Unit iv

1)Thin film metallic glasses- preparation -properties- applications:

Metallic glasses, also known as amorphous metals or glassy metals, are a class
of materials that possess a non-crystalline, disordered atomic structure. Unlike
conventional metals, which have a periodic arrangement of atoms in a
crystalline lattice, metallic glasses lack long-range order and exhibit a highly
disordered atomic arrangement similar to that of glass.
The atomic structure of metallic glasses is achieved through rapid cooling or
solidification of a molten metal alloy. By cooling the liquid metal at a
sufficiently high rate, the atoms are "frozen" in a disordered state, preventing
the formation of a regular crystal lattice. This process, known as quenching,
allows the atoms to retain their disordered arrangement even in the solid state.
Thin film metallic glasses (TFMGs) can be prepared through various techniques.
Here are a few commonly used methods for the preparation of TFMGs:
1. Sputtering: Sputtering is a widely used technique for depositing thin films. In
this method, a target composed of the desired metallic glass alloy is
bombarded with high-energy ions, causing atoms to be ejected from the target
surface. These atoms then condense on a substrate placed in close proximity,
forming a thin film. By controlling the sputtering parameters such as target
composition, substrate temperature, and deposition rate, TFMGs can be
obtained.
2. Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD): PVD encompasses various techniques such
as electron beam evaporation, thermal evaporation, and pulsed laser
deposition. In these methods, a metallic glass alloy is vaporized using an energy
source (e.g., electron beam, laser), and the vaporized atoms or clusters are
then deposited onto a substrate, forming a thin film. By carefully controlling
the deposition conditions, TFMGs with desired composition and properties can
be obtained.
3. Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE): MBE is a high-vacuum deposition technique
that allows precise control of the growth process at the atomic level. In MBE,
metallic elements are heated in separate effusion cells, and a molecular or
atomic beam of each element is directed towards the substrate. By carefully
adjusting the flux of the elements and the substrate temperature, thin films
with an amorphous structure can be achieved.
4. Magnetron Sputtering: Magnetron sputtering is a variation of the sputtering
technique where a magnetic field is applied near the target surface. This
enhances the sputtering process, resulting in a higher deposition rate and
improved film quality. By utilizing magnetron sputtering, thin film metallic
glasses can be fabricated.
It's important to note that the specific deposition parameters and conditions
may vary depending on the desired composition, film thickness, and the
equipment used. Additionally, post-deposition annealing or other treatments
may be necessary to optimize the properties of the thin film metallic glasses.
Metallic glasses possess a unique combination of properties that distinguish
them from conventional crystalline metals. Some key properties of metallic
glasses include:
1. Amorphous Structure: Metallic glasses have a disordered atomic structure at
the atomic scale, lacking the long-range order present in crystalline metals. This
amorphous structure gives them unique mechanical, electrical, and thermal
properties.
2. High Strength: Metallic glasses exhibit exceptional strength, often surpassing
that of crystalline metals. They have a high resistance to deformation and can
withstand large stress levels before undergoing plastic deformation or fracture.
3. High Hardness: Metallic glasses are typically harder than crystalline metals.
Their amorphous structure lacks dislocation networks found in crystalline
materials, resulting in improved hardness and resistance to wear and abrasion.
4. Elastic Deformation: Metallic glasses can undergo significant elastic
deformation without permanent plastic deformation. This property, known as
pseudoelasticity or superelasticity, enables metallic glasses to recover their
original shape after deformation, making them useful for applications requiring
high elasticity.
5. Good Corrosion Resistance: The absence of grain boundaries in metallic
glasses contributes to their excellent corrosion resistance. They are less
susceptible to corrosion compared to crystalline metals, making them suitable
for applications in corrosive environments.
6. Good Magnetic Properties: Depending on the composition, metallic glasses
can exhibit excellent magnetic properties, including high magnetization and
low coercivity. This makes them suitable for applications in magnetic storage,
electromagnetic devices, and sensors.
