Acquire New Knowledge

SNED 100
Module 4: Appropriate Assessment Tools and Writing the Authentic Assessment Report

1. Selecting and Administering Standardized and Non-Standardized Tests: Using

Norm-Referenced and Curriculum-Based Measures

Assessing the progress and needs of students with special needs requires a multi-faceted
approach. Both standardized and non-standardized tests play a role, offering valuable data points
when used appropriately.

1. The Value and Limitations of Standardized Tests for Learners with Special
Needs

1. Standardized Tests (Norm-Referenced Measures):

Standardized tests compare a student's performance to a national or regional norm group.

They provide a benchmark of how a student performs relative to their peers.
Types of Standardized Tests for Special Needs:

1. Individually Administered Achievement Tests:These tests, like the Wechsler

Individual Achievement Test (WIAT), are designed for individual administration and
assess specific academic skills in areas like reading, math, and writing.

Example:
Individually Administered Achievement Tests:

 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT): This comprehensive assessment

measures academic skills in various areas, including reading, math, written
expression, oral language, and spelling. It is designed for individual administration
and provides detailed information on a student's strengths and weaknesses.
 Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ-III): This assessment battery
evaluates cognitive abilities in various domains, including reasoning, memory,
processing speed, and academic skills. It can be used to identify potential learning
disabilities and inform instructional planning.
 Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT): This brief assessment measures basic
academic skills in reading, math, and spelling. It can be helpful for screening
purposes or progress monitoring.

Reading Assessments:
  Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE): This assessment measures word
reading fluency and accuracy. It can be used to identify potential reading difficulties
like dyslexia.
 Gray Oral Reading Tests (GORRT): This assessment evaluates oral reading
fluency, accuracy, and comprehension. It can be used to assess progress in reading
interventions.

Math Assessments:

 Test of Early Math Ability (TEMA-3): This assessment measures foundational

math skills in young children. It can be used to identify potential math learning
disabilities.
 Math Fluency and Automaticity Screening Test (MFAS): This brief assessment
measures math fact fluency and automaticity. It can be used for screening purposes or
progress monitoring in math.

Written Language Assessments:

 Test of Written Language (TOWL): This assessment evaluates written language

skills in areas like spelling, grammar, punctuation, and written expression. It can be
used to identify potential writing difficulties.
 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT): This assessment measures receptive
vocabulary by showing students pictures and asking them to identify the
corresponding word. It can be helpful for students with limited verbal
communication.

2. Developmental Screening Tests:Brief tests, like the Ages and Stages Questionnaires
(ASQ), are used to identify potential developmental delays in young children.

 Ages and Stages Questionnaires (ASQ): This is a parent-completed developmental

screening tool for young children. It can help identify potential delays in
communication, social-emotional development, gross motor skills, and fine motor
skills.
 Denver Developmental Screening Test-II (DDST-II): This brief screening tool
assesses a child's development in various domains, including gross motor skills, fine
motor skills, language, social skills, and personal-social skills.

Limitations and Inadequacies of standardized tests:

1. Little room for modifying test procedure

2. Prior learning experiences are not reflected and test items do not match
curriculum goals
3. There is a bias against children with developmental delays since sample of
standardization is the typical child
4. Specific skills or knowledge are assessed rather than the process of learning.
Considerations for Standardized Tests:

 Accommodations: Many standardized tests offer accommodations for students with

special needs. These may include extended time, use of assistive technology, or
modified testing formats. However, extensive accommodations can affect the score's
validity for norm-referenced comparisons.
 Limited Scope: Standardized tests often focus on specific academic skills and might
not capture the full range of a student's strengths and weaknesses.

1. Non-Standardized Tests (Curriculum-Based Measures):

Curriculum-based measures (CBM) are informal assessments directly linked to the

curriculum being taught. They provide frequent data on a student's progress in mastering specific
skills.
Types of Curriculum-Based Measures:

 Curriculum-Based Reading Measures (CBM-R): These brief assessments measure

reading fluency and comprehension.
 Curriculum-Based Math Measures (CBM-M): These short assessments measure
math skills such as computation and problem-solving.
 Curriculum-Based Writing Measures (CBM-W): These assessments evaluate
writing skills like grammar, mechanics, and composition.

