt
 log sin x dx   t  log t  log  log  sin x    c SOLUTION

cos5 x cos 4 x
2. log sec x  t Let I =  sin 2 x dx =  sin 2 x cos x dx

sec x tan x
 dx  dt (1  sin 2 x)2
sec x =  sin 2 x
cos x dx [put sin x = t  cos x dx = dt]

dt then
t  log t
(1  t 2 ) 2 1  2t 2  t 4
tan x
I=  t 2 = dt  t2
dt

 (log(sec x)
 log | log sec x |  c

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 Indefinite Integration 1.7

1 2 1 t3 sec 2 x
=   2  2  t  dt = –
t  t
– 2t +
3
=  tan5 / 2 x sec2 x dx
sin 3 x (1  tan 2 x)
=–
1
sin x
– 2sin x +
3
=  tan 5 / 2 x
sec2xdx
(putting tan x = t and sec2x dx = dt)
1
= – cosec x – 2sin x + sin3x + c (1  t 2 )
3 =  t5 / 2
dt

2 –3/2
 (t
5 / 2
EXAMPLE 22 =  t 1/ 2 )dt =– t + 2t1/2
3
1
Integrate w.r.t.x. 2
sin3 x cos 5 x = 2 (tan x) – (tanx)–3/2 + c
3
SOLUTION
Here the integrand is sin–3 x cos–5x. It is of type sinm x cosn x, EXAMPLE 24
where m + n = –3 –5 = –8 i.e., –ve even integer dx
dx dx
Evaluate  sin( x   ) cos3 ( x   )
  sin3 x cos5 x =  (sin3 x / cos3 x) cos3 x cos5 x SOLUTION
Put x –  = y  dx = dy
sec 8 xdx sec6 x.sec2 xdx dy
=  tan 3 x
= 
(tan 3 x ) Given integral I =  3
cos y sin( y     )

(1  tan 2 x)3 sec2 xdx dy

=  tan x 3  =  3
cos y sin( y   )
( =  +  )

Now put tan x = t so that sec2 x dx = dt dy

(1  t 2 )3 dt 1
=  3
cos y (sin y cos   cos y sin  )
3 3
 I=  t 3   t3  t  3t  t
=  dt
 dy
1
=  4
cos y (cos  tan y  sin  )
3 1
= – 2 + 3 log tan x + tan2 x + tan4 x + c
2 tan x 2 4 sec2 ydy
=  (cos  tan y  sin  )
EXAMPLE 23 Now put sin + cos tan y = z2
1  cos sec2 y dy = 2z dz
Integrate w.r.t.x. 2 z sec  dz
cos x sin5 x
3
 =  = 2 sec  dz
z 
SOLUTION
sin( y   )
Here the integrand is of the type cosm x sinnx. We have  2sec +c
cos y
m = –3/2, n = – 5/2, m + n = – 4 i.e., and even negative
integer. sin( x   )
= 2sec ( + ) +c
dx cos( x   )
  (cos3 x sin 5 x)
=
dx
 cos3/ 2 x sin5/ 2 x EXAMPLE 25

5 x 4  4 x5
 sin5 / 2 x
dx
Evaluate  ( x5  x  1)2 dx
= cos 3/ 2
  cos 5/ 2
x
cos5 / 2 x SOLUTION
dx 4
sec x 5 x 4  4 x5
=  cos 4 x tan5/ 2 x =  tan5 / 2 x dx I=  ( x5  x  1)2 dx

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1.8 Indefinite Integration

x 4 (5  4 x)dx 5/ x6  4/ x5 dx
=  2
=
 2
dx 3. x x2  a2
=
1
a
sec–1
x
a
+c
 1 1  1 1
x10  1  4  5  1 4  5 
 x x   x x  dx
4.  x  a2
2 = ln [ x  x 2  a 2 ] + c
1 1
put 1 + + =t
x4 x5 dx
5.  x  a2
2 = ln [ x  x 2  a 2 ] + c
 4 5 
   dx = dt
 x 5 x5  dx 1 a x

dt
6.  a2  x2 =
2a
ln
ax
+c
1 1
=   t2 =
t
+c=
1 1
+c dx 1 xa
1
x 4

x 5 7.  x2  a2 =
2a
ln
xa
+c

x5 x a2 x
=
x5  x  1
+c 8.  a 2  x 2 dx =
2
–1
a 2  x 2 + 2 sin a + c

9.  x 2  a 2 dx
RATIONALIZATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC
x a2 2 2
SUBSTITUTION = x a2 2 + ln x  x  a + c
2 2


2 2
Consider the integral a x dx 10.  x 2  a 2 dx
If we change the variable from x to  by the substitution
x a2 x  x2  a2 + c
x = a sin, then the identity 1 – sin2 = cos2 allows us to get = x 2  a 2 – 2 ln
2
rid of the roots sign because

 a2  x2 = a 2  a 2 sin 2 
EXAMPLE 26
dx
= 2 2
a (1  sin  ) = a cos  = a|cos|
2 2 Evaluate  x  a2
2 , where a > 0

Notice the difference between the substitution u = a2 – x2 SOLUTION

(in which the new variable is a function of the old one) and We let x = a sec, where 0 <  < /2 or  <  < 3/2.
the substitution x = a sin  (the old variable is a function of Then dx = a sec  tan  d and
the new one). 2 2
x 2  a 2 = a (sec   1) = a 2 tan 2 
In general we can make a substitution of the form x = g(t) = a |tan| = a tan
by using the Substitution Rule in reverse. To make our
calculations simpler, we assume that g has an inverse
function; that is, g is one-to-one.

 f ( x)dx   f ( g (t )) g(t)dt
This kind of substitution is called inverse substitution.
dx asec tan
We can make the inverse substitution x = a sin  provided Therefore  x a2 2 =  a tan
d
that it defines a one-to-one function. This can be
accomplished by restricting  to lie in the interval
[–/2, /2].
d =  sec d = ln |sec + tan| + c

SOME STANDARD INTEGRALS x2  a2

The triangle in figure gives tan  = ,
dx a
1.  a  x2
2 = sin–1
x
a
+c
dx x x2  a 2
dx 1 x so we have = ln a  +c
2.  a2  x2 =
a
tan–1
a
+c x2  a 2 a

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 Indefinite Integration 1.9

x
= ln |x + x 2  a 2 | – ln a + c = ln |x + x 2  a 2 | + c, sec =   1 
a   x  
5 1   2  + c
+ tan1  
4 5   5 
EXAMPLE 27 

2   2  
1
Integrate w.r.t.x. .
2 x2  x  1
3 5  2x  1 
= log (2x2 – 2x + 3) + tan–1   +c
SOLUTION 4 2 2  10 
dx 1 dx
We have  (2 x2  x  1) =
2  2 x 1 EXAMPLE 29
x  2  2 
 
1
Integrate w.r.t.x.
1 dx 1 dx (4  3 x  2 x 2 )
=
2   1
2
1 1
=
2  1 9
2
x    x   SOLUTION
 4 2 16  4  16
dx 1 dx
1 3
x 
 4  3x  2 x 2

2 3
1
=  1 4 4 2 x  x2
ln 2
2 2 3 1 3
x 
4 4 4
1 dx
1 2x 1
=
2   3 9 9
= log 2( x  1) + c 2   x2  x   
3  2 16  16

1 dx
2
EXAMPLE 28 =
2
41  3
3x  1  x  
Integrate w.r.t.x. 16  4
2 x2  2 x  3

SOLUTION 1 dx
d

2   41  
2 2
3
Here (2x2 – 2x + 3) = 4x – 2.     x  
dx
 4   4
3 3
3x  1 (4 x  2)  1 
 I=  2 x2  2 x  3 dx =  4
(2 x 2  2 x  3)
2 dx
1
 3
 x  1  4x  3 
 1  4 sin 1 
sin c
2  41  2  41 
3 4x  2 5 1  
=
4  2 x2  2 x  3 dx + 2  2 x2  2 x  3 dx  4 

3 5 dx
=
4
log (2x2 – 2x + 3) +
2.2
 x2  x  (3 / 2) EXAMPLE 30

3 5 dx Evaluate  ( x  1)(2  x) dx.

