Computer Network IMP Que-Ans

CN Assignment-1-Que-Ans

Q-1 :- Define Computer network. Explain all different types of

networks.
Ans :-

 Computer Network :- A computer network is a network system that connects

two or more computing devices for transfering information.

 Computer network connection can be established using either cable or

wireless media. Hardware and software are used to connect computers and tools
in any network.

 There are following types of computer networks :-

(1) Personal Area Network (PAN) :-

 PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is used for connecting the
personal computer devices.

 PANs have a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device.

 Common technologies used in PANs include Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee.

 Examples of PAN devices include USB, computers, phones, tablets, printers,

and PDAs.

(2) Local Area Network (LAN) :-

 LANs are the most frequently used networks. They connect computers through
a common communication path within a limited area (usually locally).

 LANs typically involve two or more computers connected over a server.

 LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

 LANs cover areas up to 2 kilometers and it offer high transmission speeds, easy
maintenance, and low cost.

 Examples of LANs include home networks, school networks, libraries,

laboratories, and office networks.

(3) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) :-

 A MAN connects computers over a geographical distance within a city, town,

or metropolitan area.

 Government agencies use MAN to connect the citizens and private industries.

MANs use technologies such as FDDI, CDDI, and ATM.

Their range extends from 5 to 50 kilometers.

Transmission speed is average, but maintenance can be challenging and costly.

 Examples of MANs include networks in towns, cities, large areas within

multiple buildings, etc...

(4) Wide Area Network (WAN) :-

 WANs connect computers over large geographical areas such as states or

countries.

 WANs use various technologies, including leased lines, satellites, and the
Internet.

 WAN Covers above 50 KM range of coverage network.

 Transmission speed varies, and maintenance can be complex in WAN.

 Examples of WANs include global corporate networks, internet service
providers, and intercontinental connections.

Q-2 :- Explain OSI reference model with brief functionality of each

layer.
Ans :- OSI Model stands for “Open Systems Interconnection”.

 OSI reference model describes that how transfer information from one
computer to the another computer using medium.

 There are seven layers of OSI Model :- (1) Physical Layer (2) Data Link Layer (3)
Network Layer (4) Transport Layer (5) Session Layer (6) Presentation Layer (7)
Application Layer.

(1) Physical Layer :- Physical layer is the lowest level of the OSI model. It
consist various network devices such as connectors , receivers , plugs , modems ,
repeaters , cables , Hubs etc …

 The quality of data is maintained by the physical layer by applying the

protocols and maintaining the data bit rate.

 Functions of physical layer :-

(1) Establishment of physical connections :- For data transmission from one

system to another system the request is passed by the data link layer to the
physical layer at that time the physical connection is activated by the physical
layer.

 When the sender at one side for transmission of data and the reciever for
receive the data at another side at that time physical connection is established by
physical layer and it provides half-duplex and full-duplex transmission of data.

(2) Modulation of signals :- Modulation is a technique that converts data into

radio wave signals.

 Modulation can be apply by adding information to electrical or optical signals.

(3) Sequential delivery of data :- The physical layer delivers the data bits in the
same sequence as they are received by the data link layer,

 Physical layer provides the sequential delivery of data with error control
mechanism or flow control mechanism. If these mechanishm are not used by
physical layer then sometimes the database may be duplicated , lost or can be
altered.

(4) Service primitive :- The physical layer consists three types of primitive phases
that are the activation phase , the deactivation phase and the transfer phase.

 The service names associated with each service primitives are given below:

1. Activation phase :-

Ph. ACTIVATE. request

Ph. ACTIVATE. Indication

2. Deactivation Phase :-

Ph. DEACTIVATE. request

Ph. DEACTIVATE. Indication

3. Data Transfer Phase :-

Ph. DATA. request

Ph. DATA. Indication

(5) Data Transparency :- The physical layer provides the trasparency of data
which means that the bit sequences can be transmitted over the transmission
channel without any restriction.

 The data link layer provides one bit in serial transmission and “n” bits in a
parallel transmission to the physical layer.
(2) The Data Link Layer :- Data link layer is the second layer from bottom in
OSI reference model.

 DLL is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of data , encoding , decoding

and organizing the input and output data.

 Functions Of Data link layer :-

(1) Framing :- The data link layer receives packets from network layer it is known
as “Frame”.

 DLL divides that packets into small frames then sends each frame bit-by-bit to
the physical layer.

 At receiver side , DLL takes bits from the physical layer and organizes them into
frame and sends them to the network layer.

(2) Addressing :- The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The addressing mechanism facilates communication beween
devices.

(3) Error Control :- Data can get corrupted due to various reasons like noise ,
attenuation etc … So , it is the responsibility of DLL , to detect the error in the
transmitted data and correct it using error detection and correction techniques.

 DLL adds error detection bits into the frame’s header , so that receiver can
check received data is correct or not.

(4) Flow Control :- If the receiver’s receiving speed is lower than the sender’s
sending speed, then this can lead to an overflow in the receiver’s buffer and some
frames may get lost. So, it’s the responsibility of DLL to synchronize the sender’s
and receiver’s speeds and establish flow control between them.

(5) Access Control :- When multiple devices share the same communication
channel that time there is high probability of clashing.
 So it is the responsibility to check which device has control over the channel
and clashing detection and clashing avoidance can be used to avoid the clashing
of communication channel.

(3) Network Layer :- The main job of network layer is to maintain the quality of
the data and pass it from source to destination.

 Functions of network layer :-

(1) Assigning the logical address :- It is responsible for assigning logical addresses
to devices either sending or receiving data packets.

 Network layer consist the IP Address for both receiver and sender.

 IP Address has two part that are Host ID and Network ID. Using the Host ID :- It
can be confirmed that the packets were sent by the authorized sender. Using the
Network ID :- It can be confirmed that packets are received by the desired
receiver.

(2) Routing :- Routing is the process of identyfying the best path to transmit the
packets.

 Numerous routers are used to findout best path to transit data packets using
routers.

 There are multiple routers between the sender and receiver , so the data
packets are routed by using all the available routers.

(3) Host-to-Host Delivery :- It is also known as Forwarding.

 Forwarding is the process in which the network layer transits or forwards the
data packets via routers.

 Network layer ensures that packets are forwards from each router to the
another router until it reches the destination securely.

(4) Logical subnetting :- Network layer allows a bigger network to be divided into
smaller chunks known as Logical subnetting.
 It helps the IP address to be used more efficiently and less amount of IP
address will be wasted.