7. High Electrical Resistivity: Metallic glasses typically have higher electrical
resistivity compared to crystalline metals. This property can be advantageous
for applications that require materials with low electrical conductivity, such as
in microelectronic devices, sensors, and high-frequency applications.
8. Good Thermal Stability: Metallic glasses often exhibit high thermal stability,
allowing them to maintain their amorphous structure at elevated
temperatures. This property is essential for applications that involve high-
temperature environments or processes.
9. Ductility and Toughness: While metallic glasses are generally known for their
high strength, certain alloy compositions can exhibit significant ductility and
toughness. This property is crucial for applications requiring materials with a
balance between strength and deformability.
10. Processing Flexibility: Metallic glasses offer processing flexibility due to
their low crystallization temperature and ability to be formed into complex
shapes. They can be processed using various techniques, such as casting, rapid
solidification, and thin-film deposition.
It's important to note that the specific properties of metallic glasses can vary
depending on the alloy composition, processing method, and other factors.
Tailoring the composition and processing conditions allows for the optimization
of desired properties for specific applications.
Thin film metallic glasses (TFMGs) offer a range of promising applications due
to their unique properties and amorphous structure. Here are some notable
applications of TFMGs:
1. Microelectronics: TFMGs can be utilized in microelectronic devices, such as
integrated circuits and thin-film transistors. Their high electrical resistivity, low
dielectric constant, and good thermal stability make them suitable for use as
interconnect materials, passivation layers, and diffusion barriers.
2. Sensors and Actuators: TFMGs can be employed in various sensor
applications due to their high strength, high elasticity, and excellent fatigue
resistance. They can be used as sensing elements in strain gauges,
accelerometers, pressure sensors, and microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS). TFMGs can also serve as actuator materials for microactuators and
microvalves.
3. Optics and Photonics: TFMGs possess unique optical properties, including
high transparency in the visible and near-infrared regions. They can be used in
optical coatings, anti-reflection coatings, waveguides, and photonic devices.
TFMGs have also been explored for their potential in plasmonic applications
and metamaterials.
4. Magnetic Storage: TFMGs with suitable magnetic properties can be used in
magnetic storage devices, such as hard disk drives and magnetic sensors. The
absence of grain boundaries in TFMGs can enhance the stability of the stored
information and reduce the susceptibility to magnetic noise.
5. Biomedical Applications: TFMGs have shown promise in biomedical
applications due to their excellent corrosion resistance, high strength, and
biocompatibility. They can be used as coatings for medical implants to improve
their biocompatibility and reduce the risk of corrosion. TFMGs can also be
utilized in microfluidic devices for drug delivery and biosensing.
6. Protective Coatings: TFMGs can be employed as protective coatings for
various materials, offering enhanced hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion
resistance. They can be used to protect surfaces in cutting tools, molds, and
electronic devices from wear, oxidation, and chemical degradation.
7. Energy Applications: TFMGs have potential applications in energy-related
fields. They can be used as protective coatings for solar panels, improving their
durability and resistance to environmental degradation. TFMGs have also been
explored for their potential in hydrogen storage and as electrode materials in
energy storage devices.
These are just a few examples of the wide range of applications where thin film
metallic glasses can be utilized. Ongoing research and development in the field
continue to explore and expand the potential applications of TFMGs.

2) Peizoelectric materials-preparation -properties-

applications
Piezoelectric materials are a type of materials that generate an electric charge
when subjected to mechanical stress or, conversely, exhibit mechanical
deformation in response to an applied electric field. These materials have
found numerous applications in various fields. Let's explore their preparation
methods, properties, and applications.
Preparation of Piezoelectric Materials:
1. Natural Crystals: Some naturally occurring crystals, such as quartz,
tourmaline, and topaz, possess inherent piezoelectric properties and can be
used directly.
