Faculty of Science & Technology

School of Engineering, IT & Physical Sciences

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINNERING
LABORATORY

Disclaimer:
Photos courtesy of Prof. Krishna Reddy, UIC unless stated otherwise.

Page 1
Content

Experiment 1 - Consistency (Atterberg) Limits …………………………. Page 3

Experiment 2 - Compaction Test ………………………………………… Page 6

Experiment 3 - Consolidation Test ………………………………………. Page 9

Experiment 5 - Unconfined Compression Test ………………………… Page 13

Experiment 5 - Triaxial Test ………………………………………………. Page 16

Page 2
 EXPERIMENT 1

CONSISTENCY (ATTERBERG) LIMITS

The tests are set up to determine the moisture content at which the soil changes from the
liquid to the plastic stage (Liquid Limit) and from the plastic to the solid state (Plastic Limit).
The consistency Limits (as these are called) are therefore expressed in terms of moisture
content of the soil.

Page 3
LIQUID LIMIT

The Liquid Limit of a soil is the lowest moisture content at which the soil behaves as a
liquid.

Apparatus:

Glass Plate
Spatulas
Liquid limit apparatus Standard grooving tool Moisture content equipment A.S. Sieve 425
µm.
Mortar and pestle
Mixing Bowl

Method:

1. Prepare a sample weighing at least 250 g, from the material passing the 425
micron sieve.

2. Place the sample in a mixing bowl and mix thoroughly with distilled water until the
mass becomes a thick homogeneous paste. Mixing time at least 5 minutes.

3. Place a portion of the paste into the cup, level off parallel to the base and form the
groove with the grooving tool.

4. Turn the crank at the rate of two revolutions per second so that the cup is lifted and
dropped until the two parts of the soil come into contact at the bottom of the groove
along a distance of about 10 mm. Record the number of blows at which this happens.

5, Remove about 10 g, of soil from the sample and determine its moisture content.
Record that result.

6. Return the sample to the mixing bowl and remix thoroughly. Clean and dry the cup
and the grooving tool.

7. Repeat from (2) until at least three readings are obtained within the range 40 to15
blows.

8. Plot moisture content vs. number of blows on semi-log paper with water content as
ordinates on the linear scale. Draw the straight line of best-fit. Determine the moisture
content corresponding to 25 blows on the abscissa. This is the LL of the soil (Liquid
Limit). Record to the nearest one per cent.

Page 4
PLASTIC LIMIT

The Plastic Limit of a soil is the lowest water content at which an air-dried soil behaves as a
plastic material.

Apparatus:

Glass plate
Mixing bowl
Spatulas
Moisture content equipment A.S. Sieve 425 µm
Mortar and pestle
Hand, human R, or L.

Method:

1. Prepare a sample weighing about 20 g, from the material passing the 425um sieve.

2. Thoroughly mix the sample with distilled water and knead until it becomes
homogeneous and plastic.

3. Take at least 6 g. of soil and shape it into a ball. Carefully roll the ball between the
hand and the glass plate, using just sufficient pressure to form the soil into a thread.
Continue rolling the thread, applying pressure so that its diameter is steadily reduced.

4. If the thread crumbles before the diameter reaches 3mm add a small quantity of
distilled water to the whole sample, remix and knead thoroughly.

5. If the soil thread rolls down to 3 mm diameter without crumbling, gather up the soil,
knead it together again and roll another thread.

6. Place the sample in the mixing bowl and mix thoroughly with distilled water until the
mass becomes a thick homogeneous paste Add sufficient water to bring it to or slightly
wetter than L.L. (15 to 25 blows)

7. Repeat 5 until crumbling of the thread occurs when the diameter is 3mm. Gather the
portions of crumbled soil thread into a container and determine the moisture content.
This is the P.L. of the soil.

8. Make at least two completely separate determinations. Record the average as the
Plastic Limit (to the nearest one per cent).

Page 5
 EXPERMENT 2

SOIL COMPACTION TEST

The strength of an engineering soil can be improved by compacting it, by rolling, ramming or
vibration. Compaction packs the solid particles of the soil more closely together by expelling air
from the soil. There is not enough time for water to be expelled during compaction of cohesive
soils. However, water can be expelled from cohesive soils due to continuous application of
pressure over a long period. This process is called consolidation, as distinct from compaction.
Both processes result in a reduction in volume of the soil.

The amount of compaction achieved in a soil for a given compactive effort depends on the
moisture content of the soil. The state of compaction of the soil is measured by the dry density.