(5) Error Handling :- Network layer uses varoius error detection techniques like
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) , Checksum etc …

 Network layer uses ACK messages to determine whether packets has been
succcessfully reached or not. If there is negative ACK then it means packets with
errors and receiver will ask to the sender to resend the packets.

(4) Transport Layer :- The transport layer is positioned between the network
and session layers in the OSI reference model.

 The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end communication of data

packets.

 Functions of Transport Layer :-

(1) Service-Point Addressing :- The header with the address known as a service-
point address it is functioned by the transport layer.

 In transport layer data is transmitted from one source to the destination with
connecting different service-point address.

(2) Data Reassembly :- The transport layer reassembles the message or data that
are based on sequence of numbers.

(3) Connection Control :- Transport layer has two types of connection control
services that are connection-oriented and connection-less services.

(4) Flow Control :- In transport layer it is possible for sender to transit data or
information at very fast rate and receiver can receive and process it.

(5) Error Control :- In Transport layer Error control ensures that data is received to
the destination without any error.
(5) Session Layer :- Session layer allows users on different machines to
establish active communication sessions between them.

 This layer is responsible for establishing , maintaining , synchronizing ,

terminating session between end-users.

 Functions of session layer :-

(1) Dialog Controller :- Session layer works as a dialog controller , It allows

systems to communicate in either half-duplex or full-duplex mode for
communicaion.

(2) Synchronizing of data :- It is also responsible for synchronizing data from the
different sources.

(3) Fetching data :- This layer is fetching or receving data or information from
transport layer and send it to the presentation layer.

(4) Connections :- This layer control single or multiple connections for each-end
user application and directly communicates with presentation and transport
layer.

(5) Mechanishm :- This layer provides mechanishm for opening , closing and
managing a session between end-user application process.

(6) Presentation Layer :- It provides or define the data format and encryption.
It is also called as syntax layer and it is also responsible for maintaing the proper
syntax of the data.

 Functions of Presentation Layer :-

(1) Data Efficiency :- This layer ensures that the data is sent that will understand
by the reciever efficiently and effectively.

(2) Encryption and Decryption :- This layer carries out the encryption for the
transmitter and decryption for the receiver.
(3) Data abstraction :- This layer manages the abstraction of data and allows high-
level data structure.

(4) Standardished data format :- This layer is responsible for integrating all the
formats into standardished data format for effective communication.

(5) Accurate Format of data :- This layer ensures that the data is to be the upper
layer as well as lower layer and accurate format.

(7) Application Layer :- The Application Layer directly interacts with

application and provides common web application services. This layer is basically
highest level of open system, which provides services directly for application
process.

 Functions of application layer :-

(1) Storage Facility :- This layer provides data storage facility to the user.

(2) Files management :- This layer allows users to access , retrieve and manage
files in a remote computer.

(3) Access Network Services :- This layer serves application process to the end-
user for access network services.

(4) Synchronizing communication :- This layer helps to user to identifying

communcation partners and synchronizing communication.

(5) Interaction with OS :- This layer basically interact with operating system and
preserves the data in a suitable manner.
Q-3 :- Differentiate connection-oriented and connection-less services.
Ans :-

Connection-oriented Services Connection-less Services

Connection-oriented service is related to Conection-less service is related to the
the telephone system. postal system.
Connection-oriented service required a Connection-less service does not required
setup phase for data transmission. setup phase for data transmission.
Connection-oriented service is used to Connection-less service is used to create
create connection between senders and connection between senders and receivers
recievers using different networks. without any connection.
Connection-oriented service is preferred by Connection-less Service is preferred by
long and fixed communication. bursty communication.
Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give a
guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.
Connection-oriented requires Connection-less Service does not require
authentication. authentication.
Connection-oriented services required high Connection-less Service required low range
range bandwidth. bandwidth.
Connection-oriented Service is necessary. Connection-less Service is not compulsory.
Ex :- TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex :- UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Q-4 :- Differentiate copper wire and fiber optics.

Ans :-

Copper Wires Fiber optic Wires

It carries data in the form of electric signals. It carries data in the form of light.
It offers lower bandwidth. It offers higher bandwidth.
It is heavier and thicker. It is thin , lighter in weight and smaller in size.
Attenuation is high in copper wires. Attenuation is very low in fiber wires.
In this wires data travel can be affected by In this wires data travel can be not affected by
the electrical and magnetic interfaces. the electrical and magnetic interfaces.
Copper wires can not be easily breakable. Fiber wires can easily brekable.
Copper wires installation cost is less than Fiber wires installation cost is high than
fiber wires. copper wires.
There are cross-talk problem can be held in There is no cross-talk problem can be held in
 copper wires. fiber wires.
Bandwidth size of copper wire is 10 Gbps. Bandwidth size of fiber wire is 60 Tbps.
Q-5 :- Explain ARPANET in detail.
Ans :- ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency Net.

 ARPANET was introduced in year 1969 by Advanced Research Project Agency

(ARPA) of US department of defence.

 It allows resource sharing for department of Defence’s contractors.

 In year 1980 , ARPANET was handled over the different military network and
defense data network.

 ARPANET consist distributed network control.

 ARPANET the world’s first successful computer network to implement the

TCP/IP reference model.

 ARPANET is a basically a type of WAN.

 ARPANET is used concept of packet switching network.

 ARPANET’s software was split into two parts- a host and a subnet.

 ARPANET is used Interface Message Processors(IMPs) for sub-netting.

 Advantages of ARPANET :-

(1) ARPANET was designed to service even in a Nuclear Attack.

(2) It was used for collaborations through E-mails.
(3) It created an advancement in transfer of important files and data of
defense.
 DisAdvantages of ARPANET :-

(1) It increased number of LAN connections resulted in difficulty handling.

(2) It was unable to handled with advancement in technology.
 Q-6 :- Explain electromagnetic spectrum in detail.
Ans :- The electromagnetic spectrum is a collection of frequencies , wavelengths
and photon energies of electromagnetic waves.

 It has spanning from 1HZ to 1025Hz.

 It is equvivalent to wavelengths ranging from few hundred kilometers and it is

smaller than the size of an atomic nucles.

 It can be described as the range of all types of electromagnetic radiation.

 In Vaccum all electromagnetic waves travels at the same speed of light.

 The following electromagnetic waves are used for transmitting information in

electromagnetic spectrum :-

(1) Radio waves :- Radio waves are travels using wires.

 Radio , Television and telecom signals are transmitted through radio waves.

 These waves have a frequency range of around 3kHz to 300MHz.

 The majority of radio waves are used for TV and mobile communication.

(2) Micro waves :- Microwaves are types of electromagnetic radiation that has a
frequency of few gigahertz (GHz).