2. Synthetic Crystals: Piezoelectric crystals like lithium niobate (LiNbO3), lithium
tantalate (LiTaO3), and lead zirconate titanate (PZT) can be synthesized using
high-temperature solid-state reactions or solution-based methods.
3. Thin Films: Thin films of piezoelectric materials can be deposited on
substrates using techniques like physical vapor deposition (PVD) or chemical
vapor deposition (CVD).
4. Polymers: Certain polymers, including polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and its
copolymers, can exhibit piezoelectric behavior. These polymers can be
processed by stretching, poling, or electrospinning methods.
Properties of Piezoelectric Materials:
1. Piezoelectric Effect: Piezoelectric materials generate an electric charge
(voltage) when mechanically stressed or strained and undergo mechanical
deformation when an electric field is applied.
2. Piezoelectric Coefficient: This coefficient quantifies the conversion efficiency
between mechanical stress/strain and generated electrical charge/voltage.
Different piezoelectric materials have different coefficients, influencing their
applications.
3. Polarization: Piezoelectric materials have a permanent dipole moment due
to the arrangement of their atoms or molecules. This polarization contributes
to their piezoelectric properties.
4. Mechanical Stiffness: Piezoelectric materials exhibit mechanical rigidity and
can sustain high mechanical stress and strain.
Applications of Piezoelectric Materials:
1. Sensors and Transducers: Piezoelectric materials are extensively used in
sensors and transducers for measuring physical quantities like pressure, force,
acceleration, and vibration. They are commonly employed in medical
ultrasound imaging, industrial process control, and automotive applications.
2. Actuators: Piezoelectric actuators convert electrical energy into mechanical
motion and are used in precise positioning systems, optical devices,
nanopositioning stages, and valves.
3. Energy Harvesting: Piezoelectric materials can convert mechanical energy,
such as vibrations or motion, into electrical energy. They are used in devices
that scavenge energy from the environment, such as piezoelectric generators in
wearable electronics or self-powered sensors.
4. Sonar and Acoustic Applications: Piezoelectric materials are used in
underwater sonar systems, ultrasonic cleaning devices, and acoustic
transducers for generating and detecting sound waves.
5. Piezoelectric Motors: These motors use the piezoelectric effect to generate
precise and rapid motion in applications such as robotics, optics, and micro-
manipulation.
6. Piezoelectric Filters: These filters utilize the frequency-dependent properties
of piezoelectric materials to select or filter specific frequency ranges in
electronic circuits and communication systems.
These are just a few examples of the wide range of applications of piezoelectric
materials. Their unique properties make them invaluable in various
technological advancements across industries.

3)Thermoelectric materials:
Thermoelectric materials are substances that can convert heat energy into
electrical energy or vice versa through a phenomenon called the
thermoelectric effect. This effect occurs when there is a temperature gradient
across the material, leading to the generation of an electric potential
difference. Conversely, applying an electric current to the material can cause a
temperature gradient.
Thermoelectric materials have important applications in various fields,
including power generation, refrigeration, and temperature sensing. Some key
characteristics of a good thermoelectric material include:
1. High thermoelectric efficiency: This refers to the ability of the material to
convert heat energy into electrical energy efficiently. It is quantified by the
dimensionless figure of merit, ZT, which is a combination of the material's
electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient, and thermal conductivity.
2. Large Seebeck coefficient: The Seebeck coefficient is a measure of the
voltage generated per unit temperature difference across the material. A larger
Seebeck coefficient allows for greater voltage output.
3. High electrical conductivity: A high electrical conductivity enables efficient
transport of electrons, contributing to better thermoelectric performance.
4. Low thermal conductivity: To enhance the efficiency of thermoelectric
conversion, it is desirable for the material to have a low thermal conductivity.
This prevents the dissipation of heat and maintains the temperature gradient
necessary for generating electricity.