=
4
log (2x2 – 2x + 3) +
4  1 3 1
2
x     SOLUTION
 2 2 4
We have
3 5 dx
=
4
log (2x2 – 2x + 3) +
4  1 5
2  ( x  1)(2  x) dx =
 ( x 2  3 x  2) dx
x  
 2  2
  3
2
9   1  3  
2

=
3
log (2x2 – 2x + 3)
=  2   x     dx =
  2 4

    x    dx,

4  2 

4
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1.10 Indefinite Integration

2 2
[form  (a 2  x 2 ) dx]  1
 x   + 3 or as
x
 1 1
 x   –1. The diff. coeff. of x – x is
x
 

 3 1 1 1
 1  3  
2 x  2  1+ 2 and that of x + is 1 – 2 . So we write
1 x 3 1 1 x x x
=    x   + .
4  2  sin–1  1  + c
2  2   2 4
 2  1 (1  1/ x 2 )  (1  1/ x 2 )
I=
2  x 2  1  (1/ x 2 )
dx
1 1
(3x  x 2  2) + 8 sin (2x – 3) + c
= (2x – 3) –1
4 1 (1  1 / x2 )dx 1 (1  1/ x 2 )dx
=
2  (x  1 / x)2  3 +
2  ( x  1/ x)2  1
EXAMPLE 31
1  1 
3 In the first integral put x – = t so that 1  2  dx = dt,
( x  3)dx x  x 
Integrate  ( x 2  1) and in the second integral put

SOLUTION 1  1 
x+ = z so that 1  2  dx = dz.
x  x 
( x3  3)dx x( x2  1 )  x  3 dx
We have  =
 1
 t2  (
dt 1 dz
( x 2  1) ( x2  1 )  I=
2 3)2
+
2  z2  1
1 t 1 1 z 1
x( x 2  1) xdx dx = tan–1 + log z 1 + c
=  ( x 2  1)
dx –  ( x 2  1)
+3  (x2  1)
2 3 3 2 2 1

1  ( x  1/ x )  1 ( x  1/ x)  1
= tan–1   + log ( x  1/ x)  1 + c
1 1 2 x dx dx 2 3  3  4
=
2  (2 x) ( x 2  1) dx –
2  2
( x  1)
+3  ( x 2  1)
1  x 2  1  1 x2  x  1
= tan–1   + log 2 +c
1 2 2
2 3  ( 3) x  4 x  x 1
 1 [2 ( x 2  1) ]
= ( x  1)3/ 2  –
2  3  2
EXAMPLE 33
+ 3 n (x + ( x 2  1) ) + c (1  x 2 )dx
Evaluate  (1  x2 ) 1  x 2  x4
1 2
=
3
(x + 1)3/2 – ( x  1) + 3 n (x +
2 2
( x  1) ) + c
SOLUTION

(1  x 2 )dx
EXAMPLE 32 Let, I =
 (1  x2 ) 1  x 2  x4
x2
Integrate w.r.t.x.
x4  x2  1  1 
x2  1   dx
SOLUTION  x2 
=  2 1  1
x2 x   x  1  x2
Let I =  x4  x2  1 dx,  x  x2

1
=  x2  1  1 dx,
 1 
 1  2  dx
 x 
x2 =–
 1  1
2
dividing the numerator and the denominator both by x2. x  x  3
 x  x
1
Now the denominator x2 + 1 + can be written either as
x2

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 Indefinite Integration 1.11

dt 1 EXAMPLE 35
=– t 2
t 3
(put x –
x
= t)
dx
Again put + 3 = t2 s2
Evaluate  {( x   )(   x)}
 2t dt = 2s ds SOLUTION
s ds ds
I=–  s( s2  3) = –  s2  ( 3)2 dx
I=  (x  )(  x)
 dx 1 xa 
 2  ln  c
 x a 2 2 a x  a  Put x = cos2+ sin2
dx = (–2cossin+ 2sincos)d
1 ( x  1/ x )2  3  3 + c
=– log = 2()sincosd
2 3
( x  1/ x)2  3  3 x –= cos2sin2–
= (cos2–1) + sin2
1 = – sin2+ sin2= (– )sin2
x2  1  3
=–
1
log x2 +c  x =  cos2– sin2
2 3 2 1 = (1 – sin2) – cos2
x  1  3
x2 = ()cos2
2(    ) sin  cos  d
EXAMPLE 34 I=  {(    ) cos 2  .(    ) sin 2  }
( x  1)dx
Evaluate  ( x  1) x3  x 2  x 2(    )sin  cos  d
SOLUTION
=  (   )cos sin  d

Let, I =  ( x  1)
( x  1)dx
3 2 =
( x 2  1)dx
 ( x  1)2
= 
2 d  c
x x x 3 2
x x x x = (1 – sin2) sin2
 1  x – = sin2()
x2  1  2  dx
 x  x
=  ( x2  2 x  1 ) x3  x2  x
sin2=     = sin–1

x

 1 
x2  1  2  dx I = 2sin–1 x +c
dt
=  2

1
x 
1
=  (t  2) t 1

x x2  x 1
 x x

1  1 EXAMPLE 36
(put x + = t, 1 2  dx = dt)
x  x  dx
2 z dz dz
Evaluate I =  (a  dx2 ) b  ax 2
=  ( z2 1) z =2  z 2  1 = 2 tan –1 (z) + c
SOLUTION
(put t + 1 = z2  dt = 2zdz)
b cos  d
x2  x  1 Substituting ax2 = b sin2   dx =
= 2 tan–1 ( t  1 ) + c = 2 tan–1 +c a
x

b
cos d
a
 I =   b2 
a  sin2   b  b sin2 
 a 
 

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1.12 Indefinite Integration

INTEGRATION BY PARTS
cos  d
= a  (a2  b2 sin 2  ).cos   du 
 u.vdx  u  v dx    dx . v dx  dx where u & v are

d
differentiable functions.
= a  a 2  b2 sin 2  , Note : While using integration by parts, keep the order
of u & v as per the order of the letters in ILATE,
dividing Nr and Dr by cos2. we get
where
2
sec  d I – Inverse function
= a  a2 sec2   b2 tan 2  put tan  = t L – Logarithmic function
A – Algebraic function
T – Trigonometric function
dt
= a  a2 (1  t 2 )  b2t 2 E – Exponential function

SOLVED EXAMPLE
a dt
=
(a 2  b2 )  a2 EXAMPLE 38
t2 +
a 2 + b2 Integrate xn log x w.r.t.x.
SOLUTION
1  t a 2  b2 
 
 (log
n
x). x dx
= tan–1  +c x  
n
a(a 2  b2 )  a We have log x dx =
  u v
n 1 n 1
x 1 x
1  x a2  b2



= (log x) .
n 1
–  x . n  1 dx
= . tan–1  a b  ax 2  +c
a(a 2  b2 )   x n 1 xn
= (log x) .
n 1
–  n  1 dx
x
n 1
(since, t = tan = ) x n 1 x
b  ax 2 = (log x) . – +C
n 1 (n  1)2
EXAMPLE 37
EXAMPLE 39
1
Integrate w.r.t.x. log(sec1 x)dx
1  3sin 2 x
Evaluate  x ( x 2  1)
dx
SOLUTION
Dividing Nr. and Dr. by cos2 x, we have SOLUTION
dx sec2 xdx
I=  1  3sin 2 x =  sec2 x  3 tan 2 x Put sec–1 x = t so that
1
dx = dt.
x ( x 2  1)
2 2
sec xdx sec xdx
=  (1  tan2 x)  3 tan 2 x =  1  tan 2 x Then the given integral

Now putting 2 tan x = t so that 2 sec2x dx = dt,


= log t dt =  (lo

u
g t ) . 1 d t
v
1 dt
we have I =  1 t2 1
2 = (log t) . t –  t t dt = t log t – t + c
1 1
= tan–1 t = tan–1 (2 tanx) + c = t (log t – 1) + c
2 2
= sec–1 x (log (sec–1 x) – 1) + c
SECTION - C   sec 1 x  
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
= sec–1 x  log  e   + c
  

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 Indefinite Integration 1.13

EXAMPLE 40
EXAMPLE 42
 1 x 
Evaluate  tan 1   dx.
 1 x   
2x  2

1
SOLUTION Evaluate sin  2
 dx.

Let x = cos2 dx = – 2sin2d  4 x  8 x  13 

1 x 1  cos2 SOLUTION
I =  tan1 dx =  tan
1
(– 2sin2)d
1x 1  cos 2
 2x  2 
 sin
1   dx
2 sin  2 I= 2
= – 2  tan1 × sin2d  4 x  8 x  13 
2 cos2 

= – 2  tan -1 (tan) × sin2d  

2x  2

1  
= sin  2  dx
=–2   sin2θ
u
 d
v
2
 (2 x  2)  3 

= – 2  sin2 d   1    sin2 d d + c (put 2x + 2 = 3 tan   2 dx = 3 sec2 d

1  3 tan  3
 u 
3 2
  cos 2  cos 2 
= – 2    2    2 d + c
=  sin   sec2  d=
 3sec   2 2
sec d 
v
   