 Micro waves utilized short wave lengths and these waves are employed in
micro waves.

 It is generally used in homes , office and also used by astronomers to

understand the structure surrounding galexies and stars.

(3) Infrared rays :- It is reffered as heat-waves and it is produced by molecules.

 The green house effect caused by these rays and it is critical for main taining
global warming and average tempretures.
 Infrared radiation is emitted by electronic devices and is commonly employed
in remote switches for a variety of household gadgets.

(4) Visible rays :- Visible rays can be seen and it is a comman type of
electromagnetic waves.

 Visible rays wavelength range of 400nm-700nm.

 Visible rays are used in devices includes bulbs , lamps , candles , LEDs , tube
light etc …

(5) Ultraviolet rays :- The sun is the primary source of ultraviolet radiation on
Earth, the ozone layer absorbs the majority of UV energy before it reaches the
atmosphere.

 UV rays are used :- (1) In medical :- For high precision LASIK or Laser-based eye
surgery. (2) In Water purifiers :- UV lamps are used in water purifiers to eliminate
micro-oraganisms that may be present in water. (3) In Welding arcs :- Welders are
used special goggles to protect their eyes from UV welding arcs.

(6) X-rays :- X-rays electromagnetic spectrum are generally used in mediacal field.

 The wavelength range of X-ray radiation is 1nm–10–3nm.

 A doctor utilies x-ray scanner to scan teeth or bones. At the airport checkpoint,
security agents utilise it to search through passengers’ luggage. X-rays are also
emitted by the universe’s heated gases.

(7) Gama rays :- The universe is the largest gama-rays generator.

 Gamma rays have wavelengths ranging from 10–12m to 10–14m.

 Gamma-ray imaging is a technique used by doctors to examine the insides of

patients’ bodies.
 Q-7 :- Compare twisted pair, coaxial and fiber optic cable.
Ans :-

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Coaxial Cable Fiber Optical Cable

It is simple to installation and It is relatively difficult It is difficult to installation and
implementation. compare to UTP. implementation compare to
UTP and Coaxial Cable.
It consists pair of copper wire. It consists solid conductor It consists very thin optical wire
inner and outer wire. or plastic in a single cable.
Signal transmission is working Signal transmission is Signal transmission is working
using metalic or copper wires. working using inner and using fiber glass wire.
outer wire.
It has low bandwidth. It has high bandhwidth. It has very high bandwidth.
It supports low data rate. It supports high data rate. It supports very high data rate.
The cost is very low of UTP The cost is moderate of The cost is expensive of fiber
cable. coaxial cable. optical cable.
Security is not guranteed of Security is not guranteed of Security is guranteed of fiber
UTP transmission signal. coaxial transmission signal. optical transmission signal.
Repeater spacing of UTP cable Repeater spacing of Coaxial Repeater spacing of fiber optical
is 2-10 KM. cable is 1-10 KM. cable is 10-100 KM.

Q-8 :- What is Multiplexing? Explain its types in detail.

Ans :-

 Multiplexing :- Multiplexing is the process that combines multiple signals into

a single signal for transmission.

 Multiplexing is done using a device multiplexer (MUX) that takes input lines “n”
to generate a single output. On other side , there is a device demultiplexer
(DEMUX) that takes input lines and generates ‘n’ output lines.

 Multiplexing are commanly used in telecommunications , where it enables

multiple phone calls or internet connections to be transmitted over a single-
physical-line.

 Types of multiplexing :-

 FDM :- It stands for Frequency-Division Multiplexing.

 Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the

bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.

 FDM is used analog signals for trasmission signals.

 Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.

 TDM :- TDM stands for Time-Division Multiplexing.

 Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the

bandwidth of a signals is divided into time shared.

 Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

 In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.

 There are two types of TDM :-

(1) Synchronous TDM :- Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing

where the input frame already has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are
grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of time slots.

 Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to
send, a slot remains empty in the output frame.

(2) Statistical TDM :- Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where
the output frame collects data from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an
empty slot like in Synchronous TDM.

 In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the
slot that is being sent to the output frame.
 WDM :- WDM stands for Wavelength Division Multiplexing.

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technology used to

increase the capacity of optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a different wavelength. Each
signal is carried on a different wavelength of light, and the resulting signals are
combined onto a single optical fiber for transmission. At the receiving end, the
signals are separated by their wavelengths, demultiplexed and routed to their
respective destinations.

 WDM is used in a wide range of applications, including telecommunications,

cable TV, internet service providers, and data centers. It enables the transmission
of large amounts of data over long distances with high speed and efficiency.

Q-9 :- Differentiate Packet switching and circuit switching.

Ans :-

Packet Switching Circuit Switching

Packet switching does not require any Circuit switching requires a dedicated path
dedicated path to send data from source to to send data from source to destination.
destination.
It does not reserves bandwidth in advance. It reserves the entire bandwidth in advance.
It supports to store and forward It does not supports to store and forward
transmission. transmission.
In packet switching packets can follow any In circuit switching packets can follow same
route. route.
In these , call setup is not required. In these , Call setup is required.
It requires complex protocols for delivery. It requires simple protocols for delivery.
In packet switching , there is no physical In circuit switching , there is a physical path
path between the source and the between the source and the destination.
destination.
Recording of packets is possible in packet Recording of packets is not possible in
switching. circuit switching.
Packet switching is less reliable. Circuit switching is more reliable.
Wastage of resource is less compare to Wastage of resource is more compare to
circuit switching. packet switching.
 Q-10 :- Write short note on baseband transmission.
Ans :- Baseband transmission is used digital signal.

 Baseband transmission is a bidirectional in nature.

 The signal transmission can be done in both directions.

 Baseband transmission covers short distance for transmission.

 In baseband transmission twisted pair cables , coaxial cables , and wire are
used as transfer medium.

 Baseband transmission is easy to install and maintain compare to broadband

transmission.

 Application of baseband transmission is used in Ethernet LAN networks.

 Baseband transmission capacity of frequency is less than 100khz.

 In Baseband transmission , Data streams transfer at a time in both direction.

 Baseband transmission utilized Time Division Multiplexing.

 Baseband transmission is works well with bus topology.

 The structure of Baseband transmission is very simple and there is no special

hardware is required.

 Baseband transmission is a wired based networks.

 CN Assignment-2-Que-Ans

Q-1 :- What is Framing techniques? Explain byte stuffing with an

appropriate example.
Ans :-

 Framing Techniques :- Framing techniques is the process of dividing digital

data into small parts or frames to be sent across a network.