Non-standardized checklists and rating scales are often used by SPED teachers to
determine the presence or absence of particular behaviors and skills. These are usually based on
a logical, developmental progression of skills across developmental domains and/ or onset
curricular standards.

1. Procedure Checklists

These examine the completion of steps in the correct sequence to successfully accomplish
given task. For instance, the task is for the student to make a fruit salad. The example
below shows a non-standardized procedure checklist to determine how independently the
student can accomplish the prerequisite skills leading to the desired outcome.

2. Product Checklists

These evaluate the quality of students' work or output using a predetermined set of
criteria. It looks at the critical, final components of accomplishing a given task. For
instance, the product is for the child to be able to introduce himself/ herself to the class and
share some basic information about himself/herself.

Present Absent Comments

1. Stands up straight without unnecessary

movements.

2. Looks at the class when talking.

3. Greets classmates.

4. Says full name clearly in a complete

sentence.

5. Says basic information about oneself (age,

address, name of parents, and siblings, if
any).

Benefits of Curriculum-Based Measures:

 Frequent Monitoring: CBM allows for frequent progress monitoring, enabling

educators to identify learning difficulties early and adjust instruction accordingly.
 Data-Driven Decisions: CBM data provides a clear picture of student progress,
informing instructional decisions and interventions.
 Focus on Specific Skills: CBM directly measures the curriculum content, offering
insights into specific areas of strength or weakness.

Important Considerations for ALL Assessments:

 Validity: Ensure the chosen assessment is valid for measuring the intended skills or
knowledge.
 Reliability: The assessment should produce consistent results if administered
multiple times.
 Accommodations: Provide appropriate accommodations for students with special
needs to ensure a fair and accurate assessment.
 Collaboration: Collaborate with specialists and parents when selecting and
interpreting assessments.

1. Child Observation in Natural Contexts and Performance-Based Assessment

1. Optimizing Child Observation in Natural Contexts

Child observation can validate existing interview data or information from medical, therapeutic,
and educational records. Being able to witness firsthand reported behaviors and skills, and
properly documenting them would allow for a thorough evaluation of the child's actual abilities.
There are guidelines for collecting observation data (Spodek &Saracho, 1994; McAfee & Leong,
2011). These guidelines should be adhered to in order to optimize child observation as a valuable
tool for authentic assessment:

1. Understand the purpose underlying the observation, obtaining as much information as

is practical and necessary.
2. Be specific, objective, precise, and descriptive, withholding judgments,
interpretations, conclusions, and inferences.
3. Be unobtrusive.
4. Focus observation on a specific child, behavior, or situation, while being mindful of
the setting or context.
5. Observe verbal and non-verbal behavior.
6. Check reliability by having another person confirm agreement to the observation
data.

There are different types of observation techniques. Checklists and rating scales can be used to
record observation data. In addition to these informal tools, anecdotal records can also be
accomplished. Such records note particular behaviors or events that lead to a better
understanding of the child with special needs.
A. Anecdotal records
It qualitatively describe the demonstration of knowledge, observable behavior and skill,
including contextual factors like the setting, time, noise level, lighting and ventilation, teacher's
voice, presence of other children, and other extraneous variables.

B. Functional Behavioral Analysis

Aside from the anecdotal record, another common observational technique specifically for
problematic behavior is sequence analvsis. This is particularly useful when analyzing behavior
using the A-B-C (antecedent-behavior-consequence) framework, as part of a Functional
Behavioral Analysis, otherwise known as FBA. A Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) is a
systematic way of gathering direct data on a child's behavior, primarily through observation. It is
a problem-solving process for understanding the function of specific problematic behaviors in
order to come up with a Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP). The A-B-C framework utilizes a
problem-solving approach that begins with identifying problematic behaviors, followed by an
analysis of the events prior to the manifestation of the behavior, and then reviewing the
consequences arising from the behavior.