Several classes of materials exhibit thermoelectric properties, including:

1. Inorganic semiconductors: Materials such as bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), lead
telluride (PbTe), and antimony telluride (Sb2Te3) are commonly used in
commercial thermoelectric devices. They exhibit good thermoelectric
properties at room temperature and can be used for power generation and
cooling applications.
2. Organic materials: Some organic compounds, such as conducting polymers
and carbon nanotubes, have shown promising thermoelectric properties. They
offer advantages such as flexibility, low cost, and the ability to be processed
into various forms.
3. Intermetallic compounds: Certain intermetallic compounds, like
skutterudites (e.g., CoSb3) and half-Heusler compounds (e.g., TiNiSn), exhibit
high thermoelectric performance at elevated temperatures.
4. Nanostructured materials: Nanoscale engineering of materials, such as thin
films, superlattices, and nanostructured composites, can enhance
thermoelectric properties by reducing thermal conductivity and enhancing
electrical transport.
5. Complex materials: Complex materials, including certain oxides,
chalcogenides, and quasicrystals, have been explored for their unique
thermoelectric properties. They often exhibit interesting electronic structures
that can enhance thermoelectric performance.
Ongoing research in the field of thermoelectric materials focuses on
discovering new compounds, improving the efficiency of existing materials, and
exploring new fabrication techniques to advance the practical applications of
thermoelectric devices.

4)Self-cleaning materials:
Self-cleaning materials, also known as self-cleaning surfaces or smart surfaces,
are materials that have the ability to clean themselves or repel dirt, water, or
other contaminants without the need for external intervention or cleaning
agents. These materials can maintain their cleanliness and functionality over
extended periods, reducing the need for manual cleaning and maintenance.
There are different mechanisms employed by self-cleaning materials to achieve
their cleaning properties. Some common types include:
1. Hydrophobic or superhydrophobic materials: These materials have a high
water-repellent property. When water droplets come into contact with the
surface, they form spherical droplets that roll off, carrying away dust, dirt, and
other contaminants. Examples of hydrophobic materials include certain
coatings, polymers, and nanomaterials.
2. Photocatalytic materials: These materials have the ability to break down
organic contaminants when exposed to light, typically ultraviolet (UV) light.
They contain a photocatalyst, such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), which generates
reactive oxygen species when illuminated. These species can decompose
organic matter, such as dirt, pollutants, and even some bacteria, on the surface.
3. Self-cleaning glass: This type of glass incorporates a thin coating of a
photocatalytic material, such as titanium dioxide or a hydrophilic coating.
When exposed to UV light or rainwater, the coating breaks down organic
substances and helps water spread evenly, allowing it to wash away dirt and
grime more effectively.
4. Oleophobic materials: These materials repel oils and prevent their adhesion
to the surface. They are commonly used in applications where fingerprints,
grease, or oil smudges are a concern, such as touchscreen displays or kitchen
surfaces. Oleophobic coatings can be applied to various materials, including
glass, plastics, and metals.
5. Anti-adhesive surfaces: These materials have surface properties that prevent
the adhesion of dirt, oils, or other substances. They typically have micro- or
nanostructures that reduce the contact area, making it difficult for
contaminants to adhere. This effect is observed in nature, such as the lotus
leaf's ability to repel water and dirt due to its microstructure.
Self-cleaning materials find applications in various industries, including
architecture, automotive, electronics, textiles, and healthcare. They can be
used in building exteriors, solar panels, car coatings, clothing, electronic
devices, and medical equipment, among others, to improve durability,
aesthetics, and hygiene.
It is important to note that self-cleaning materials may require periodic
maintenance or environmental conditions (such as light exposure) to maintain
their cleaning properties. The effectiveness of self-cleaning materials can vary
based on factors like the type of contaminant, surface structure, and
environmental conditions in which they are used. Ongoing research is focused
on developing more advanced and efficient self-cleaning materials with
improved durability and broader applicability.