 There are four framing techniques :- (1) Byte Count (2) Flag bytes with byte
stuffing (3 Flag bits with bit stuffing (4) Physical layer coding violations.

 byte stuffing :- Byte stuffing is a byte (escape character(ESC)), which has a

predefined bit pattern.

 It is also known as character-oriented framing technique.

 Byte stuffing is the process that adds an extra byte to the data transmission
when flag byte (01111110) or 8-bits is found.

 In this technique , the extra bytes are inserted after occurance of the flag byte
and after consider the main data , the extra bytes are removed at receiver end.

 Byte stuffing technique ensures integrated data transmission and prevent

erros caused by specific bytes in the data stream.

 How byte stuffing is works ?

 Whenever sender sends a bytes in the data that matches the flag byte and
inserts an ESC character.
 At receiver end side , receiver is aware of the ESC mechanishm , it recognize
the ESC and removed extra bytes and interpreting the original bytes.

 Applications of byte stuffing :- Byte stuffing is commonly used in protocols

like PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) and HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control).
 Advantages :- (1) It ensures the data integrity by preventing misinterpretation
of flag patterns within the data. (2) It allows reliable communication even when
the flag pattern occurs naturally.

 Disadvantages :- (1) It adds overhead to the data stream due to the extra byte
for every occurrence of the flag byte. (2) It is less efficient than bit stuffing ,due to
the addition of extra bytes.

Q-2 :- Describe hidden and exposed station problems. How RTS and
CTS help to resolve the problem ?
Ans :-

 Hidden station problems :- It is occurce in a wireless LAN.

 How Hidden Station Problem is created ?

 When there are three devices :- A (station) , B (station) and C (station). A

(station) and B (station) both are communicate with each other’s range but both
devices can communicate with C (access-point), it causes collision at third station
and it is known as “Hidden station problem (HSP)”.

 Hidden station problem reduces the capacity of network due to collision in

wireless LAN.
 How to solve hidden station problems using RTS and CTS ? :-

 Hidden Station Problem (HSP) can be prevented by using handshake frames.

 In the below shown diagram, RTS message from B reaches A but not C.
However, both B and C are within range of A. CTS message containing duration of
data transmission from B to A, reaches C. Thus C knows some hidden station is
using channel and does not transmit until that duration is over.

 RTS :- RTS stands for request to send.

 CTS :- CTS stands for clear to send.

 Exposed Terminal (station) Problem :- It is occurs in wireless LAN.

 It happens when a wireless node cannot transfer data because another node
that is outside its communication range is sending data to another node that is
inside it.

 In this problem , throughput and network performanace may suffer as con-

sequence , this happens when a station can be seen by wireless access point but
not by other stations that are connected to the access-point.
 Example :- Let’s assume there are four stations with the names A, B, C, and D,
where B and C are transmitters and A and D are receivers. The stations are set up
so that the two emitters B and C can hear each other but the two receivers A and
D cannot hear each other over radio waves. Transmission from B to A is
happening. As a result, C ceases attempting to transmit to D after mistakenly
assuming that the above transmission will cause interference. However, since the
communication from C to D is outside of B’s range, interference would not have
happened. Known as the exposed terminal issue.

 How to solve exposed station problems using RTS and CTS ? :-

 RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send) mechanisms is used to solve these

problem which can stop two or more nodes from transmitting data at the same
time, is the solution to the exposed terminal (station) issue.

Q-3 :- Describe Distance vector routing with count to infinity problem.

Ans :-

 Distance Vector Routing :- It is a routing protocol that uses bellman-ford

algorithm. However,this protocol can not prevent routing loops. This routing
loops in the Distance vector routing (DVR) network causes the count to infinity
problem.

 In distance vector routing , routers exchange the information about the

distance and direction to reach different networks.
 Routing loops usally occurs when two routers send updates at a same time.

 Counting to infinity problem :-

 The above figure shows , the Bellman-Ford algorithm will converge for each
router, they will have entries for each other. B will know that it can get to C at a
cost of 1, and A will know that it can get to C via B at a cost of 2.

 If the link between B and C is disconnected, then B will know that it can no
longer get to C via that link and will remove it from its table. Before it can send
any updates it’s possible that it will receive an update from A which will be
advertising that it can get to C at a cost of 2. B can get to A at a cost of 1, so it will
update a route to C via A at a cost of 3. A will then receive updates from B later
and update its cost to 4. They will then go on feeding each other wrong
information toward infinity which is called as “Count to Infinity problem”.

 Solution for Count to infinity problem :-

 Route Poisoning :- When a route fails, distance vector protocols spread

the bad (wrong) news about a route failure by poisoning the route. Route
poisoning refers to the practice of advertising a route, but with a special metric
value called Infinity. Routers consider routes advertised with an infinite metric to
have failed. Each distance vector routing protocol uses the concept of an actual
metric value that represents infinity. Routing Information Protocol defines infinity
as 16. The main disadvantage of poison reverse is that it can significantly increase
the size of routing announcements in certain fairly common network topologies.

 Split Horizon :- Split horizon with Poison reverse technique is used by Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) to reduce routing loops. Additionally, Holddown
timers can be used to avoid the formation of loops. The hold-down timer
immediately starts when the router is informed that the attached link is down. Till
this time, the router ignores all updates of the down route unless it receives an
update from the router of that downed link. During the timer, If the downlink is
reachable again, the routing table can be updated.

Q-4 :- What is MAC sub layer? Describe ALOHA in brief.

Ans :-

 MAC sub layer :- Multiple Access control is a sublayer of data link layer that
provides control for accessing the transmission medium.

 It controls the transmission of data packets via remotely shared channels. It

sends data over the network interface card.

 ALOHA :- ALOHA is a random access protocol used in computer networking for

sharing a single communication channel among multiple devices. It operates at
the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the OSI model.

 There are two types of ALOHA :-

(1) Pure ALOHA :- Pure Aloha can be termed as the main Aloha or the original
Aloha.

 In Pure ALOHA , there is only one channel to share data and communicate with
each other , therefore collision chance is high.

 In the case of the pure aloha, the user transmits the frame and waits till the
receiver acknowledges it, if the receiver does not send the acknowledgment, the
sender will assume that it has not been received and sender resends the
acknowledgment.

 In Pure ALOHA , each user waits a random amount of time for transmission.

 In Pure ALOHA , the time is continues and it is not globally synchronized.

(2) Slotted ALOHA :- Slotted ALOHA is an advanced version of Pure ALOHA.

 In these , channels are divided into small and fixed-sized legth of time slots for
transmission.