Page 6
STANDARD PROCTOR COMPACTION

This test determines the relation between the water content and the dry density of a soil. The
soil is compacted using a standard compactive effort (596 kJ/m³). Samples having different
water content are compacted, and the water content which coincides with the maximum dry
density is determined. This moisture content is called the Standard Optimum Moisture Content
(SOMC).

Apparatus:
Mould { metal cylinder, 105 mm ID and 115. 5 mm effective height with base plate and
collar. (Volume V = 1000 cm3) }
Rammer (50 mm diameter, 2.7 kg mass, free fall 300 mm).
Balance
Spatula
Steel straight-edge
Air-tight containers.

Procedure:

1. The sample should consist of about 20 kg of material passing the 19 mm sieve. Obtain
by quartering six representative portions each approximately 2.5 kg.

2. Thoroughly mix each portion in a mixing bowl with a suitable amount of water using
small increments. Select the quantities of water added so that the moisture contents of
the six portions straddle the expected optimum water content. Note that for a fine-
grained soil, the Plastic Limit gives a useful indication of the S.O.M.C. but not exact.
Water content of the six portions should vary by an increment of about 2 per cent. After
mixing, the soil portions should be left to cure for about 24 hours.

3. Weigh the mould to the nearest 5 g, (M1). Position the collar and place the assembly
on the foundation of the machine.

4. Take one of the prepared portions, thoroughly mix it and compact it into the mould in
three layers not varying in compacted thickness by more than 5 mm. Compact each
layer by 25 blows of the hammer. For the third layer use only sufficient soil to slightly
overfill the mould, leaving not more than 5 mm to be struck after removing the collar.

5. Carefully remove the collar and level the compacted soil to the top of the mould by
means of the straight-edge.

6. Weigh the mould and base plate plus soil to nearest 5 g (M2).

7. Remove the soil specimen from the mould and obtain a representative sample from the
specimen. Determine the moisture content, w of the sample.

8. Repeat steps 4 to 6 with the other portions of the prepared soil.

Page 7
Calculations
γt
1. The dry unit weight γd can be computed from γd =
1+ m

where γt = wet unit weight of the soil

= W (g) × 9.81 (kN/m3)
V (cm 3 )
W = mass of the wet compacted soil sample
V = volume of soil
m = moisture content of the compacted soil

The moisture content is calculated using m = Ww = W − Ws

Ws Ws
Where Ws = mass of the dry soil sample
Ww = mass of water

Plot the dry densities obtained in the series of compaction tests against the corresponding
water contents. Draw in a smooth curve and determine the maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content and plot the Zero Air Voids Line, from the equation.

Record the Standard Maximum Dry Density to the nearest 0.01 kg/m³ and the Standard
Optimum Moisture Content to the nearest 0.5%.

Gγ w
2. To plot the zero air void curve γ d =
1 + (mG/S)

where G = specific gravity of the soil (assume G =2.70)

γw = unit weight of water 9.81 kN/m3 (or density 1.0 g/cm3)
S = degree of saturation

For zero-air-voids or 100% saturation, S = 1.

Report

Your report should include the following:

1. A description of the soil.

2. A sample of the calculations used to determine dry density and moisture content.

3. A plot showing the variations of dry density with moisture content.

4. On the same plot draw the zero-air voids line for this soil.

5. The optimum moisture contents and maximum dry densities.

6. Calculate the degree of saturation of the soil at the optimum moisture content.

7. Discussion of the accuracy and reliability of the various results.

Page 8
 EXPERIMENT 3

CONSOLIDATION TEST

The objective of the consolidation test is to estimate the rate and magnitude of primary
consolidation settlements. The test results can also be used to find out the pre consolidation
pressure and compression index of the given soil. Several other parameters most of which are
dependent on the loading range (pressure range) such as coefficient of consolidation (cv) and
coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) and coefficient of permeability can also be estimated
using consolidation experimental data.

Consolidation settlement takes place in saturated cohesive soils due to expulsion of water from
void space as a result of a stress increase. When soil layer is subjected to a stress increase,
there is a corresponding increase in the equilibrium pore water pressure. As a result, a process
of dissipation of excess pore water pressure begins and this process leads to gradual
reduction in the soil volume resulting a soil settlement.

Photo from
http://www.soilengineeringtesting.com/consol.html

Page 9
Apparatus

Consolidometer (oedometer)
Dial indicators
Loading device
Stop watch or a timer
Sample preparation and trimming equipment
Balances
Water content cans

Method

1. Measure the diameter, height and weight of the consolidometer ring.

1. Prepare the test specimen either by trimming into the ring or remoulding to the required
density and water content.

2. Weigh the ring + soil specimen. Using additional soil from the same soil, determine the
specific gravity and the initial water content.