C. Observation
Another way of measuring observable behavior is through continuous recording through
frequency or duration recording. Observation data should be specific, measurable, and
accurate. Frequency recording tallies how many times a specific behavior or skill is
demonstrated within a certain period of time. On the other hand, duration recording notes the
length of time a particular behavior is demonstrated. The choice between which method of
continuous recording to use is dependent on the variable being measured and the kind of
observable data that needs to be generated.
For instance, when observing a child's ability to sit through a class, this can be measured through
either frequency or duration recording. Frequency recording would reflect how many times the
student stood up during a set class period; while duration recording can note the length of time
he/she stayed in his/her seat.

2. Performance-Based Assessment as an Alternative Assessment Procedure for

Children with Special Needs

Performance- based assessments, on the other hand, give children with special needs the ability
to demonstrate knowledge and skills through means other than written tests. They take into
consideration individual learning styles and pace, providing an alternative way of measuring the
child's learning and developmental ability. Real-world tasks are emphasized in performance-
based assessments, thus, rendering this type of assessment more authentic.
Performance-based assessments are frequently employed by SPED teachers as an alternative
assessment, especially for children who are non-verbal, have limited attention span, and motor
deficits preventing them from sitting through a pen-and-paper test. Teachers can assess naturally
occurring behavior demonstrating performance in specific skills or set-up structured tasks to
assess for knowledge and abilities across developmental domains.
As an alternative assessment, performance-based assessments can evaluate either or both the
process and the product of learning.
For instance, in assessing handwriting, the SPED teacher can assess how a child with Dyslexia
holds the pencil (palmar or tripod grasp), fi he/she sits upright (ergonomics and posture), if
he/she stabilizes the paper with the other hand, and fi he/she performs near-point copying letter
per letter or word per word. This would assess the process of learning. He/she can also evaluate
the product, which is the output of writing itself. Does he/she write on lined paper? Is it generally
legible? Are the sizing and spacing of letters correct? Are there letter or word reversals?

According to Navarro and De Guzman-Santos (2012), "Assessment is most effective when it

reflects an understanding of learning as multidimensional, integrated, and revealed in
performance over time". Assessing the students' learning experience gives depth and richness to
assessment data. A rubric is usually created to assess student performance. It contains essential
criteria for performing a specific task and set levels of performance for each identified criterion.
Weights or scores can likewise be assigned for each criterion.
For product assessment, scoring rubrics can also be created to evaluate quality, creativity,
resourcefulness, and specific criteria. Problem-solving, as a function of performance-based
assessment, allows authentic assessment to be linked to intervention that best fits students'
strengths and identified needs rather than relying on standardized procedures alone

C . Writing the Authentic Assessment Report

A comprehensive assessment report plays a crucial role in creating an effective
Individualized Education Program (IEP) for students with special needs. This report documents a
student's strengths, weaknesses, needs, and learning environment to guide personalized
instruction and support.

The Assessment report should be clear, concise, and organized in a way that facilitates
understanding for all stakeholders involved in the student's education.
Structure of the Report:

1. Identifying Information:

 Student Name
 Date of Birth
 Grade Level
 Teacher(s)
 Evaluator(s)
 Date of Assessment

2. Background Information:

 Briefly summarize the student's educational history, including any previous

assessments and reports.
 Mention the student's diagnosis (if applicable) and relevant medical information (with
parental permission).
 Include information about the student's family and cultural background, if pertinent.

3. Present Levels of Performance (PLPs):

 This is the core section, detailing the assessment result of the student's current
academic, social-emotional, behavioral, and functional skills in various domains.
 Use data from multiple sources, including:
o Standardized assessments (if applicable)
o Curriculum-based assessments
o Classroom observations
o Teacher and parent/guardian reports
o Student work samples
  Organize the PLPs by specific skill areas like reading, math, communication, social
interaction, self-regulation, etc.
 Use clear and objective language to describe the student's strengths and weaknesses
in each area.
 Include concrete examples to illustrate the student's performance level.