 In the case of Slotted ALOHA , When a user wants to transmit a frame, it waits
until the next time slot and then sends the frame. If the frame is received
successfully, the receiver sends an acknowledgment. If the acknowledgment is
not received within a time-out period, the sender assumes that the frame was not
received and retransmits the frame in the next time slot.

 In slotted ALOHA , user has fixed-time slot for transmission.

 In slotted ALOHA , user can only allowed to transmit data at beginning of each
time slot , therefore Less chance for collision in Slotted ALOHA.

Q-5 :- Explain simplex stop and wait protocol for noise channel.
Ans :-

 Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol :- The Stop and Wait protocol is a protocol
used for reliable data transmission over a noisy channel.

 In this protocol, the sender only sends one frame at a time and waits for an
acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver before sending the next frame.

 This helps to ensure that the receiver receives the data correctly and
eliminates the retransmission in the case of errors caused by the noisy channel.

 In this protocol , The sender continuously monitors the channel for errors, and
if an error is detected, it waits for the next ACK before resending the frame.

 In this protocol , If an error is detected, the receiver sends a NACK signal to the
sender, requesting a retransmission of the frame.

 This protocol adds error control to the basic unidirectional communication of

data frames and ACK frames in the opposite direction.
 Fig :-

Q-6 :- Define the approaches of congestion control in brief.

Ans :-

 Congestion Occurs in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it
slows network response time.

 There are some approaches for congestion control over a network which are
usually applied on different time scales to either prevent congestion or react to it
once it has occurred.
 There are following steps are below mentioned for the approaches of
congestion control :-

 Step-1 :- The basic way to avoid congestion is to build a network that is well
matched to the traffic that it carries. If more traffic is directed but a low-
bandwidth link is available, definitely congestion occurs.

 Step-2 :- Sometimes resources can be added dynamically like routers and links
when there is serious congestion. This is called “provisioning”, and which
happens on a timescale of months, driven by long-term trends.

 Step-3 :- To utilise most existing network capacity, routers can be tailored to

traffic patterns making them active during daytime when network users are using
more and sleep in different time zones.

 Step-4 :- Some of local radio stations have helicopters flying around their cities
to report on road congestion to make it possible for their mobile listeners to
route their packets (cars) around hotspots. This is called “traffic aware routing”.

 Step-5 :- Sometimes it is not possible to increase capacity. The only way to

reduce the congestion is to decrease the load. In a virtual circuit network, new
connections can be refused if they would cause the network to become
congested. This is called “admission control”.

 Step-6 :- when congestion is imminent the network can deliver feedback to the
sources whose traffic flows are responsible for the problem. The network can
request these sources to “throttle traffic”, or it can slow down the traffic itself.

 Step-7 :- Routers can monitor the average load, queueing delay, or packet loss.
In all these cases, the rising number indicates growing congestion. The network is
forced to discard packets that it cannot deliver. The general name for this is “Load
shedding”. The better technique for choosing which packets to discard can help
to prevent congestion collapse.
 Q-7 :- What is UDP ? Define Remote procedure call in detail.
Ans :-

 UDP :- UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.

 UDP is a transport layer protocol.

 UDP is a part of the Internet Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite.

 UDP is a connection-less service protocol.

 UDP protocol allows the computer applications to send the messages in the
form of datagrams from one machine to another machine over the Internet
Protocol (IP) network.

 Remote Procedure Call :- Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a powerful technique

for constructing , distributed , client-server based applications.

 Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a technique that allows a program on one

computer to execute a procedure on another computer via network.

 It is a also known as a function call or sub-routine call.

 When Making a Remote Procedure Call :-

(1) The calling environment is suspended, procedure parameters are transferred

across the network to the environment where the procedure is to execute, and
the procedure is executed there.

(2) When the procedure finishes and produces its results, its results are
transferred back to the calling environment, where execution resumes as if
returning from a regular procedure call.
 How RPC is Work ?

 Step-1 :- The client, client stub, and RPC run time execute on the client
machine.

 Step-2 :- A client starts a client stub process by passing parameters in the usual
way. The packing of the procedure parameters is called marshalling. The client
stub stores within the client's own address space, and it also asks the local RPC
Runtime to send back to the server stub.

 Step-3 :- In this stage, the user can access RPC by making regular Local
Procedural Call. RPC Runtime manages the transmission of messages between the
network across client and server, and it also performs the job of retransmission,
acknowledgment, routing, and encryption.

 Step-4 :- After completing the server procedure, it returns to the server stub,
which packs (marshalls) the return values into a message. The server stub then
sends a message back to the transport layer.

 Step-5 :- In this step, the transport layer sends back the result message to the
client transport layer, which returns back a message to the client stub.
 Step-6 :- In this stage, the client stub demarshalls (unpack) the return
parameters in the resulting packet, and the execution process returns to the
caller.

Q-8 :- Explain Architecture of Bluetooth.

Ans :-

 What is Bluetooth ?

 Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication technology which is used

for transmitting and receiving the data using the radio waves signals.

 Bluetooth provides data rates up to 1 mbps or 3 mbps.

 The transmission capacity of blurtooth is 720 kbps.

 The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks :-

(1) Piconet :- A piconet is a basic Bluetooth network.

 It consists of one primary node (master) and up to seven active secondary

nodes (slaves).

 The master initiates communication with the slaves.

 Communication can be one-to-one or one-to-many between the master and

slaves.

 Slave-to-slave communication is not possible.

 Additionally, there can be up to 255 parked nodes (secondary nodes waiting to

become active).

 The communication range within a piconet is approximately 10 meters.

(2) Scatternet :- A scatternet is formed by interconnecting multiple piconets.

 A slave from one piconet can act as a master (or primary) in another piconet.
 These bridge nodes receive messages from masters in one piconet and deliver
them to their slaves in another piconet.

 A station cannot be a master in two piconets simultaneously.

Q-9 :- Explain CSMA in detail.

Ans :-

 CSMA :- CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access.

 CSMA is based on media access protocol to sense the traffic on a channel (idle
or busy) before transmitting the data.

 It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel.
Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the
chances of a collision on a transmission medium.

 CSMA access modes :-

(1) 1-persistent :- If the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it must
wait for the channel to be idle.

(2) Non-persistent :- if the channel is inactive, it immediately sends the data.

Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time (not continuously), and when
the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the frames.

(3) P-Persistent :- It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes.

The P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the
channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is not
transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the
frame with the next time slot.

(4) O- Persistent :- It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the

station before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found
that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to retransmit the data.
 CSMA/ CD :-

 It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to

transmit data frames.