3. Place saturated porous plates on either side of the soil specimen and inundate the ring
in the consolidometer, filled with water.

4. Place the consolidometer into the loading device and attach the dial gauge.

5. Apply a seating load of 5 kPa for a soft soil and 10 kPa for a stiff soil.

6. After 5 mins of application of seating load, set the dial gauge to zero.

7. At a convenient starting time, apply the first loading increment and simultaneously,
take the deformation readings (dial gauge readings) at specified elapsed times of 6
sec, 12 sec, 30 sec, 1 min, 2 min, 4 min, 7 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, 4 hr, 8hr, 24
hr.

8. After 24 hrs, increase the load to the next value and repeat step (viii).

9. Continue the steps (viii) and (ix) for the required load increments.

10. After the test, remove and weigh the ring + soil specimen and leave it in the oven for
the determination of final water content.

Page 10
Calculations and Report

Your report should include:

1. A plot of void ratio (e) versus log σ' and the values of Cc and Cr for this soil.

The final void ratio can be determined from the final moisture content, assuming the soil is
saturated, using .ef = wf Gs, where Gs is the specific gravity (2.6 for this soil), and wf is the
final moisture content. Alternatively the final void ratio can be calculated from the dry mass
and the final volume (height × area).

To calculate the void ratio at other stages of the test we make use of the relation between
change of volume and change of void ratio

∆V ∆e
=
V 1 + e

and because the cross-sectional area is constant Δh/h = ΔV/V we can write

∆h
∆e = (1 + e)
h

2. Estimate the pre-consolidation σ'pc from the e, log σ' plot using Cassagrande's method. The
procedure, illustrated in Figure 2, is to determine the point (A) of maximum curvature on the
e, log σ' plot, draw a horizontal line (AB) and tangent to the curve (AD) through A, and draw
a line bisecting these lines AC. The value of the effective stress where the bisector line AC
meets the extended portion of the straight line part of the e, log σ' plot (P) gives the pre-
consolidation pressure.

A
P α/2
α/2
Void Ratio e

σ′vm E

Vertical Stress σ′ (log scale)

Figure 2: Procedure for determining the pre-consolidation pressure

Page 11
3. For a selected stress range, determine Cv and mv.

The coefficient of consolidation cv can be estimated by the square root time method. Plot
the dial gauge readings against the square root of time as iIIustrated in Figure 3. To
determine cv proceed as follows:

(i) Obtain the true zero reading by extrapolating the initial straight line to zero time (The
theory predicts an initial linear response). The difference between this zero and the
initial zero reading represents compression in parts of the apparatus, and should be
allowed for when calculating the height changes of the sample.

(ii) Construct a line from the corrected zero point where the abscissae of the line are
1.15 times the abscissae of the straight line approximation of the experimental curve.
The intersection of this line with the consolidation curve gives the time corresponding
to 90% primary consolidation.

0 1min 4min 9min 16min 25min 36min 49min 64min

30s 2min t 90

Initial reading
Calculated zero
primary
consolidation
Dial Gauge Reading

90% Primary
consolidation
χ
1.15χ

Figure 3 Settlement versus square root of time plot

(iii) According to the one-dimensional consolidation theory the time factor Tv has a value
of 0.848 after 90% consolidation. The value of cv may therefore be calculated by
fitting the experimental curve to the theory giving:
0.848 H 2
cv =
t 90
where H is the maximum drainage path. In this experiment H is equal to half the
thickness of the specimen during a load increment as drainage occurs from both ends
of the sample.

(iv) Comment on the factors that influence cv and the accuracy of the estimated value.

Page 12
 EXPERIMENT 4

UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength, which is
then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under
unconfined conditions. The unconfined compressive strength (qu) is defined as the
compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple
compression test. In addition, in this test method, the unconfined compressive strength is
taken as the maximum load attained per unit area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial
strain, whichever occurs first during the performance of a test.

For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for the determination of the bearing
capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is commonly
determined from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength (su) of a
cohesive soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive strength (qu) when the soil is
under the ø = 0 condition (ø = the angle of internal friction). The most critical condition for the
soil usually occurs immediately after construction, which represents undrained conditions,
when the undrained shear strength is basically equal to the cohesion (c).

Page 13
Test Procedure:

1. Prepare a cylindrical test specimen either from extruding from the Shelby tube sampler
and trimming OR remoulding to the required density and water content, keeping the
length to diameter ratio (L/d) is approximately between 2 and 2.5.
(L and d are the length and diameter of soil specimen, respectively.)