Self-cleaning materials possess unique properties that enable them to clean
themselves or repel dirt, water, or other contaminants. Here are some key
properties of self-cleaning materials:
1. Water and dirt repellency: Self-cleaning materials have a high degree of
water and dirt repellency. They exhibit hydrophobic or superhydrophobic
properties, which cause water droplets to form spherical shapes that easily roll
off the surface, carrying away dirt, dust, and other particles. This property
minimizes the adhesion of contaminants and allows for self-cleaning effects.
2. Low surface energy: Self-cleaning materials typically have a low surface
energy. This property makes the surface less attractive to water and oil,
reducing their ability to adhere to the material. As a result, the materials
remain cleaner for longer periods and require less frequent cleaning.
3. Self-cleaning mechanisms: Self-cleaning materials utilize various mechanisms
to achieve their cleaning properties. Some materials employ a combination of
micro- or nanostructures and low surface energy to create a self-cleaning
effect. Others incorporate photocatalytic coatings that break down organic
contaminants upon exposure to light, or oleophobic properties that repel oils
and prevent smudges.
4. Environmental stability: Self-cleaning materials should possess good
environmental stability to maintain their self-cleaning properties over extended
periods. They should be resistant to factors such as UV radiation, heat,
moisture, and chemical degradation. This stability ensures the longevity and
effectiveness of the self-cleaning functionality.
5. Ease of cleaning: Self-cleaning materials are designed to facilitate easy
cleaning when required. Even though they have self-cleaning properties,
occasional cleaning may still be necessary in certain situations. The materials
should allow for effortless removal of any remaining contaminants with
minimal effort, using simple cleaning methods such as water rinsing or gentle
wiping.
6. Durability: Self-cleaning materials should be durable to withstand regular use
and cleaning processes. They should maintain their self-cleaning properties
without significant degradation or loss of functionality over time. High
durability ensures that the materials can withstand mechanical stresses,
exposure to harsh environments, and routine cleaning without compromising
their self-cleaning abilities.
7. Application versatility: Self-cleaning materials can be applied to a wide range
of surfaces and materials, including glass, metals, plastics, textiles, and
ceramics. They can be engineered to form coatings, films, or integrated into the
material's structure to provide self-cleaning properties. This versatility allows
for their application in various industries and products, such as architecture,
automotive, electronics, textiles, and healthcare.
8. Energy efficiency: Self-cleaning materials contribute to energy efficiency by
reducing the need for manual cleaning, which can save water, time, and labor
costs. Additionally, certain self-cleaning mechanisms, such as photocatalytic
coatings, utilize sunlight or ambient light to activate the cleaning process,
minimizing the need for external energy sources.
These properties make self-cleaning materials highly desirable for applications
where cleanliness, maintenance reduction, and aesthetic appeal are important
considerations. Ongoing research aims to further enhance the properties and
develop more advanced self-cleaning materials for a wide range of practical
applications.
5)Chromogenic materials:
Chromogenic materials, also known as chromogenic compounds or smart
materials, are substances that can change their color or optical properties in
response to external stimuli such as light, heat, electric fields, or chemical
reactions. These materials have the ability to reversibly switch between
different states, allowing for dynamic control and manipulation of their color or
transparency.
There are several types of chromogenic materials, each with its own
mechanism of color change:
1. Photochromic materials: These materials undergo a reversible change in
color when exposed to light, typically ultraviolet (UV) light. The absorbed light
triggers a molecular rearrangement, causing the material to shift between
different electronic states and alter its absorption properties. Photochromic
materials can return to their original state when the light source is removed,
making them suitable for applications like sunglasses, smart windows, and
optical data storage.
2. Thermochromic materials: These materials change color with variations in
temperature. They can be reversible or irreversible, depending on the specific
material. Thermochromic pigments or inks are commonly used in products like
temperature indicators, baby bottles, mugs, and textiles, where the color
change provides a visual indication of temperature fluctuations.