 The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore, it
first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel
is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful. If
the frame is successfully received, the station sends another frame. If any collision
is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared
channel to terminate data transmission. After that, it waits for a random time
before sending a frame to a channel.

 CSMA/ CA :-

 It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for

carrier transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium
access control layer. When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an
acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear. If the station receives
only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been
successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one
more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the
shared channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an
acknowledgment signal.

Q-10 :- What is Multiplexing? Explain its types in detail.

Ans :-

 Multiplexing :- Multiplexing is the process that combines multiple signals into

a single signal for transmission.

 Multiplexing is done using a device multiplexer (MUX) that takes input lines “n”
to generate a single output. On other side , there is a device demultiplexer
(DEMUX) that takes input lines and generates ‘n’ output lines.
 Multiplexing are commanly used in telecommunications , where it enables
multiple phone calls or internet connections to be transmitted over a single-
physical-line.

 Types of multiplexing :-

 FDM :- It stands for Frequency-Division Multiplexing.

 Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the

bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.
 FDM is used analog signals for trasmission signals.

 Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.

 TDM :- TDM stands for Time-Division Multiplexing.

 Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the

bandwidth of a signals is divided into time shared.

 Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

 In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.

 There are two types of TDM :-

(1) Synchronous TDM :- Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing

where the input frame already has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are
grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of time slots.

 Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to
send, a slot remains empty in the output frame.

(2) Statistical TDM :- Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where
the output frame collects data from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an
empty slot like in Synchronous TDM.
 In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of each particular data in the
slot that is being sent to the output frame.

 WDM :- WDM stands for Wavelength Division Multiplexing.

 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technology used to

increase the capacity of optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a different wavelength. Each
signal is carried on a different wavelength of light, and the resulting signals are
combined onto a single optical fiber for transmission. At the receiving end, the
signals are separated by their wavelengths, demultiplexed and routed to their
respective destinations.

 WDM is used in a wide range of applications, including telecommunications,

cable TV, internet service providers, and data centers. It enables the transmission
of large amounts of data over long distances with high speed and efficiency.

Q-11 :- Explain sliding window protocol.

Ans :-

 Sliding window protocol :- The sliding window is a technique for sending

multiple frames at a time. It controls the data packets between the two devices
where reliable and gradual delivery of data frames is needed. It is also used in TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol).

 In this technique, each frame has sent from the sequence number. The
sequence numbers are used to find the missing data in the receiver end. The
purpose of the sliding window technique is to avoid duplicate data, so it uses the
sequence number.

 There are two types of Sliding window protocol :- (1) Go-Back-N ARQ

(2) Selective Repeat ARQ

(1) Go-Back-N ARQ :- Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is also known as “Go-Back-N
Automatic Repeat Request”. It is a data link layer protocol that uses a sliding
window method.

 In this, if any frame is corrupted or lost, all subsequent frames have to be sent
again.

 If the receiver receives a corrupted frame, it cancel it. The receiver does not
accept a corrupted frame. When the timer expires, the sender sends the correct
frame again.

 Advantages :-

 It does not required sorting and searching.

 It is less complex than selective repeat ARQ.

 Dis-advantages :-

 If a frame is corrupted or lost in it,all subsequent frames have to be sent again.

 If it has a high error rate , It wastes a lot of bandwidth.

(2) Selective Repeat ARQ :- Selective Repeat ARQ is also known as “Selective
Repeat Automatic Repeat Request.” It is a data link layer protocol that uses a
sliding window method.

 The Go-back-N ARQ protocol works well if it has fewer errors. But if there are
lot of errors in the frame, it may lots of bandwidth loss in sending the frames
again. So, we use the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol.

 In this protocol, the size of the sender side window is always equal to the size
of the receiver side window and the size of the sliding window is always greater
than 1.

 If the receiver receives a corrupt frame, it does not directly discard it. It sends a
negative acknowledgment to the sender. The sender sends that frame again as
soon as on the receiving negative acknowledgment. There is no waiting for any
time-out to send that frame.

 Advantages :-

 There is less chance loss bandwidth compare to Go-back ARQ.

 If any frame is corrupt then not all frames are sent again.

 Dis-advantages :-

 Sorting and searching both are required , therefore more storage required.

 More complex compare to Go-back ARQ.

CN IMP Que-Ans

Que :- Draw architecture of WWW and Explain HTTP query and

response.
Ans :- WWW is stands for World Wide Web.

 It is started in 1989 by CERN.

 WWW is a collection of different websites around the world.

 HTTP :- HTTP stands for “Hyper Text Transfer Protocol”.

 HTTP is an application layer protocol and it is designed to transfer information

between networked devices.

 It can runs on the top of other layers of the network protocol stack.

 HTTP is used to access the data on the WWW (World Wide Web).

 HTTP Follows client-server model , where a client sends request to the server
(such as a web server) and recieves response in return.

 The client send requests are such as GET , POST, PUT and DELETE.

 HTTP Request :- Communication between clients and servers is done by

requests.

 HTTP Responses :- A client (a browser) sends an HTTP request to the web. A

web server receives the request. The server runs an application to process the
request.

Que :- Explain Utopian Simplex Protocol.

Ans :-

 Utopian simplex Protocol :- It is a data link layer protocol for tranasmission of

frames over computer network.

 Utopian simplex protocol is designed for the uni-directional transmission.

 In these protocol , both sender and receiver are always ready for data
processing and both have inifinite buffer space availible.

 In this protocol , data frames does not losses any frames.

 This protocol does not have any error control or flow control machanism.
 This protocol does not have any mechanism for detecting errors in the
received data frames, as it assumes that the communication channel is error-free.

 This protocol does not support retransmission of lost or corrupted frames, as it

assumes that the communication channel never loses any data.

 In this protocol , There is no provision for multiplexing or demultiplexing of

data streams, as the channel is dedicated to a single sender-receiver pair.

 In this protocol , There is no need for any addressing mechanism, as the

receiver is assumed to be the only device connected to the channel.

 This protocol does not have multiple communication scenarios and it is not
suitable for complex transmission.

Que :- Explain Coaxial Cable with Diagram.

Ans :-

 Coaxial cable :- Coaxial cable is an electrical cable with copper conductor and
insulator shielding around it that prevents signal interface and cross talk.

 Coaxial cable is relatively difficult compare to UTP.

 Coaxial cable consists solid conductor inner and outer wire.

 Coaxial cable supports multiple channels for transmission of signals.

 Coaxial cable is easy to install.

 In Coaxial cable Signal transmission is working using inner and outer wire.

 It has high bandhwidth.

 It supports high data rate.

 Coaxial cables are expensive and their layers are bulky.