2. Measure and record the diameter, length and the mass of the test specimen.

3. Use additional soil from the same soil batch to determine water content.

4. Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and centre it on the bottom
plate. Adjust the device so that the upper plate just makes contact with the specimen
and set the load and deformation dials to zero.

5. Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a rate of 0.5% to 2.0% per
minute, and then record the load and deformation dial readings on the data sheet at
every 20 to 50 divisions on deformation the dial.

6. Keep applying the load until one of the following occurs:

(1) the load (load dial) decreases on the specimen significantly,
(2) the load holds constant for at least four deformation dial readings, or
(3) the deformation is significantly past the 15% strain.

7. Remove the sample from the compression device and record any visible failure planes.

8. Weigh the sample and leave in the oven for water content determination.

Results

1. Plot Stress – strain graph and estimate the maximum stress.

2. Draw Mohr Circle and determine undrained shear strength.

Page 14
Calculations:

(1) Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and enter these
values on the data sheet in the deformation and total load columns.
(Confirm that the conversion is done correctly, particularly proving dial gage readings
conversion into load)

(2) Compute the sample cross-sectional area

π 2
A0 = d
4

(3) Compute the strain,

∆L
e=
L0

(4) Compute the corrected area,

Ao
A′ =
1− e

(5) Using A’, compute the specimen stress,

P
σc =
A′

(Be careful with unit conversions and use constant units).

(6) Compute the water content, w%.

(7) Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15% strain) of the test.
Be sure that the strain is plotted on the abscissa. See example data.

(8) Draw Mohr’s circle using qu from the last step and show the undrained shear
strength, su = c (or cohesion) = qu/2. .

Page 15
 EXPERIMENT 5

TRIAXIAL TEST
Triaxial shear strength test on soil measures the mechanical properties of the soil. In this
test, soil sample is subjected to stress, such that the stress resulted in one direction will be
different in perpendicular direction. The material properties of the soil like shear
resistance, cohesion and the dilatancy stress is determined from this test. The test is most
widely used and is suitable for all types of soils.

Photo from
http://www.soilengineeringtesting.com/consol.html

There are two stages of application of stresses on the soil specimen in a triaxial
compression test:

Stage 1 - Consolidation (confining stage) = Application of Cell Pressure:

Stage 2 – Shearing Stage = Application of Deviator Stress until the sample fails.

Page 16
Types of Shear Tests Based on Drainage Conditions:

Three types of shear tests are commonly used in the triaxial compression test, depending
on the drainage conditions in the field.

They are:

1. Unconsolidated undrained (UU) test.

2. Consolidated undrained (CU) test.

3. Consolidated drained (CD) test.

In all three types of tests based on drainage condition listed above, the first letter (C or U)
refers to the drainage condition during consolidation (Confining) stage. If drainage is
allowed during consolidation stage, the test is called “consolidated (C),” as in test types 2
(CU) and 3 (CD). If drainage is not allowed during consolidation stage, the test is called
“Unconsolidated (U),” as in test type-1 (UU).

Thus, it may be seen that drainage is not allowed in the UU test during consolidation stage
(during application of the cell pressure) and is allowed in the CU and CD tests.

Page 17
Apparatus
The main apparatus for triaxial compression test is the triaxial cell with all its accessories.
The triaxial cell is a high-pressure cylindrical cell made of Perspex or other transparent
material fitted between the base and the top cap.

The triaxial cell assembly with all accessories is shown schematically below.

Page 18
The soil specimen is cylindrical in shape with 38 mm diameter and 76-mm height,
enclosed in a rubber membrane between solid or porous discs at top and bottom. The
triaxial cell is filled with a cell fluid through the cell fluid inlet, during which the air-release
valve is kept open. Pressure is increased in the cell fluid to cause 3D consolidation of the
soil specimen.

The pore water from the soil specimen escapes through the top and bottom drainage
tubes during consolidation under cell pressure. The O-rings prevent entry of cell fluid into
the voids of the soil specimen. The additional axial load is applied through the loading ram.
The rubber sealing ring prevents escape of cell fluid from the triaxial cell and helps to
maintain constant cell pressure.

Preparation of Soil Specimen for Triaxial Compression Test:

Undisturbed soil specimen of 38 mm diameter and 76-mm height (2:1 height-to-diameter

ratio) may be obtained using a split mold from an undisturbed soil sampler. Alternately,
compacted soil specimens at the required water content and dry density may also be
prepared by static or dynamic compaction to determine the shear strength of the
compacted fills.