4. Areas of Need:

 Based on the PLPs, identify specific areas where the student requires additional
support and interventions.
 Link these needs to the student's eligibility category under the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA).

5. Recommendations:

 Propose specific interventions and strategies to address the student's identified needs.
 These may include:
o Modifications or accommodations to the curriculum
o Specialized instruction or therapy services
o Social-emotional learning support programs
o Assistive technology tools
o Behavior intervention plans (BIPs)
 Ensure the recommendations are aligned with evidence-based practices and meet the
student's specific needs.

6. Collaboration and Communication:

 Outline the plan for ongoing communication and collaboration among teachers,
specialists, parents/guardians, and other relevant personnel involved in the student's
education.
 Schedule for regular meetings to discuss progress, review goals and objectives, and
make adjustments to the IEP as needed.

7. Summary and Recommendations:

 Briefly summarize the key findings of the assessment and reiterate the student's needs
and recommended interventions.
 Express a commitment to ongoing monitoring and collaboration to support the
student's success in the learning environment.

Acquire New Knowledge

SNED 101
Module 3: Changing Setting Events to Improve Student Behavior

Student behavior in the classroom can be affected by variety of broad, contextual variables.
Preventing problem behavior offer requires altering the context by (a)changing the physical
layout of the room, b) defining and teaching expected behavior, (c) structuring routines clearly,
a) changing supervision style, and (e) altering or controlling for activities that occur before or
after class.

Changing the Physical Layout of the Room

If results of the classroom FBA indicate that room arrangement might be contributing to problem
behavior, then any intervention initially should focus on altering room layout.
USNIG WALL SPACE. Wall space and bulletin boards are useful areas not only for displaying
important information (such as classroom rules, discussed later) but also for individualizing a
classroom. Even if you begin the year with empty bulletin boards, this space surely will become
filled with student work as the year progresses. When considering the use of walls and bulletin
boards in a classroom, be sure that you have identified a consistent and easily viewed space for
(a) classroom rules, (b) a daily schedule, and (c) a monthly or yearly academic calendar of
important upcoming events. In addition, be sure that everything on your walls is relevant to what
you are teaching. When you have completed a lesson, remove any wall or board items relevant to
that lesson; this will help you keep your room from becoming cluttered.

LOCATING THE TEACHERS' DESK. The location of the teacher's desk is almost as
important as how student desks are situated. Effective teachers spend little time actually seated at
their desk when students are in the room. Instead, they constantly move around the room,
supervise their class, and provide feedback and assistance to students when needed.
MATERIALS IN THE CLASSROOM. When we consider what is in a classroom, the items
mentioned first typically are the teacher's desk, a chalkboard, and student desks. Usually,
however, there are many more objects in a classroom. Classrooms typically include at least one
file cabinet, bookshelves, one or more computers, audiovisual equipment (overhead projectors or
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD projectors], and maybe other teaching tools such as an aquarium or
plants. The teacher’s job is to organize the room so that all these items facilitate rather than
hinder student learning.
File cabinets and other storage furniture should be kept in a functional place that will not impede
student movement about the room. Consider separate storage areas for items that you frequently
use and for items that you use less often. Frequently used items are best located close to where
they will be used. For example, headphones might be kept in small bins below computer work
stations. Many teachers bring personalizing items into their classroom such as plants or an
aquarium. Such items add visual appeal to the classroom and also can be used as learning tools.
If you introduce such items into your room, be sure students know ahead of time and are taught
specific rules about how to interact with what you bring. For example, students might be taught
to keep their hands of the glass if you place a fish aquarium in the room. Establish rules about
when students can interact with the items you bring and locate these items in an area where they
will not be distracting.
STUDENT DESK ARRANGEMENTS. Research has shown that the physical layout of a room
can have significantly affect student learning and inappropriate behavior. There is no one correct
way that desks should be located, however. Instead, teachers should use the assessment to
determine whether the current arrangement facilitates their class goals, and why or why not. For
example, if a teacher's goal is to increase collaborative problem solving (as measured by
students, working together), then a grouped arrangement of desks (or students at tables) might be
most effective. In contrast, a teacher concerned about students whispering during instruction
might consider placing desks in rows to decrease student-to-student interaction.