 Security is not guranteed of coxial transmission signal.

 Repeater spacing of Coaxial cable is 1-10 KM.

 Coaxial Cable is used for transmission in various applications like television ,

internet , CCTV , Video.

 Fig :-

Que :- Discuss Data Link Layer Design issues.

Ans :- Data link layer plays a crucial role in maintaining communication between
sender and reciever but there are some data link layer design issues for
communication that are as follows :-

(1) How to provide service to network layer ?

 The data link layer acts as a service interface to the network layer. The
Principle service is to transfer data from the sending machine to the network
layer on destination machine.

 It provides three types of services :-

 Unacknowledged and Connectionless Services: In this mode, the sender
machine transmits independent frames without any acknowledgment.
 There is no logical connection is established in these type of service.

 Acknowledged and Connectionless Services: In this mode, there is no

logical connection between sender and receiver established.
 Here, each frame is acknowledged by the receiver.
  If the frame didn’t reach the receiver in a specific time interval it has to be
sent again.
 It is very useful in wireless systems.

 Acknowledged and Connection-Oriented Services :- A logical connection is

established between sender and receiver before data is trimester.
 Each frame is numbered so the receiver can ensure all frames have arrived
and exactly once.
(2) How to synchronize the frame ?

 The source machine sends data in the form of blocks called frames to the
destination machine.

 The starting and ending of each frame should be identified so that the frame
can be recognized by the destination machine.

 Identifying from start to end of each frame that ensures successful

communication.

(3) How to manage flow control ?

 Flow control prevents data frame at the receiver end. The source machine
does not send data frames faster than the destination machine can handle.

 Flow control manage a balance between data transmission rates and receiver
capacity.

(4) how to manage error conrol?

 The errors introduced from the source to destination machines must be

detected and corrected at the destination machine.

 Error control detects and corrects frame duplication during transmission.

 Que :- Give difference between Multimode and single mode fiber.
Ans :-

Multimode Fiber Single Mode Fiber

It is designed to carry multiple modes of It is designed to carry only single mode of
light at once. light at once.
It is used for shorter distance transmission It is used for long-distance transmission of
of signals. signals.
Multi-Mode cables support the Single-Mode cables support the
transmission of multiple light modes with- transmission of single light mode with–
less brightness and high performance. brighter and higher power sources.
Multi-mode optical fiber cables are esaier Single-mode fiber cables are quite difficult
to manufacture and handle. for manufacture and handle.
It is cost-effective compare to single mode It is more costly compare to multimode
fiber. fiber.
Mutimode fiber cable signal speed is Single mode fiber cable signal speed is
slower. much compare to multimode fiber.
Multimode fibers have lower bandwidth Singlemode fibers have higher bandwidth
compared to single mode fiber cables. compared to multimode fiber cables.
Multimode fiber termination is easier. Single mode fiber termination is more
difficult.
There is more chances to signal loss in There is less chances to signal loss in single
multimode fiber. mode fiber.
Multimode fiber cables applications are Single mode fiber applications are such as
such as security systems. telecom systems.

Que :- Explain Piggybanking in detail.

Ans :- Piggybanking is a method of attanching acknowledgement (ACK) to the
outgoing data packet.

 For example , Consider a two-way transmission between host A and host B .

When host A sends a data frame to B, then B does not send the acknowledgment
of the frame sent immediately. The acknowledgment is delayed until the next
data frame of host B is available for transmission. The delayed acknowledgment is
then attached to the outgoing data frame of B. This process of delaying
acknowledgment so that it can be attached to the outgoing frame is
called piggybacking .
 Que :- Explain DNS in detail.

Ans :- DNS stands for “Domain Name System”.

 DNS is an application layer protocol that allowing different systems to

exchange messages for communication.

 DNS primary purpose is to provide a mapping between the name of a host on

the network and its corresponding numerical address (IP address).

 Each node in the DNS hierarchy has a domain name, and a full domain name is
a sequence of symbols separated by dots.

 DNS is an application layer protocol for messaage exchange between clients

and servers.

 DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.

 How DNS is works ?

 DNS operates as client/server network communication protocol.

 DNS clients send requests to DNS servers.

 DNS servers respond with information related to domain names.
 Types of Domain :-

(1) Generic Domains :- .com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military),

.org(nonprofit organization), .net(similar to commercial) all these are generic
domains.

(2) Country Domains :- .in(India) , .us(united state) , .uk(united kingdom).

(3) Inverse Domains :- If we want to know any website domain name then DNS
provides the mapping to find out the IP Address of website. For Example :-
geeksforgeeks.org

Que :- What is domain resource record ? Explain DNS resource record

types.
Ans :-

DNS records (short for "Domain Name System records") are defines the datatypes
of data that are stored in the DNS database.

 Domain resource record is used to specify information about a domain, such as

its IP address and the servers that handle its email.

 Types of DNS resource record :-

(1) A records :- A records consist of a domain name and an IP address. The IP

address is the numerical address of the server where the website or other
resource is hosted.

 For example −

example.com. IN A 192.0.2.1
(2) CNAME records :- CNAME records consist of an alias and the domain name it
should resolve to.

 For example −

www.example.com. IN CNAME example.com.

(3) mx records :- MX records consist of a domain name, a priority value, and the
hostname of the mail server responsible for the domain.

 For example −

example.com. IN MX 10 mail.example.com.

(4) NS records − NS records consist of a domain name and the hostname of the
name server responsible for the domain.

 For example −

example.com. IN NS ns1.example.com.

(5) TXT records − TXT records consist of a domain name and the text value that
should be associated with the domain.

 For example −

example.com. IN TXT "v=spf1 include:_spf.example.com ~all"

 Que :- Explain infrastructure mode and Ad-hoc mode in 802.11
networks.
Ans :-

 Infrastructure Mode :- The Infrastructure mode is used to connect clients like

laptops and smartphones to another network such as company intranet or
internet.

 In infrastructure mode every client is associated with an Access point which is

in turn connected to another network.

 In Infrastructure mode , The client sends and receives its packet via Access
Point.

 Figure of Infrastructure Mode :-

 Ad-hoc mode :- It is a collection of computers that associted with each other.

 In Ad-hoc mode computers can directly sends the frames to each other.

 There is no Access point in Ad hoc , because internet access is the killer

application for wireless.

 In Ad hoc mode there is peer-to-peer mode with no central access point , and
it also allow internet between any two computers.
 Most of IEEE 802.11 transmitter and receivers supports the ad hoc mode.

 Ad hoc mode is generally , used in the milatry area for sharing the information
among soliders and it also most used in local area networks (LANs) for
communication among fixed group of people.