Assembly of the Apparatus for Triaxial Compression Test:

1. The soil specimen is enclosed in a rubber membrane with filter paper and solid or
porous discs at the top and bottom. Solids discs are used to conduct undrained test.
The soil specimen is enclosed in the rubber membrane to prevent entry of cell fluid
into the voids of the soil specimen. The soil specimen in rubber membrane is mounted
on the pedestal of the triaxial cell and fixed in position with the help of O-rings.

2. The triaxial cell is fixed to its bottom. The cell fluid inlet and air-release valve are
opened and the triaxial cell is completely filled with the cell fluid through the cell fluid
inlet. Oil or water may be used as a cell fluid. The air-release valve and the cell fluid
inlet are then closed.

3. The triaxial cell is mounted on the loading platform of triaxial testing machine. The
loading ram is brought in contact with the top of the specimen. The proving ring and
the axial deformation dial gauges are fixed in position.

Page 19
Test Procedure for Triaxial Compression:

There are the following two stages of application of stresses on the soil specimen in a
triaxial compression test:
Stage 1 - Consolidation (confining stage) = Application of Cell Pressure:
During this stage, Horizontal stress = Vertical stress = Cell pressure

Stage 2 – Shearing Stage = Application of Deviator Stress:

During this stage, –
Horizontal stress = Cell pressure = Minor principal stress Þ σh = σ3
Vertical stress = Cell pressure + Deviator stress = Major principal stress Þ σv = σ3 + σd =
σ1

1. The pressure of the cell fluid is increased to the desired value by a lateral pressure
assembly apparatus.

a) For undrained test, the soil specimen can be sheared under additional axial load
immediately after application of the cell pressure, keeping the drainage valve
closed.

b) In case of a drained test, the soil specimen is allowed to consolidate under the
cell pressure before the applica­tion of additional axial load, keeping the drainage
valve open during the application of cell pressure and the deviator stress. The
additional axial load is applied at a constant rate of axial strain until the load
reaches a peak value and then decreases.

c) In case pore pressure is required to be measured during the undrained test, the
drainage valves are connected to the Bishop’s pore pressure apparatus, during
the application of both cell pressure and deviator stress. The Bishop’s pore
pressure apparatus.

2. When the soil specimen fails under a maximum deviator stress, the additional axial
load is removed and the cell pressure is reduced to zero. The air-release valve is
opened and the triaxial cell is completely emptied of the cell fluid. The specimen
assembly is dismantled, the soil specimen is removed, and its final water content is
deter­mined. The mode of failure of soil specimen either by plastic or by brittle
failure is noted. If the specimen fails by brittle failure, the angle of failure plane with
horizontal is noted. The test is repeated on identical soil specimens at different cell
pressures of 100, 200, and 400 kN/m2.

Page 20
Calculation of Principal Stresses for Triaxial Compression Test:
The direction of principal stresses is known in the triaxial compression test. The minor
principal stress is horizontal, equal to cell pressure, and major principal stress is vertical.
The magnitude of cell pressure is directly indicated by the dial gauge of the lateral
pressure assembly apparatus.

So the minor principal stress = σ3 = cell pressure

and the major principal stress = σ1 = σ3 + σd

The deviator stress σd at failure is calculated from

σd = Deviator load at failure /Af

The area at failure Af depends on the whether the test is a drained or an undrained test.

Area at the Time of Failure in Drained Test:

In a drained test, where the soil specimen is consolidated under the cell pressure, the
volume change is measured with the help of a burette. The volume of the soil specimen at
any stage of consolidation may be obtained from –

VoVi ± ΔV …(13.22)
The area at failure under deviator load is determined from the relation –

where Vi is the initial volume of the specimen at the beginning of the test, li the initial length
of the specimen at the beginning of the test, ԑv the volumetric strain, and ԑ1 the axial strain
during the application of the deviator load.

Area at the Time of Failure in Undrained Test:

In undrained test, the soil specimen does not undergo any volume change during the
application of cell pressure. The area at failure is calculated from the relation –

Af = Ao/(1 – ԑ1) …(13.27)

where ԑ1 is the axial strain during the application of the deviator load.

Page 21
Determination of Shear Strength Parameters for Triaxial Compression Test

The set of principal stresses on three or four identical soil specimens are used to draw the
Mohr stress circles. A common tangent is drawn to these Mohr stress circles, which is the
failure envelope for the soil. The y-intercept and slope of the failure envelope give the
cohesion and angle of shearing resistance for the soil, respectively.

UU Triaxial Test Results

Page 22