TRAFFIC PATTERNS IN THE CLASSROOM. Closely related to desk arrangements is the

flow of traffic about the room. There should be sufficient space between desks to allow students
to move to and from their desks easily and without disrupting other students. In addition,
students should be able to move to and from work stations situated around the room. Third, any
room dividers should be considered carefully. Room dividers include obvious dividers such as
large panels and walls (movable and permanent) but can also be objects that block the line of
sight both of teachers and students. Effective classrooms allow the teacher to observe all students
in the room from any location. Thus, a teacher should be able to see what students are doing
regardless of where he or she is standing. In addition, all students should be able to see and hear
the teacher's instruction. Many teachers use work areas (or work centers) in a classroom. A work
area is a specific part of the room where a given activity is to occur. For example, a first grade
teacher may designate the back table in her room as the art area. For all work areas, use the
following guidelines:
1 Place needed materials close to the work area to minimize movement around the room.

2. Be sure that you can supervise students in the work area from all locations in the
room and that you can see the entire room fi you are helping a student in the work
area.
3. Establish rules specific to the work area as needed.
4. Designate when students are and are not permitted to be in the work area.

Defining and Teaching Expected Behavior

identify learning objectives and then define how we will measure progress. Further, we articulate
precise strategies for how we will teach students the new skill, usually through a process of
didactic instruction, and frequent opportunities. to practice, and feedback. Once this preparation
has occurred, we implement those specific teaching strategies to guide skill development and
build fluency.
The second way to enhance predictability is the development and explicit teaching of classroom
rules. Rules should be developed for the classroom in general and as well for any specific
routines that the classroom assessment reveals as problematic. We first focus on general rules for
the classroom and then on rules for specific routines. We then provide strategies for developing,
teaching, and enforcing rules.

BEHAVIORAL EXPECTATIONS AS FOUNDATION FOR CLASSROOM RULES

A useful way to begin identifying rules for a classroom is to consider broadly what behavior is
expected. The focus is on general statements of appropriate behavior (e.g. "Be respectful" or "Be
cooperative"). Behavioral expectations are general statements of prosocial behavior; that is, they
establish behavioral norms for a classroom. Expectations are a useful shorthand way of stating
more specific rules. Because specific rules are tied to expectations, having three to five simple
prosocial behavioral expectations makes it easier for students and teachers to remember multiple
rules. For example, the expectation "Be prepared" could be defined as having homework out
when class begins, having a pencil and paper at hand, and following directions the first time. All
of these behaviors can be quickly summarized as "Be prepared."

DEVELOPNIG OVERALL CLASROM RULES. classroom rules provide guidelines for

appropriate student behavior. Rules are specific statements of expected behavior; they delineate
what a person should say or do in the classroom. Whereas expectations are global constructs,
rules focus on precisely what should occur.

Guidelines for Developing Classroom Rules

 Align rules with school-wide expectations and school rules

 Describe what people will say or do focusing no observable behavior
 Develop only three to five rules for each expectation
 Rules are applicable in all areas of the classroom and for all activities
 Rules are developmentally appropriate
 Rules are publicly posted

Structure of Routines
A classroom schedule indicates the order of activities. Classroom schedules need to be flexible
enough to incorporate the many instructional activities that can occur in a given day. Thus,
schedules do not specify specific activities, instead, they provide general topics to be covered.
Approaches to Setting Events

 Elimination: If feasible, completely remove the setting event from the

environment. For example, if bright lights trigger anxiety in a student, providing
access to a quieter, dimmed space might be an option.
 Neutralization: Modify the setting event to lessen its impact. If loud noises
contribute to restlessness, providing noise-canceling headphones or introducing
calming activities before noisy transitions could help.
 Neutralizing routines: Implementing specific, enjoyable activities after the setting
event occurs.
 Prompting Positive Behavior: Introduce prompts or cues to encourage desired
behavior before the setting event triggers the undesired behavior. Providing clear
instructions and visual schedules before transitions can help students anticipate and
prepare.
 Building Positive Reinforcers: Can you increase the effectiveness of positive
reinforcement strategies in the context of the setting event? Offering choices or
assigning preferred activities after completing tasks can help motivate the individual
to engage in positive behaviors.