 Figure of Ad hoc mode :-

Que :- What is delayed duplicates problem? Explain Three-way

handshake method to establish a connection.
Ans :- Delayed duplicte is an issue of TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) that can
occurs in computer neworks with TCP segments.

 In the delayed duplicate problem, TCP segments traverse the network and are
delivered to the receiver even when the duplicates have already been
retransmitted.

 Three-way handshake method :- It is a crucial process that are dived into

three parts :-
(1) SYN (Synchronize Sequence Number) :-

 In first step , the client wants to establish a connection with server , so it sends
a segments with SYN (Synchronize sequence number) , it informs the server that
client is likely start the communication with strat segments.

(2) SYN + ACK (Synchronize + Acknowledge) :-

 In second step , Server responds to the client request with SYN + ACK signal
bits set.

 Where , ACK signifies the response of the segment is received and SYN signifies
sequence number with start segments.

(3) ACK (Acknowledgment) :-

 Finally in last step , both sides client and servers have established a reliable
connection and ready for actual data transfer.

Que :- Define Static Channel allocation and Dynamic Channel

allocation. Explain in detail.
Ans :-

 Static Channel Allocation :- Static channel allocation is a fixed number of

channels.

 Static channels are permanetly allocated to specific cells in the network.

 Static channel allocation follows a centralized control approach.

 In Static channel allocation , once channels are assigned to cells , it can not
changed during any operation.

 Main aim of Static channel allocation is to minimized the frequency of reuse

the channels.
 Static channel allocation ensures that each channel are sperated by the
minimum reuse distance.

 In static channel allocation , If all channels are occupied and a user makes a
call, the call is blocked.

 Static channels allocated channels are remain with cells until , the call is
completed.

 Static channel allocation is less costly than dynamic channel allocation.

 Static channel alloction is perfoms better in heavy traffic channels.

 Dynamic channel allocation :- Dynamic channel allocation is not fixed

allocated to cells.

 In Dynamic channel allocation , When a user makes a call request, the Base
Station sends the request to the Mobile Station Center for channel allocation.

 Dynamic channel allocation reduces the call blocking as traffic increases.

 In Dynamic channel allocation ,Complex algorithms are used to decide which

available channel is most efficient.

 In Dynamic channel allocation , Once a call is completed, the channel or voice

channel returns to the Mobile Station Center.

 Dynamic channel allocation is computationally more intensive and costly.

 In Dynamic channel allocation , bobile station center have more responsibilites

and signaling load.
 Que :- What is the use of Routing Algorithm? Explain Flooding in
detail.
Ans :-

 Routing Algorithm :- Routing algorithm is the process of selecting the best

path for data to traverse across a network.

 The network devices are interconnected with a routers.

 Routing algorithm is helps to decide the optimal path based on factors such as
network topology , traffic load , and reliability.

 Routing algorithms use various metrics such as distance, bandwidth, or latency

to find the optimal path for data.

 Routing algorithms ensure that data packets arrive at their destination in a

timely and efficient manner.

 Flooding :- Flooding is a non-adaptive routing technique that follows simple

method :- When a data packet arrives at a router, it is sent to all the outgoing
links except the one it has arrived on.

 For example let consider the networks in the figure , that having six routers
that are connected through transmission lines.
 From above figure , Using flooding technique packes transmission are as
follows :-

 An incoming packet to A, will be sent to B, C and D.

 B will send the packet to C and E.

 C will send the packet to B, D and F.

 D will send the packet to C and F.

 E will send the packet to F.

 F will send the packet to C and E.

 Types of Flodding technique :-

(1) Uncontrolled flooding :- Here, each router unconditionally transmits the

incoming data packets to all its neighbours.

(2) Controlled flooding :- They use some methods to control the transmission of
packets to the neighbouring nodes. The two popular algorithms for controlled
flooding are Sequence Number Controlled Flooding (SNCF) and Reverse Path
Forwarding (RPF).

(3) Selective flooding :- Here, the routers don't transmit the incoming packets
only along those paths which are heading towards approximately in the right
direction, instead of every available paths.

Que :- Explain store and forward packet switching.

Ans :-

 Store and Forward Packet Switching :- In telecommunications, store and

forward packet switching is a technique where the data packets are stored in each
intermediate node, before they are forwarded to the next node.
 The intermediate node checks whether the packet is error−free before
transmitting, thus ensuring integrity of the data packets.

 In general, the network layer operates in an environment that uses store and
forward packet switching.

 Store and forward packet switching ensures high quality data packet
transmission. Since erroneous packets are discarded at each router, bad packets
or invalid packets in the network are mostly eliminated.

Que :- Define term TSAP and NSAP.

Ans :-

 TSAP :- It stands for Transport Service Access Point.

 A TSAP represents a specific endpoint in the transport layer of the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model.

 NSAP :- It stands for Network Service Access Point.

 An NSAP address is an identifying label for a service access point (SAP) used in
OSI networking.

Que :- Explain IP version 4 in detail.

Ans :- IP stands for Internet Protocol.

 IPv4 was the primary version brought into action for production within the
ARPANET in 1983.

 IP version four addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in decimal
notation.
 Example- 192.0.2.126 could be an IPv4 address.
 IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.

 IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.

 Advantages of IPv4 :-

(1) IPv4 security permits encryption to keep up privacy and security.

(2) IPV4 network allocation is significant and presently has quite 85000 practical
routers.

(3) It becomes easy to attach multiple devices across an outsized network while
not NAT.

(4) This is a model of communication so provides quality service also as

economical knowledge transfer.

(5) IPV4 addresses are redefined and permit flawless encoding.

 Disadvantages of IPv4 :-

(1) It is complex to hosting and routing configuration.

(2) It is difficult to re-numbering addresses and non-trivial implementations.

Que :- Compare IPv4 and IPv6.

Ans :-

IPv4 IPv6
IPv4 has a 32-bit address length. IPv6 has a 128-bit address length.
It Supports Manual and DHCP address It supports Auto and renumbering
configuration. address configuration.
In IPv4 end to end, connection integrity In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity
is Unachievable. is Achievable.
The Security feature is dependent on IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in
the application in ipv4. the IPv6 protocol.
In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not In IPv6 packet flow identification are
available. Available and uses the flow label field in
the header.
IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes. IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed.
IPv4 consists of 4 fields which are IPv6 consists of 8 fields, which are
separated by addresses dot (.) separated by a colon (:)
IPv4’s IP addresses are divided into IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP
five different classes. Class A , Class B, address.
Class C, Class D , Class E.