3
=–2 
 – cos 2 sin2 
 +c
=
2
( tan –  tan  d )
 2 4 
3
1 = { tan – log (sec )} + c
cos2= x  sin2= 1  x2 = cos1 x 2
2
Putting the values,
  2 
3  2x  2  2x  2   1  2x  2   
 1  1  1  x2 
I=  tan 1    log  

 I = – 2 2 2 cos 1
x  x   +c 2  3  3    3   + c
   4   

 x cos1 x 1  x2  2 4x2  8x  13 
  +c 3  1  2  
I=–2 =  (x  1) ta n  3 (x  1)   lo g  +c
 4 4  2  3   3 

I=
1
2

x cos1 x  1  x2 + c  
2
I = (x + 1) tan–1  ( x  1)  –
 3
log (4x2 + 8x + 13) + c
3  4

EXAMPLE 41 EXAMPLE 43

x
2 1 If cos > sin > 0, then evaluate :
Evaluate tan x dx .
SOLUTION  cos2  
  1  sin 2   cos 2 
x 3 x3
1  log 
  1  sin 2
  log 
 1  sin 2
  d
We have  x 2 tan 1 x dx =
3
tan–1 x –  .
3 1  x2
dx,  

(integrating by parts taking x2 as the second function)
SOLUTION
x3 1 x( x 2  1)  x
3
tan–1 x –
3  1  x2
dx
I =  log  1  sin2 
cos2 

 log  cos 2  d
[ x3 = x(x2 + 1) – x]  1  sin2   1  sin2 

x3 1 1 1 2x
=
3
tan–1 x –
3  x dx + 3 . 2  1  x2 dx
x3 x2 1
= tan–1 x – + log (1 + x2) + c
3 6 6
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1.14 Indefinite Integration

REMEMBER THIS
 sin2   cos2   2 sin  cos  
I =  cos  log  2
2
2  d eax
 sin   cos   2 sin  cos   1.  eax . sinbx dx =
a 2 + b2
(a sin bx – b cos bx) + c

 cos2   sin2  
+ log   d e ax
 sin2
  cos2
  2 sin  cos   2.  eax . cos bx dx =
a2  b2
(a cos bx + b sin bx) + c


2 ax
 cos   sin    cos2  – sin2   Evaluate I = e sin bxdx
I =  cos  log 
2
 + log  2 
d
 cos   sin    (cos   sin )  Integrating by parts taking sin bx as the second function,
 cos   sin    cos   sin   eax cos bx ax  cos bx 
I =  cos   2log  cos   sin   + log  cos   sin   d
2

   
We get I = –
b
–  ae 
 b 
 dx

( cos  > sin  > 0) eax cos bx a

e
ax
=– + cosbxdx
b b
 cos   sin    cos   sin  
I =  2 cos  log 
2
 – log   d Again integrating by parts taking cos bx as the second
 cos   sin    cos   sin   function, we get
 cos   sin    ax sinbx 
I =  (2 cos   1)log  cos   sin   d
2
eax cos bx a  e sinbx -
 ae
ax
I=– + dx 
  b b  b b 

 cos   sin   eax cos bx a a2

I =  cos 2
  log  cos   sin   d e
ax

 or I = – + 2 eax sin bx – 2 sin bxdx
v 
 b b b
u
eax a2
or I= 2 (a sin bx – b cos bx) – I.
sin2  cos   sin    cos   sin   b b2
I=
2
 log   –
 cos   sin  
  cos   sin    [ eax sin bx dx = I ]
a2
(cos   sin )( sin   cos )  (cos   sin )( sin   cos ) Transposing the term – I to the left hand side,
b2
(cos   sin )2
we get
sin2
× d  a2 
2 eax
1  2  I= (a sin bx – b cos bx)
 b 
  b2
sin2  cos   sin  
I=  log   1 1
2  cos   sin   or 2 (a2 + b2) I = eax (a sin bx – b cos bx)
b b2
(cos   sin )2  (cos   sin )2 sin2 e ax
–  (cos   sin )  (cos   sin )
×
2
d  I= (a sin bx – b cos bx) + c
a2  b2

sin2 log  cos   sin   2 sin2 Remarks

I=
2
×  cos   sin   –
   cos 2 × 2
d
 e [ f ( x)  f ( x)] dx  e . f ( x)  c
x x
1.
sin2  cos   sin  
I= × log   –  tan2d
2  cos   sin   2.  [ f ( x)  xf ( x)]dx  xf ( x)  c
sin2 log cos   sin  1
I= × cos   sin 
– log sec 2 + c EXAMPLE 44
2 2
xe x
I=
sin2 cos  sin  1
× log cos   sin  + log cos 2 + c
Evaluate  ( x  1)2 dx
2 2
SOLUTION

xe x 1
 ( x  1)2 dx =  xe
x
We have dx
( x  1) 2

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 Indefinite Integration 1.15

SOLUTION
xe x  1   1 
 ( x  1)2 dx = (xex)   –
 x 1  (e x  xe x )    dx,
 x 1
dx
 (x 2 + a 2 )3
 dx 1  x = a tan
  2
  dx = a sec2 d
 (x  1) x  1
asec2 d asec2 d
x   
xe
 
3
1 a6 sec2 
+  e ( x  1) a2 tan2  1 
x
=– dx  
x 1 x 1
1 d 1
xe x xe x

a5  sec 4


a5 
cos4  d
=–
x 1
+  e x dx  
x 1
+ ex + c
2
1 1  1  cos 2 
 cos  
2
  2  d
2
 d 
 x  x 1 x ex a5 a5
= ex 1   + c = ex +c= +c
 x  1 x 1 x 1 1
  1  2 cos 2  cos
2
2 d
4a5
Alternative solution
1 1  cos 4
xe x x ( x  1)  1

4a5  1  2 cos 2  2
d
We have  ( x  1)2 dx =  e ( x  1) 2
dx
1 3 cos 4

4a5  2  2 cos 2  2
d
 1 1 
e
x
=  –  dx 1  3 sin 4 
2   sin2  +c
 x + 1 (x + 1)  5 
4a  2 8 

1 1  3 1 x  x 1  x 

x x 
= e [ f ( x)  f ( x) dx  e . f (x)  c where f ( x )   tan  sin  2 tan1   sin  4 tan1    c
x 1 4a5  2 a  a 8  a 

1 INTEGRATION BY REDUCTION FORMULAE

= ex +c
x 1
EXAMPLE 47

x
n
If In = a 2  x 2 dx, prove that
EXAMPLE 45

2  sin 2 x x n 1 (a 2  x 2 )3 / 2 (n 1)

x
Evaluate e dx In = – + (n  2) a2 In–2.
1  cos 2 x (n  2)
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
x x
n n 1
2  sin 2 x In = a 2  x 2 dx = .{x a 2  x 2 }dx

x
We have e dx
1  cos 2 x Applying integration by parts we get
 2 sin x cos x   (a - x ) 
2 2 2 3/2
 e  2 cos2 x  2 cos2 x  dx
x
I= = xn–1 .  
 -3 
 1  cos 2x  2 cos x  2
 (a - x ) 
2 2 3/2
+  (n - 1)x n-2 . -
3
 dx
 e [sec x  tan x] dx
x 2  
I=
x n 1 ( a 2  x 2 )3 / 2
 e [ f ( x)  f ( x)] dx = e
x x
I= f(x) + c = –
3
where f(x) = tan x
I = ex tanx + c (n  1)
x
n 2
+ .(a 2  x 2 ) a 2  x 2 dx
3
EXAMPLE 46 x n 1 ( a 2  x 2 )3 / 2 (n  1)a 2 (n  1)
 In = – + In–2 – In
dx 3 3 3
Evaluate  (x 2 + a 2 )3
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1.16 Indefinite Integration

( n  1) 1 1  x 
 In + In to that of which is tan–1  .
3 2
(x  k) k  k
n 1 2 2 3/ 2 2
x (a  x ) (n  1)a
= – + In–2
3 3

n2 x n 1 ( a 2  x 2 )3 / 2 (n  1)a 2
   In = – + In–2 EXAMPLE 49
 3  3 3
x2
x n 1 (a 2  x 2 )3 / 2 (n  1)a 2 Intergate
2x  W.r.t.x
2
2
 In = – + I  4x  3
(n  2) (n  2) n–2

SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 48
x2
I  dx
1
2x 
2
2
 4x  3