3. Electrochromic materials: These materials change color in response to an
electric current or voltage. Applying an electrical stimulus causes ions or
electrons to migrate within the material, resulting in a change in the absorption
or reflection of light. Electrochromic materials are used in applications such as
smart windows, displays, and electronic paper, enabling dynamic control of
light transmission and opacity.
4. Electrofluorochromic materials: These materials exhibit reversible changes in
fluorescence properties in response to an electric field. They can switch
between emitting and non-emitting states, making them useful in applications
like sensors, displays, and optoelectronic devices.
5. Solvatochromic materials: These materials change color or absorbance based
on the polarity of the surrounding solvent. The solvent-induced changes affect
the electronic structure of the material, leading to variations in its optical
properties. Solvatochromic dyes are employed in chemical sensors and
indicators, allowing the detection of specific solvents or changes in solvent
composition.
Chromogenic materials have a wide range of applications, including smart
windows, displays, sensors, textiles, security features, and artistic expression.
They offer functionalities such as light modulation, energy efficiency,
environmental monitoring, and aesthetic appeal. Ongoing research focuses on
developing new chromogenic materials with improved performance, stability,
and responsiveness to different stimuli, expanding their potential applications
in various industries.
Chromogenic materials possess unique properties that enable them to change
their color or optical properties in response to external stimuli. Here are some
key properties of chromogenic materials:
1. Color change: Chromogenic materials can undergo a reversible or irreversible
change in color. They exhibit different hues or shades in response to specific
stimuli such as light, heat, electric fields, or chemical reactions. This property
allows for dynamic control and manipulation of their appearance.
2. Stimuli responsiveness: Chromogenic materials are responsive to specific
external stimuli. Different types of chromogenic materials exhibit
responsiveness to light (photochromic), temperature (thermochromic), electric
fields (electrochromic), solvents (solvatochromic), or a combination of these
factors. The color change is triggered by the presence or absence of the
stimulus.
3. Reversibility: Some chromogenic materials are reversible, meaning they can
return to their original state after the stimulus is removed. This reversibility
allows for repeated color switching or cycling between different states. Other
chromogenic materials may exhibit irreversible color changes, which can be
useful in certain applications where a permanent color change is desired.
4. Switching speed: The speed at which chromogenic materials change their
color can vary. Some materials exhibit rapid switching, enabling real-time color
changes, while others may have slower response times. The switching speed
depends on factors such as the material's molecular structure, the nature of
the stimulus, and the specific application requirements.
5. Stability: Chromogenic materials should have good stability to maintain their
color-changing properties over time. Stability includes resistance to
environmental factors such as light, heat, moisture, and chemical degradation.
Long-term stability ensures the reliability and durability of chromogenic
materials in practical applications.
6. Optical transparency: Chromogenic materials can exhibit different levels of
optical transparency in different states. In their colored or activated state, they
may absorb or reflect certain wavelengths of light, leading to reduced
transparency. In their deactivated or non-colored state, they may allow light to
pass through with minimal absorption or reflection, resulting in higher
transparency.
7. Compatibility and integration: Chromogenic materials can be engineered to
be compatible with various substrates and materials, allowing for their
integration into different systems and applications. They can be incorporated
into coatings, films, textiles, glass, plastics, or other materials to create
functional surfaces or structures with color-changing properties.
8. Control and tunability: Chromogenic materials offer the ability to control and
tune their color change properties. This can be achieved through adjusting the
intensity or duration of the stimulus, modifying the material's composition, or
designing specific structures or coatings to enhance the desired color-changing
effects.
These properties make chromogenic materials versatile and suitable for a wide
range of applications, including smart windows, displays, sensors, textiles,
security features, and artistic expression. Researchers continue to explore new
materials and fabrication techniques to enhance the properties and expand the
potential applications of chromogenic materials.