Using Consequences to Encourage Student Behavior in the Classroom Reinforcement

the process by which a behavior is followed by a given consequence that increases the
probability that the behavior will occur again. In other words, we reinforce a behavior when we
give or take away things in the environment that make someone more likely to do that behavior
in the future.
For example, if a teacher insults students every time they ask a question and the students actually
ask more questions in the future, these insults would be considered to be reinforcers.

Positive Reinforcement
Selecting positive reinforcers for a classroom is a critical yet complex decision for the teacher.
Students' tastes and interests change regardless of age, and the novelty (and therefore the
reinforcing strength) of almost any reinforcer can wear thin. Because student preferences are
constantly changing and different reinforcers gain or lose reinforcing strength, teachers may feel
like they are trying to hit a moving target.

The ultimate objective is to have the environment naturally reinforce appropriate behaviors,
without artificial or teacher-distributed reinforcers. Using as little reinforcement as possible is
important because our goal is to create independent, autonomous individuals who are internally
motivated to complete work, observe social norms, and behave appropriately rather than
dependent on external, teacher-supplied reinforcers.
The reluctance to use reinforcement in the classroom setting may be partially due to teachers and
other adults not observing this rule. This rule is also related to two other considerations. First, all
reinforcers should be gradually removed to allow the response to occur independent of the
presentation of reinforcers. This process is referred to as fading--the systematic removal of
stimuli, including prompts, reinforcers, and so on, to foster the occurrence of the target behavior
without these stimuli.

Negative Reinforcement
involve the removal of some desired item or privilege. For example, students might begin class
with 15 points each, with points being deducted for rule violations such as talking out of turn.

ACKNOWLEDGING APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR

A foundation of any classroom management system is an informal system for acknowledging
appropriate behavior at high rates. There are three broad categories of direct reinforcers that
teachers can use in their classrooms to acknowledge appropriate behavior:
1) attention as a reinforcer
2) activity reinforcers
3) and tangible reinforcers.

These can be combined in numerous ways to powerfully affect behavior.

ATTENTION AS A REINFORCER
The use of teacher and peer attention is a valuable tool for classroom teachers in increasing or
maintaining specific behaviors.

Example:
Getting noticed, receiving praise, or having a sticky note saying "Great job..." placed on the edge
of students' desks are al examples of the first category of reinforcers that students can receive
from teachers. Verbal reinforcement, social recognition, and physical gestures (e.g., pats on the
back) can be provided easily and frequently. These more natural reinforcers usually occur across
settings, and the take much less effort to provide.

Effective praise can be defined as praise delivered together with the reason
for the acknowledgement, contingent on appropriate behavior. Effective praise is typically more
than just saying "Good job." Effective praise can be a verbal or written statement that both
reinforces a given behavior and teaches the conditions under which the behavior is to be emitted.

ACTIVITY REINFORCERS
Activities are as effective as reinforcers in the classroom because they do not require lots of
money and they allow the teacher to interact with students in wavs that are not related simply to
academic instruction. Many activities also require interaction between peers, or between peers
and adults, setting up "teachable moments" or opportunities to provide social skills instruction in
context, which is the most appropriate way to deliver this type of instruction.

Computer games, extra recess time, and free time at the end of a class period to talk with friends
are all examples of activity reinforcers. Activity reinforcers cover a wide gamut of individual and
group reinforcers that are available to teachers to reinforce future occurrences of desired
behavior. Even classroom jobs can be a reinforcer.