Evaluate
x  W.r.t.x
n
2
k
d
SOLUTION Here (2x2 + 4x + 3) = 4x + 4.
dx

dx 1
(4x  4)  1

In =
x   4
n
2
k I= dx
(2x2  4x  3)2
dx 1
   1 d x
dx
x  k 
n 1
 4 x  4  dx 
 
2
In-1 = n1
= 1
 (2 x 2  4 x  3) 2
v
2
x k    = +
2x 
2
2
u
4  4x  3
Applying by parts,
let 2x2 + 4x + 3 = t
x x n  1 (4x + 4) dx = dt
    2x dx
In-1 =
x  x 
n 1 n
2
k 2
k
1 dt 1 dx
x
I=
4 t 2 +
4
 2 3
2
or In–1 =  x  2x  
( x 2  k )n 1  2
1  1  1 dx
4  t  4  
  I= 
dx dx 2

+ 2 (n – 1)  2
 ( x  k )
n 1
k 
2 n
( x  k )   

 x  1
2

1
2 

x
or In–1 = + 2 (n – 1) ln–1 – 2k (n –1) ln.   1
( x  k )n 1
2
  x  1  tan  
  2
x  1 
2
 2k (n–1) ln =
( x 2  k )n 1
+ {2(n–1) – 1} ln–1  dx  sec  d 
 2 
x
or 2k(n – 1) ln = + (2n – 3) In–1.
( x  k )n 1
2 1 1 1 sec2  d
Hence
I=–
4(2 x 2  4 x  3)
+
4 2  2 
tan   1 
2
 
dx  2 
 ( x2  k )n1
1 1
I= – +  cos
2
x (2n  3) dx .d
=
2k (n  1)( x  k ) 2 n 1 + 2k (n  1)  ( x2  k )n1 . 2
4(2 x  4 x  3) 2

1 1 1  cos 
I 
Above is the reduction formula for  [1/( x 2  k ) n ] dx . By

4 2x  4x  32
 2  2
d

repeated application of this formula the integral shall reduce

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 Indefinite Integration 1.17

1 1  sin2  2  x 1
I=    2  Hence I1 = tan–1  

4 2x  4x  32
 2 2  8  2 

2 x 1 2
1 + . . .
I= 2 2
{( x  2 x  3)}

4 2x2  4x  3  8 ( x  2 x  3)

2  x 1 1 x 1
1 = tan–1   +
 1 
 
2
+ tan
1
2  x  1  sin 2 tan1 2  x  1  8  2  4 ( x  2 x  3)
2 2  2 
1 1 x 1
 I =– +
1 tan 1
 2  x  1  x2  2x  3 4 x2  2x  3
I= +

4 2x  4x  32
 2 2
+
2  x 1
tan–1   + c, from (i)
8  2 
1
+
4 2

sin 2 tan1  x  1  c  x 1 4 2  x 1
= 2 + tan–1   +c
4( x  2 x  3) 8  2 
x3 2  x 1
= 2 + tan–1   +c
EXAMPLE 50 4( x  2 x  3) 8  2 
Integrate (2x + 3)/(x2 + 2x + 3)2.
EXAMPLE 51
SOLUTION
 (sin x  cos x)
m
If Im = dx, then show that
Here (d/dx) (x2 + 2x + 3) = 2x + 2
mIm = (sinx + cosx)m–1. (sinx – cosx) + 2 (m – 1) Im–2
(2 x  3) (2x + 2 + 1) dx
 I =  ( x2  2 x  3)2 =  (x2 + 2x + 3)2 SOLUTION

(2 x  2)dx dx
=  ( x2  2 x  3)2 +  ( x2  2 x  3)2 Im=  
sinx  cosx

 sin x  cos x dx
m1

 
u v
1 dx
=–
( x 2  2 x  3)
+  ( x2  2 x  3)2 ....(i)
applying integration by parts.
Im = (sin x + cosx)m–1 (sinx - cos x)

 (m - 1)(sinx + cosx)
dx m-2
Now let I1 =  [( x  1)2  2]2 (Put x + 1 = 2 tan t, so
– .(cosx – sin x).(sinx–cosx) dx
Im = (sinx + cosx)m–1 (sinx – cos x) +
that dx = 2
2 sec t dt)

m2
(m – 1) (sin x  cos x) (sinx – cos x)2dx .....(1)
2
2 sec t dt
 I1 =  (2 tan 2 t  2)2 =
4
2
 cos 2 t dt we know, (sinx + cosx)2 + (sinx – cosx)2 =2,
So (sinx - cosx)2 = 2 – (sinx+ cosx)2
2 1 Putting it in (i),
=
4 2 (1 + cos 2t) dt  Im = (sinx + cosx)m–1 (sinx – cosx) + (m – 1)

 (sin x  cos x)
m2
2 1 2 {2 – (sinx + cosx)2} dx
= [ t + sin 2t] + [t + sin t cos t] + c
8 2 8 Im = (sinx + cosx)m–1 (sin x – cos x) + (m – 1)

Now tan t =
x 1
2
. 2 (sin x  cos x) m2

dx  (sin x  cos x)m dx 
x 1 x 1 Im= (sinx + cosx)m–1 (sinx– cosx) + (m – 1) 2Im2  Im
Therefore sin t = = , and
{( x  1) 2  2} ( x 2  2 x  3) Im+(m-1)Im = (sinx + cosx)m–1 (sinx – cosx)
+ 2(m – 1) Im–2
2 mIm = (sinx + cosx)m–1 (sinx – cosx) + 2(m – 1) Im–2
cos t = 2
( x  2 x  3)

 x 1
Also t = tan–1  .
 2 

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1.18 Indefinite Integration

EXAMPLE 52 If we now reverse the procedure, we see how to integrate

x5
If Im,n =  cos
m
x.cos nx.dx, the function on the right side of this equation  x2  x  2 dx
show that (m + n) Im,n = cosmx. sin nx + m I(m–1, n–1)
 2 1 
SOLUTION =     dx = 2n |x –1| – ln |x + 2| + C
 x 1 x  2 

 cos
m
We have, Im,n = x . cosnx dx To see how the method of partial fractions works in general,
P( x )
 sin nx  sin nx let's consider a rational function f(x) = Q( x)

m1
= (cosmx)   mcos x (–sinx). dx
 n  n
Where P and Q are polynomials. It's possible to express
1 m
=
n
cosm x . sin nx +
n  cosm-1x(sin x.sin nx) dx f as sum of simpler fractions provided that the degree of P
is less than the degree of Q. Such a rational function is
As we have cos (n – 1) x = cos nx cos x + sin nx . sinx called proper. Recall that if
1 P(x) = anxn + an–1 xn–1 + ... + a1x + a0
 I m,n = cosmx . sin nx
n where an  0, then the degree of P is n and we write deg (P) = n.
If f is improper, that is, deg(P)  deg (Q), then we must take
m
 cos
m 1
+ x . {cos(n–1) x – cosnx . cosx} dx the preliminary step of dividing P by Q until a remainder
n
R(x) is obtained such that deg (R) < deg(Q). The division
1 m statement is
 cos
m 1
= cosm x . sin nx + x.cos(n  1) x.dx
n n
P( x ) R( x )
m 1. f(x) = Q( x) = S(x) + Q( x) where S and R are also
 cos
m
– x.cos nxdx
n
polynomials.
1 m m As the following example illustrates, sometimes this
= cosm x . sin nx + I – I
n n m–1,n–1 n m,n preliminary step is all that is required.

m 1
 Im,n + I = [cosmx . sin nx + mIm–1, n–1] SOLVED EXAMPLE
n m,n n

m+n 1 EXAMPLE 53
  n  Im,n = [cosm x . sin nx + mIm–1,n–1]
  n
x3 + x
 (m + n) Im,n = cosm x . sin nx + mIm–1,n–1. Evaluate  x -1
dx.

SOLUTION
SECTION - D Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree
INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS of the denominator, we first perform the long division. This
enables us to write
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS x3 + x  2 2 
 x -1
dx   x+x+2+
x - 1 
dx
In this section we show how to integrate any rational function
(a ratio of polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler x3 x2
fractions, called partial fractions, that we already know how = + + 2x + 2n|x –1| + C
3 2
to integrate. To illustrate the method, observe that by taking
The next step is to factor the denominator Q(x) as far as
the fractions 2/(x – 1) and 1/(x + 2) to a common denominator possible . It can be shown that any polynomial Q can be
we obtain factorised as a product of linear factors (of the form ax + b)
2 1 2( x  2)  ( x  1) x5 and irreducible quadratic factors (of the form ax2 + bx + c,
– = ( x  1)( x  2) = 2 where b2 – 4ac < 0). For instance, if Q(x) = x4 – 16, we
x 1 x2 x  x2
could factor it as Q(x) = (x2 – 4) (x2 + 4) = (x – 2) (x + 2) (x2
+ 4)
The third step is to express the proper rational function R(x)/
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 Indefinite Integration 1.19

Q(x) (from equation 1) as a sum of partial fractions of the 3A + 2B – C = 2

Ax + B
– 2A = –1
A
form or 1 1 1
(ax  b) i
(ax + bx + c) j
2
Solving, we get A = , B = , and C = – , and so
2 5 10
A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible
to do this. are as follows the details about the four cases x2  2 x  1
that occur.  2 x3  3x 2  2 x dx

1 1 1 1 1 1 
Case I : The Denominator Q(x) is a product =   2 x  5 2 x  1  10 x  2  dx
of distinct linear factors.
This means that we can write 1 1 1
= n |x| + n|2x – 1| – n|x+2| + K
Q(x) = (a1x + b1) (a2x + b2) ... (akx + bk) 2 10 10
where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant
multiple of another). In this case the partial fraction theorem Case II : Q(x) is a product of linear factors,
states that there exist constants A1,A2,...,Ak such that. some of which are repeated.
Suppose the first linear factor (a1x + b1) is repeated r times, that is,
R( x ) A1 A2 Ak
2. = + + .... + (a1x + b1)r occurs in the factorization of Q(x). Then instead of the
Q( x) a1 x  b1 a2 x  b2 ak x  bk
single term A1/(a1x + b1) in equation 2, we would use
These constants can be determined as in the following
A1 A2 Ar
example. (6) a x  b + (a x  b )2 + .... +
1 1 1 1 (a1x  b1 )r

EXAMPLE 54 x3 - x + 1
By way of illustration, we could write
x 2 (x - 1)3
x2  2 x  1
Evaluate  2 x3  3x 2  2 x dx.
B D E
A C
= + 2 + + 2 +
SOLUTION x x x 1 ( x  1) ( x  1)3
Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of but we prefer to work out in detail a simpler example.
the denominator, we don't need to divide. We factor the
denominator as 2x3 + 3x2 – 2x = x(2x2 + 3x – 2) EXAMPLE 55
= x(2x – 1) (x + 2)
x4  2 x2  4 x  1
Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the Evaluate  x3  x 2  x  1
dx
partial fraction decomposition of the integrand (2) has the
form. SOLUTION
The first step is to divide. The result of long division is
x 2 + 2x - 1 A B C
3. = + + x4  2x2  4x  1 4x
x(2x - 1)(x + 2) x 2x  1 x  2 =x+1+
3 2
x  x  x 1 x  x2  x  1
3
To denominator the values of A, B and C, we multiply both
sides of this equation by the product of the denominators, The second step is to factor the denominator
x(2x – 1) (x + 2), obtaining. Q(x) = x3 – x2 – x + 1. Since Q(1) = 0, we know that
x – 1 is a factor and we obtain
4. x2 + 2x – 1 = A(2x – 1) (x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x – 1) x3 – x2 – x + 1 = (x – 1) (x2 – 1)
Expanding the right side of equation 4 and writing it in the = (x – 1) (x – 1)(x + 1) = (x – 1)2 (x + 1)
standard form for polynomials, we get Since the linear factor x – 1 occurs twice, the partial fraction
5. x2 + 2x – 1 = (2A + B + 2C) x2 + (3A + 2B – C) x – 2A decompositoin is
The polynomials are equation so their coefficients must be 4x A B C
equal. The coefficient of x2 on the right side, 2A + B + 2C, = + 2 +
(x  1)2 (x  1) x -1 ( x  1) x 1
must equal the coefficient of x2 on the left side-namely, 1.
Multiplying by the least common denominator (x – 1)2 (x + 1), we
Likewise. The coefficients of x are equal and the constant
get
terms are equal. This gives the following system of equation
for A, B and C. 7. 4x = A(x – 1)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) + C(x – 1)2
2A + B + 2C = 1 = (A + C) x2 + (B – 2x) x + (–A + B + C)
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1.20 Indefinite Integration

Now we equate coefficients : A + C = 0

2 x2  x  4 A Bx  c
B – 2C = 4 –A + B + C = 0 = + 2
Solving, we obtain A = 1, B = 2, and C = – 1, so x( x 2  4) x x 4

x4  2 x2  4 x  1 Multiplying by x(x2 + 4), we have

 x3  x 2  x  1
dx 2x2 – x + 4 = A (x2 + 4) + (Bx + C) x
= (A + B) x2 + Cx + 4A
 1 2 1  Equating coefficients, we obtain A + B =2 C = –1
=  x + 1 +

+ - 
x - 1 (x - 1) 2 x + 1  dx 4A = 4
Thus A = 1, B = 1 and C = –1 and so
x2 2
= + x + n |x – 1| – – n|x + 1| + K
2 x 1 2x2  x  4 1 x 1 
 x3  4 x  
dx =  x  2  dx
x 4
x2 2 x 1
= +x– + n +K In order to integrate the second term we split it into to parts
2 x 1 x 1
x 1 x 1
Case III : Q(x) contains irreducible  x2  4 dx =  x2  4 dx –  x2  4 dx
quadratic factors, none of which is
We make the substitution u = x2 + 4 in the first of these
repeated.
integrals so that du = 2x dx. We evaluate the second integral
If Q(x) has the factor ax2 + bx + c, where b2 – 4ac < 0,
then in addition to the partial fractions in equation 2 and 6, by means of Formula 9 with a = 2.

R(x) 2x2  x  4 1 x 1
the expression or Q  x  will have a term of the form.  2
x( x  4)
dx =  x dx +  x2  4 dx –  x2  4 dx
Ax  B 1 1 x
8.
ax 2  bx  c
where A and B are constants to be = n |x| + n (x2 + 4) – tan–1 +K
2 2 2
determined. For instance, the function given by
Case IV : Q(x) Contains A repeated
x
f(x) = has a partial fraction irreducible quadratic factor.
( x  2)( x 2  1)( x 2  4)
If Q (x) has the factor (ax2 + bx + c)r, where b2 – 4ac < 0,
decomposition of the form then instead of the single partial fraction (8), the sum
x
A1 x  B1 A 2 x + B2 A r x + Br
( x  2)( x  1)( x 2  4)
2
10. + + ..+
2
ax  bx  c (ax 2 + bx + c)2 (ax 2 + bx + c) r
A Bx  C Dx  E
= + 2 + 2 R x
x2 x 1 x 4 occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of Q x , each
 
The term given in (8) can be integrated by completing the
square and using the formula. of the terms in (10) can be integrated by first completing
the square.
dx 1  x
9.  x2  a2 =
a
tan–1   + C
a
EXAMPLE 57
Write out the form of the partial fraction decomposition of
the function
EXAMPLE 56
x3  x2  1
2x2  x  4 x(x  1)(x2  x  1)(x2  1)3
Evaluate  x3  4 x
dx
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
x3  x2  1
Since x3 + 4x = x(x2 + 4) can't be factarized further, we write
x(x  1)(x2  x  1)(x2  1)3

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 Indefinite Integration 1.21

SOLUTION
A B Cx  D Ex  F
= + + 2 + In this example there is a repeated quadratic polynomial in
x x 1 x  x 1 x2  1
the denominator. Hence, according to our previous discussion
Gx  H Ix + J
+ + x3  3 x 2  2 x  3 A1 x  B1 A2 x  B2
( x 2  1) 2 (x 2 + 1)3 = +
2
( x  1) 2 2
x 1 ( x 2  1) 2
EXAMPLE 58 For some constants A1, B1, A2 and B2
An easy way to determine these constant is as follows. By
1  x  2 x 2  x3
Evaluate  x( x 2  1) 2
dx long division,

SOLUTION x3 - 3x 2 + 2x - 3 x
=x–3+ and therefore
The form of the partial fraction decomposition is
2
x +1 x2 + 1

1  x  2 x 2  x3 A Bx  C Dx  E x 3 - 3x 2 + 2x - 3 x 3 x
= + 2 + 2 = +
2
x ( x  1) 2 x x 1 ( x  1) 2 2
x +1 x 12 ( x  1) 2
2

Multiplying by x(x2 + 1)2, Thus A1 = 1, B1 = – 3, A2 = 1 and B2 = 0

we have –x3 + 2x2 – x + 1 we know have
= A(x2 + 1)2 + (Bx + C) x (x2 + 1) + (Dx + E)x
x 3 - 3x 2 + 2x - 3
= A(x4 + 2x2 + 1) + B(x4 + x2) + C(x3 + x) + Dx2 + Ex  (x 2 + 1)2
dx
= (A + B) x4 + Cx3 + (2A + B + D) x2 + (C + E) x + A
If we equate coefficient, we get the system A + B = 0 x 3 x
C = –1 2A + B + D = 2 C + E = –1 A=1 =  x +12
dx -  2
x +1
dx +  (x2 + 1)2 dx
Which the solution A = 1, B = –1, D = 1, and E = 0. Thus
1 1
1  x  2 x 2  x3  1 x 1 x  = n (x2 + 1) – 3 tan–1 x – +c
 x( x 2  1) 2
dx =    2
 x