Advantages:

 relatively inexpensive (e.g., the cost of a board game or a deck of cards)

 helpful in developing rapport and establishing a positive environment in the
classroom
 useful for teaching social skills • easy to manipulate

Disadvantages

 Time Intrusive
 Antecedent to unwanted behavior (post-reinforcement pause)
 Require teacher energy and attention
 Cannot always be used immediately

TANGIBLE REINFORCERS
A tangible reinforcer is defined as the presentation of an object (as opposed to an activity or just
attention), contingent on a specific behavior, that increases future occurrences of that behavior.
The overuse of this category is probably responsible for the erroneous belief that a behaviorist
approach to teaching consists mainly of awarding M&Ms to every student. This myth
notwithstanding, there are many reasons why tangible reinforcers should be the teacher's last
resort for providing direct reinforcers to students. However, there are certain instances in which
this type of reinforcer is the only one that will get the job done.
Tangible reinforcers demand more time, energy, and resources than either attention or activity
reinforcers, which means that they should be used carefully. However, tangible reinforcers are
also the most powerful ones and may be necessary to elicit desired behaviors from some
students. This power is what makes choosing appropriate tangibles
as reinforcers particularly difficult.

WHOLE-CLASS FORMAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT SYSTEMS

One of the simplest types of acknowledgment systems involves providing a reinforcer when the
entire class engages in a behavior. This is employed by teachers to recognize and reinforce
positive behavior and achievements among all students in the classroom simultaneously. This
system is designed to create a positive and supportive learning environment, foster a sense of
community, and motivate students to actively engage in desired behaviors.

Examples:

1. Classroom Recognition Board: A physical or digital board prominently displayed in

the classroom where teachers publicly acknowledge students' achievements, such as
academic accomplishments, acts of kindness, or positive character traits. Students'
names or photos along with their achievements are showcased on the board for
everyone to see.
2. Classroom Cheers and Applause: Teachers lead the class in collective cheers or
applause to celebrate accomplishments, milestones, or positive behaviors
demonstrated by students. This can be done spontaneously or as part of a structured
routine at the beginning or end of class.
3. Weekly or Monthly Awards: Establishing regular awards or certificates to
recognize students' efforts and achievements over a specific period, such as weekly or
monthly. Categories may include academic excellence, improvement in behavior,
leadership, creativity, or acts of kindness. Awards can be presented during a
dedicated ceremony or assembly.
4. Classroom Shout-Outs: Teachers verbally acknowledge students' contributions,
efforts, or positive behaviors during class discussions or activities. This can involve
praising students for demonstrating kindness, helping their peers, participating
actively, or achieving academic success.
5. Virtual Recognition Platforms: Utilizing digital platforms or apps where teachers
can publicly acknowledge and celebrate students' achievements, behaviors, or
contributions. Teachers may post messages, photos, or videos highlighting students'
accomplishments, which can be shared with the entire class or school community.
6. Positive Notes or Messages: Writing personalized notes or messages to recognize
students' efforts, progress, or positive behaviors. These notes can be handed out
individually or read aloud to the class during a designated time, fostering a sense of
pride and accomplishment among students.
7. Classroom Celebrations: Organizing special classroom celebrations or events to
commemorate collective achievements, such as reaching academic goals, completing
 a project, or demonstrating exceptional teamwork. This can involve fun activities,
games, or treats to reward students for their hard work and positive contributions.
8. Interactive Polls or Surveys: Using technology tools or classroom response systems
to conduct real-time polls or surveys where students vote for their peers who have
demonstrated exemplary behavior, leadership, or academic progress. The results are
shared with the class, and selected students are publicly acknowledged and praised.
9. Classroom Compliment Chains: Initiating a compliment chain activity where
students verbally or in writing express compliments or words of appreciation towards
their classmates. Each compliment contributes to building a positive and supportive
classroom culture, reinforcing a sense of belonging and mutual respect.
10. Classroom-wide Goal Setting: Collaboratively setting and tracking classroom-wide
goals related to academic achievement, behavior, or social-emotional learning. When
students collectively achieve a set goal, the entire class is acknowledged and
rewarded for their collective efforts and accomplishments.