2

2  dx
x  1 ( x  1) 
2
2
2( x  1)

dx x dx xdx EXAMPLE 60
= x –  x2  1 dx –  x2  1 +  ( x2  1)2 dx
Evaluate  cos x  cos ecx
1 1
= n |x| – n (x2 + 1) – tan–1x – 2 +K SOLUTION
2 2( x  1)
We note that sometimes partial fractions can be avoided dx
when integrating a rational function. For instance, although I=  cos x  1 =
sin xdx
 cos x.sin x  1
sin x
x2  1
the integral  x( x2  3) dx 2sinxdx 2sinx
=  2 + 2sinx cosx dx =  2 + sin2x dx
could be evaluated by the method of case III, it's much
easier to observe that if u = x(x2 + 3) = [(sin x  cos x )  (sin x  cos x)]dx
=  2  sin 2 x
x2  1
x3 + 3x, then du = (3x2 + 3) dx and so  x( x2  3) dx sin x  cos x sin x  cos x
=  2  sin 2 x
dx +  2  sin 2 x
dx
1
= n |x3 + 3x| + c sin x  cos x sin x  cos x
3 =  3  (1  sin 2 x) 
dx + 1  (1  sin 2 x)

sinx +cosx sin x  cos x

EXAMPLE 59
=  3 - ( sinx - cosx )2 . dx +  1  (sin x  cos x)2 . dx
3 2
x - 3x + 2x - 3
Evaluate  (x 2 + 1) 2
dx. put sin x – cos x = s and sin x + cosx = t
(cosx + sinx) dx = ds and (cosx – sin x) dx = dt

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1.22 Indefinite Integration

SOLUTION
ds dt ds dt
I=  3 - s2  1  t 2– = ( 2
3)  ( s ) 2 –  1 t2 Putting x – 1 = y  dx =dy
3 1  y   1 4  3y
1 3s I=  y3  2  y  dy =  y3  2  y  dy
= log – tan–1 t + c
2 3 3s
3y  4 A B C D
  
1 3  sin x  cos x y 3  y  2  = y y 2 y 3 2  y ....(1)
= log – tan–1 (sinx + cosx) + c muliplying y3 (y+2) both sides,
2 3 3  sin x  cos x
3y + 4 = A (y2 ) (2+y)+ By (2+y) + C (2 + y) +Dy3
3y + 4 = y3(A + D) + y2 (2A + B) + y(2B + C) + 2C
EXAMPLE 61 A + D = 0, 2A + B = 0, 2B + C = 3, 2C = 4
1 1 1 1
Evaluate  (e x  1)2 dx . C = 2, B  , A 
2 4
, D
4
Putting in (i)
SOLUTION
1 dy 1 dy dy 1 dy
1 ex
I= 4 

y 2  y 2  2 y3 + 4  2  y
We have  (e x  1)2 dx +  e x (e x  1)2 dx , 1 1 1
1
I= lny  2 y  2  4 ln 2  y
[multiplying the Nr. and Dr. by ex] 4 y
dt 2 y 1
=  t(t - 1)2 , putting e x = t so that ex dx = dt. I=
1
4
ln 
 y

 2 y y
1
 2 c

Now 1  x 1 1 1
I  ln    +c
1 A B C 4  x  1  2  x  1  x  12
 + +
t(t 1)2 t t  1 (t  1) 2
 1  A (t–1) 2 + Bt(t–1)+Ct ...(1)
(on resolving into partial fractions) EXAMPLE 63
To find A, putting t = 0 on both sides of (1), we get A = 1. 1
To find C, put t = 1 and we get C = 1. Thus Evaluate the integral  x3 ( x  1) dx .
l  (t – 1)2 + Bt (t – 1) + t SOLUTION
Comparing the coefficients of t2 on both sides, we get Let x = sec2 dx = 2 sec2 tan d
0 = 1 + B or B = – 1
2sec2  tan  d
1 1 1 1  I=  sec6  tan 
2  cos
4
 d
 = – +
t (t  1) 2 t t 1 (t  1) 2
   cos    d
2


4 2
I = 2 cos  d = 2 
dt 1 dt dt
Hence  t (t  1)2 =  t dt –  t  1 +  (t  1)2  1 + cos 2θ 
2
2
  (cos
2
= 2   d = 2  2cos2 1) d
1  2  4
= log t – log (t – 1) – +c
t 1 1 
1
=
2   
d  cos 2 2 d  2 cos 2 d 
 
= log ex – log (ex – 1) – x c
e 1 1    1  cos 4  d  sin 2 
= 
2 

 2


 +c

1
= x – log (ex – 1) – x c
e 1 12     sin 4  sin 2 
=  + c
2  2 8 
EXAMPLE 62
  sin 4 sin 2
3x  1 = + + + +c
Integrate w.r.t 'x' 2 4 16 2
( x  1)3 ( x  1)
3 sin 2 sin 4
= + + + c where x = sec2 
4 2 16

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 Indefinite Integration 1.23

EXAMPLE 64 EXAMPLE 65

2e5x  e4x  4e3x  4e2x  2ex dy

Integrate,  (e 2x
 4)(e 2x
 1) 2 dx. Integrate  y 2 (1  y 2 )3 .
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Put ex = y Put y = tan
dy = sec2d
2e5x  e4x  4e3x  4e2x  2ex
 I =  dx dy sec2 
(e2x  4)(e2x  1)2  y 2 (1  y 2 )3 =  tan2  d
 sec2  
3


e x 2e 4x  e 3x  4e 2 x  4e x  2  dx
=  (e 2x  4)(e 2 x  1)2 d cos6
= Put ex = y  ex dx = dy
=  tan 2
 sec 4 
=  sin 2

d

2y 4  y 3  4y 2  4y  2 (1 - sin 2θ)3 dθ

y 2
4  y 2
1 
2
dy =  sin 2θ

(1  3sin 2   3sin 4   sin 6  ) d

I= 
2y 4  4y2  2
dy + 
y3  4y
dy =  sin 2 
y   y  
2 2
2
 4 y2  1 2
 4 y2  1

 (cos ec   3  3sin
2 2
=   sin 4  ) d
y 2
1 
2

y y  4 dy 2

I= 2  dy + 
y   y  
2 2
2 2
2
 4 y 1 2
 4 y 1
=  cos ec 2  d   3 d +3  sin2d   sin4  d
dy ydy  1  cos2 
2
I = 2   1  cos2
y 42
y 2
1 
2
= – cot- 3 3 d    d
2  2 

2 y ydy   s in 2  
I= tan1     = – cot- 3  2  
 
2
2 2 2
y 1  4 
1
4
 ex  ydy  1  cos2 2  2 cos 2 d
tan1    
I=
 
2
2
  2
y 1
3 3 s in 2 
= – cot- 3 
Put y2 - 1 = Z 2 4
dz 1 1  cos 4d 
ydy = .    2 cos 2d
2 4  2 
 ex  1 dz
I = tan  2   2  z2
1

  3 3 1   sin4 2sin2 
= – co t    sin 2       
2 4 4 2 8 2 
1  ex  1
I = tan  2   2Z
  3 3 1  3 sin 4 
  cot   sin2   2  8
 sin2 
2 4 4  
 ex 
1 1
tan   
2 2
  2 y 1    cot 
15
8
 sin2 
1
32
sin 4

 ex  1 1 15
 y  8 tan y  sin 2 tan y   sin  4tan1 y  c
I = tan1  1
 C 1 1

 2  2 e 1
2x
  32

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1.24 Indefinite Integration

EXAMPLE 66 1 1 2
= log (1–t) + log (1+t)– log (1+2t) + c
f ( x) 6 2 3
Evaluate  x3  1 dx, where f(x) is a polynomials of degree 1 1 2
= log (1– cos x) + log (1+cosx) – log (1+2 cos x) + c
2 in x such that f(0) = f(1) = -3 and f(2) = – 1. 6 2 3
SECTION - E
SOLUTION
MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTITUTION
let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
f(0) = - 3 = c, f (1) = a + b + c = -3. INTEGRATION OF IRRATIONAL
a+b = 0 FUNCTIONS
f(2) = 4a + 2b + c = -1 Certain types of integrals of algebraic irrational expressions
2a -3 = -1  a = 1, b = -1 can be reduced to integrals of rational functions by a
 f(x) = x2 – x – 3  I appropriate change of the variable. Such transformation of
an integral is called its rationalization.
f ( x) x2  x  3
=  x3  1 dx =  ( x  1)( x2  x  1) dx 1. If the integrand is a rational function of fractional
powers of an independent variable x, i.e. the
( x 2  x  3)  p1 pk 
Using partical fractions, we get, 2
 x, x q1 ,...., x qk 
( x  1)( x  x  1) function R   , then the integral can
 
 
A Bx  C
= be rationalized by the substitution x = tm, where m
( x  1) + ( x 2  x  1) is the least common multiple of the numbers
We get, A = –1, B = 2, C = 2 q1, q2, ...., qk.
(2 x  2) 2. If the integrand is a rational function of x and
1
 I=   x  1 dx   ( x2  x  1) dx fractional powers of a linear fractional function of
ax  b
(2x 1) 1dx the form , then rationalization of the integral

= – log |x – 1| + (x2  x 1) dx +  x2  x  1
cx  d
ax  b
is effected by the substitution = tm where
dx cx  d
= –log |x–1| + log |x2+x+1| +  (x 
1 2
)  (
3 2
) m has the same sense as above.
2 2

2  2x  1  SOLVED EXAMPLE
= log |x–1| + log |x2 +x+1| + tan–1   +c
3  3 

EXAMPLE 67 EXAMPLE 68
dx
Integrate
dx
 sin x  sin 2 x w.r.t.x Evaluate  ( x  a)  ( x  b)
.

SOLUTION SOLUTION
Rationalizing the denominator, we have
dx
We have I =  sin x  sin 2 x dx ( x  b)  ( x  a)
 ( x  a)  ( x  b)
=  ( x  b)  ( x  a)
dx
dx dx
=  sin x  2sin x cos x =  sin x(1  2 cos x) (x + b)1/2 - (x + a)1/2
sin x dx sin xdx
=  b-a
dx
=  sin2x(1 + 2cosx) =  (1  cos2 x)(1  2 cos x) 1 2 3/ 2 2 
=  3 ( x  b)  ( x  a)3 / 2 
ba  3 
Now putting cos x = t, so that – sin x dx = dt, we get 2 1
= [(x + b)3/2 – (x + a)3/2] + c
dt dt 3 (b  a )
I =–  (1  t 2 )(1  2t ) =–  (1  t )(1  t )(1  2t )

 1 1 4  EXAMPLE 69
=–   6(1  t )  2(1  t )  3(1  2t)  dt, 3
x  x2  6 x
[Using partial fractions] Evaluate I =  x(1  3 x )
dx.

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 Indefinite Integration 1.25

SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 72
The least common multiple of the numbers 3 and 6 is 6,
therefore we make the substitution 2 2 x
x = t6, dx = 6t5 dt. Evaluate I =  (2  x)2 3
2 x
dx.
whence
SOLUTION
(t 6 + t 4 + t)t 5 The integrand is a rational function of x and the expression
I =6  6
t (1 + t ) 2 dt
2 x
3 , therefore let us introduce the substitution
2 x
t5 + t3 + 1
=6  1 + t2
dt
2x 2x
3 = t; = t3,
2x 2 x
t 3 (1 + t 2 ) dt
=6  1+ t 2
dt + 6 t 2
1
Whence

dt 2  2t 3 4t3 12t2
3

= 6 t dt  6  t2 1 x=
1 t3
;2–x=
1  t3
; dx =
(1  t3 )2
dt.

3 4
= t + 6 arc tan t + c
2  
2(1  t3 )2  12t2  dt
3
Returning to x, we obtain I = x2/3 + 6 arc tan
2
6
x + c. I=–  (4t3 )2
 t 
 1  t3 
2 
 
EXAMPLE 70
dt 3 2
3 3 3  2 x
(2 x  3)1/ 2 dx =–  t3 = 2 + C. We get I =   + c.
Evaluate I =  (2 x  3)1/ 3  1 . 2 4t 4  2  x 

SOLUTION dx
The integrand is a rational function of 6 2x  3 therefore
INTEGRAL OF THE TYPE X Y
WHERE

we put 2x – 3 = t6, whence X AND Y ARE LINEAR OR QUADRATIC

dx = 3t5 dt; (2x – 3)1/2 = t3; (2x – 3)1/3 = t2. EXPRESSION
3t 8 dt
I=  t 2  1 dt = 3  (t 6  t 4  t 2  1) dt + 3  1  t 2 EXAMPLE 73

dx
=3
t7
–3
t5 t3
+ 3 – 3t + 3 arc tan t + c
Integrate  (2 x  1) (4 x  3) w.r.t.x
7 5 3
SOLUTION
1 1 1
I = [ 7 (2x  3)7/6  5 (2x  3)5/6  3 (2x  3)1/2 Put 4x + 3 = t2, so that 4dx = 2tdt and
– (2x  3)1/6  arc tan(2x  3)1/6 ]  c
2(t 2  3) t2  3 t2 1
2x + 1 = +1= +1=
EXAMPLE 71 4 2 2
7 3
 1  x4 dx.
Evaluate 3
x 1
tdt
SOLUTION
Let x = t3
=  [(2 x  1)
dx
(4 x  3)]
=  1 (t 2  1)t
2

2
 dx = 3t2 dt

 t(1  t 
4 1/7 3 4 1/ 7
I= ) . 3t2 dt = 3 t (1  t ) dt dt  t  1
Let 1 + t4 = X7  4t3 dt = 7X6 dX
=  (t 2  1) = 12 log  t  1
3 21 8
 7X
7
= . dX  X + C. Therefore 1 (4 x  3)  1
4 32 = log + c.
2 (4 x  3)  1
21
I= (1 + x4/3)8/7 + C
32

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1.26 Indefinite Integration

EXAMPLE 74 1  1   1  1  t  1
= –  +   + log  t  1  + c
2  t  1  t  1 2  
x 2 dx
Evaluate  ( x  1) ( x  2)
.
 ( x  1)  1 
( x  1) 1
= – + log   +c
SOLUTION x 2  ( x  1)  1 
Put (x + 2) = t2, so that dx = 2t dt, Also x = t2 – 2.

x 2 dx (t 2  2)2 .2t dt EXAMPLE 76

  ( x  1) ( x  2)
=  (t 2  3) . t
dx
4
t  4t  4 2
 (1 + x) (1 - x 2 )
w.r.t.x
=2  t2  3
dt
SOLUTION
Put (1 + x) = 1/t, so that dx = – (1/t2) dx.
 2 1 
=2  t 1  2
 t 3
 dt , Also x = (1/t) – 1.
dx
dividing the numerator by the denominator   (1 + x) (1 - x 2 )
t 3
1 t 3
= 2  3  t  2 3 log t  3 
  1
 t2 
 
 ( x  2)3 / 2 ( x  2)  3 
 dt
1   
2
1 =  1 
= 2  ( x  2)  log  + c. 1     1 
 3 2 3 ( x  2)  3  t   t   


EXAMPLE 75 dt

dt
dx
= – 2
[t  (1  t ) ] 2 =–  (2t  1)
 x2 ( x  1)
w.r.t.x
1
 (2t  1)
1/ 2
SOLUTION = – . 2dt = – (2t  1)
2
Put (x + 1) = t2, so that dx = 2t dt. Also x = t2 – 1.
 2  1 x 
dx 2t dt = – 1  x  1 + c = –   + c.
 x2 ( x  1)
=  (t 2  1)2 .t    1 x 

EXAMPLE 77
dt
= 2  (t  1)2 (t  1)2 . dx
Evaluate  ( x2  1) ( x 2  1)
.

1  1 1 1 1  SOLUTION
=  2

 (t  1)

2 (t  1)

(t  1)
 
2 (t  1) dt,

1
1
Put x = , so that dx = –  t2  dt.
by partial fractions t  

1 dt dt 1 dt 1 dt
=
2
 (t  1)2 +
1
 (t  1) + 2  (t  1)2 –
2  (t  1) 
dt
t2
2 I =   1 
 1 
1
 1
 2
 t  t2
1  1  1 1  1 
–   + log (t + 1) –  
2  t  1 2 2  t  1 t 2 dt
= –
1  t2
1 t 2 (1  t 2 )
t
– log (t – 1) + c
2

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99, 8003899588
 Indefinite Integration 1.27

tdt 1 1.dt
=  1
 (t  1) 1
 (t  1)
1  t 
2
1  t2 =
2 2
t  t 1
. dt –
2 t2  t 1

Now put 1 + t2 = z2 so that t dt = z dz. Then

1 1
Let,I = I – I ....(i)
dz z 2 1 2 1 2 2
z 
zdz
I=–  2  z2
= 2
z 2
.=
2 2
log z  2
dt
(1  t 2 )  2
Where I1 =  (t  1) t2  t 1
and
1
= log
2 2 (1  t 2 )  2
dt

1 
1
 2
I2 =  (t  1) t2  t 1
put (t – 1) =
1
z
for I1,
1 x 2
= log 1 +c
2 2 1  2
 2
x 1
dz
z2
I1 = 1  1
2
 1
z 1  z   1    1
z
  
EXAMPLE 78
dz
dx
=–  2 2
3  3
Evaluate I =  2x 1  x (2  x)  1  x
.

 z    


2   2 

SOLUTION

dx  2 3
Here, I =  2x 1  x (2  x)  1  x
= – log  z  2   z  3 z  3
 
....(ii)

Put 1 – x = t2
1 dS
– dx = 2tdt For I2, put (t + 1) = ,I =–
S 2   1 3
2

2t dt S   
 2 4
I=–  2(1  t2 ).t 1  t2  t

 2 1
dt = – log  S  2   S  S  1 ....(iii)
=–  (1  t 2 ) 2
t  t 1
 

1 log  z 3  z 2  3 z  3  
dt  I=–   
=  (t  1)(t  1) t2  t 1
2   2 

1  1 2
+ log  S  2   S  S  1 + c
1  1 1  dt 2  
=
2   t  1  t  1  2
t  t 1
1 1
where, z = and S = .
1 x 1 1 x 1
 1 1 1 1 
  (t  1)(t  1)   2  t  1  t  1  
  

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1.28 Indefinite Integration

SECTION - F 1
SOME STANDARD SUBSTITUTION (1 x3) t2
INTEGRATION OF A BINOMIAL
1 2 /3
DIFFERENTIAL x dx  2tdt
3
x
m
The integral (a  bxn )p dx, where m, n, p are rational 1 3

numbers, is expressed through elementary functions only in I=6

 t 2 dt  2t 3  C  2(1  x 3 ) 2  C .
the following three cases :
Case I : p is an integer. Then, if p > 0, the integrand is
expanded using binomial Theorem; but if p < 0, then we EXAMPLE 81
put x = tk, where k is the common denominator of the fraction
1
and n. 

m1
Evaluate I =
 x 11 (1  x 4 ) 2 dx .
Case II : is an integer. We put a + bxn = t, where 
n SOLUTION
is the denominator of the fraction p.
1 m1 11  1 5
m1 Here p = – is a fraction, = = – also a
Case III : + p is an integer we put a + bxn = txn, 2 n 4 2
n
where  is the denominator of the fraction p. m 1 5 1
fraction, but + p = – – = – 3 is an integer, i.e. we
n 2 2

SOLVED EXAMPLE have case III, we put 1 + x4 = t2 x4,

Hence
EXAMPLE 79
1 tdt
x = ; dx = –
Evaluate I =  3
x (2  x ) 2 dx. (t 2  1)1/ 4 2(t 2 - 1)5/4

SOLUTION Substituting this expression into the integral, we obtain

1 1 1

 x 3 (2  x 2 )2 dx . Here p = 2, i.e. an integer, hence
I= 11  t2  2
1 tdt
I=–
2  (t 2  1) 4  2 
 t 1 
 
5
we have case I. 2(t2  1) 4

1 1 4 5 1 1 t5 t3 t
I=
 x3 (x  4x 2 
 4) dx = ( x 3  4 x 6  4 x 3 ) dx =–
2  (t 2  1)2 dt =
10
+
3
– + C.
2
Returning to x, we get
7 11 4
3 24
= x3 + x 6 + 3x 3 + c. 1 1
7 11 I=– (1  x4 )5 + (1  x4 )3
10x10 3x 6
EXAMPLE 80
1
1 3 x
– 1  x4 + C
2x3
Evaluate I =  3 2
x
dx.

SOLUTION EULER'S SUBSTITUTIONS

2 1 1
 2 1 1
I=
 x 3 (1  x 3 )2 dx . Here m = –
3
;n=
3
;p= ;
2
Integrals of the form  R ( x, ax 2  bx  c ) dx are calculated

 2 
with the aid of the three Euler substitutions.
   1
m 1  3  1. ax 2 +bx +c =t a is a > 0;
= 1 = 1, i.e. an integer..
n
3
2. ax 2 +bx +c =t  c if a > 0;
we have case II. Let us make the substitution. Hence,

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99, 8003899588
 Indefinite Integration 1.29

3. ax 2 +bx +c =  x -α t 
I  2 5 cos2  2 sin2  d

if ax2 + bx + c = a (x – ) (x – )
i.e. if  is real root of the trinomial ax2 + bx + c.

I  2 2  3 cos2  d

 1  cos 2 
 
I  2 2 d  3
2  d 

EXAMPLE 82
 3 3 sin 2 
I  2 2   
 2 2 2 
xdx
Evaluate I =  7 x  10  x 2
.
14 3
I  sin2
2 2
SOLUTION
3
In this case a < 0 and c < 0 therefore neither the first, nor I  7 tan1 t  sin2 tan1 t  c
2
the second, Euler substitution is applicable. But the quadratic
7x  10  x2
trinomial 7x – 10 – x2 has real roots  = 2,  = 5, therefore where t 
x 2
we use the third Euler substituion :

7 x  10  x 2 = ( x  2)(5  x) = (x – 2) t.
EXAMPLE 83

5  2t 2
Whence 5 – x = (x – 2) t2 ; x =
1 t 2 ; Evaluate  (x  1  x 2 )n dx .

SOLUTION

6tdt  5 + 2t 2 
dx = –
(1  t ) 2 2 ; (x – 2) t = 
 1+ t
2
- 2 t


Let I =  (x  1  x 2 )n dx

Put x + 1  x 2  t ....(i)
3t
= .
1  t2
 1 
 1  .2 x  dx  dt
 2 
 2 1 x 
5  2t2

 6t  dt
1  t 
2 2
1 t 2

Hence I =  3t  1  x2  x 
 
1  t2   1  x 2  dx  dt ....(ii)
 

5  2t2
I  2  (1  t 2 2
)
dt We know t = x + 1  x 2

Put t = tan  dt = sec2 d On rationalizing

5  2 tan  sec 2 2
 d
x  1  x2 -1
I  2  sec  4 = x + 1  x2 × =
x - 1 + x2
x  1  x2

 5  2 tan  cos
2 2
I  2  d

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1.30 Indefinite Integration

1 rational functions, power functions (x3), exponential functions

 t=x+ 1  x 2 and – t = x – 1  x 2
(ax), logarithmic functions trigonometric and inverse
trigonometric functions, hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic
substracting we get,
functions, and all functions that can be obtained from these
1 2t by the five operations of addition, substraction multiplication,
1
2 1  x2 = t + or = 2 ....(iii) division, and composition for instance, the function
t 1  x2 t 1

x2  1
2 f(x) = 3 + n (cosh x) – xesin 2x
t 1 x  2x 1
from (i), (ii) and (iii) we get dx = dt
2t 2
is an elementary function
If f is an elementary function, then f is an elementary
t2 1
 I=  tn.
(2t 2 )
dt
function but  f(x) dx need not be an elementary function.
2

n 1
Consider f(x) =ex . Since f is continuous, its integral exists,
1 1 t t n1  x
=
2  (t n  t n 2 ) dt =  
2  n  1 n  1 
 +c
and if we define the function F by F(x) = e
t2
dt then we
0
know from part 1 of the fundamental theorem of calculus
1 that F(x) = e x 2
 I = 2(n  1) [x + (1  x 2 ) ]
n+1

Thus, f(x) = e x 2 has an antiderivative F, but it has been

1 proved that F is not an elementary function.This means that
+ 2(n  1) (x + (1  x2 ) )n – 1 + c
no matter how hard we try, we will never succeed in
x2
evaluating e dx in term of the function we know. The
CAN WE INTEGRATE ALL CONTINUOUS
same can be said of the following integrals.
FUNCTION ?
The questions arises : Will our strategy for integration enable ex
us to find the integral of every continuous
 x
dx

 sin( x  cos(e
2


2 x
function ? For example, can we use it to evaluate e x dx ? ) dx ) dx

The answer is no, at least not in terms of the functions that 1 1 sin x
we are familiar with.  nx dx   nx dx  x
dx

The functions that we have been dealing with in this books

are called elementary functions. These are the polynomials,

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