Unit 4: Designing Individualized Instructional Strategies and Behavior Intervention Plans

1. Individualized Instructional strategies

1. Replacement Behaviors

A replacement behavior is one that is relevant in the environment. A behavior that serves the
same function as the problem behavior is known as a "fair pair." A good replacement behavior is
one that looks normal in the environment, is easily taught to the student, and involves active
student behavior that results in reinforcement.
Ideally, undesirable behaviors are replaced with desirable behaviors that will serve the same
function (i.e., purpose) for the student.

Example

1. Bobby screams to get the teacher's attention, we should teach him more appropriate
behaviors for accessing the same outcome (e.g., raising a hand, stating the teacher's
name, etc.)

2. Mary screams to escape unpleasant interactions with peers, we must teach her more
appropriate ways of escaping such situations as well as behaviors for initiating and
sustaining positive interactions.
Replacement behaviors will be used only when they are more effective and efficient in meeting
the student's needs.

Replacement Benefit of
Undesirable Function of Both
Predictor Behavior and Replacement
Behavior Behaviors
Contingency Behavior

Additional More math

Scream until thrown Raise hand to get
problems with Escape frustration completed and
out of class assistance
regrouping less screaming

Pushes peers an
Don't touch anyone
d ends up Access first spot No physical
Line-up and is allowed to be
in line aggression in line
at the front of the the first one in line
line

Is allowed to sit and

Refuses directions to play Escape from Student now gets
Reading
read and ends up at desk after reading reading/ access to some reading
groups
sitting alone at desk a predetermined playing at desk instruction
number of pages

When Robert is Complete al

assigned tasks and Student remains
near, Sam will
earn time to Access to Robert's on task and
Sam engage in of- task
attention completes
behavior to get play alone with assigned tasks
Robert's attention Robert

Instruction
After teachers determined an appropriate replacement behavior, they are ready to begin teaching.
Teaching social behaviors should be undertaken in precisely the same manner as academic
instruction. That is, instruction must be planned to facilitate student success via effective
instructional practices including explanations, modeling, prompting, and guidance to ensure that
students can demonstrate skills on their own.
The teacher directs instruction by creating example sets and providing students with models and
examples calculated to ensure the probability of success. Naturally occurring examples from the
students' environment are selected to demonstrate the range of situations under which the
replacement behavior should and should not occur. After the students have demonstrated fluency
with guided examples, the teacher provides them with a set of untrained probes to assess for
mastery before moving on to the next skill. As with teaching examples, testing examples should
be selected from the natural environment.

Errorless Learning
refers to the development of instructional strategies and procedures that maximize the probability
of student success, thereby minimizing the probability of failure. Students learn little from
repeated errors, but truly errorless instruction is not likely. Rather, the goal is simply to
maximize the ratio of success to failure, allowing the student to receive reinforcement and a
natural incentive to continue. Errorless learning is facilitated through the use of effective
instructional design (rationale, modeling, examples, practice), prompts and environmental cues,
and specific strategies for instructional delivery.
Errorless learning strategies increase student success rates and decrease problem behaviors
while creating opportunities for increased positive teacher and student interaction (because
success is more fun for both the teacher and the student).

Shaping
One of the methods of breaking complex behaviors into smaller components to facilitate student
success and gradually build capacity with larger and more complex behaviors. Shaping can be
technically defined as the systematic reinforcement of successive approximations toward a
target behavior. It involves teaching and reinforcing behaviors that are not really what we want
in the end, but that approach it as we go.
Shaping is the most effective strategy when a behavior is present, but is not fluent in the presence
of a naturally occurring discriminative stimulus. The shaping process generally is implemented
over an extended period of time. Although some behaviors could be shaped in a shorter period of
time, truly complex behaviors require a series of approximations, each of which requires days or
weeks to achieve the mastery that indicates the need to model the next approximation.

1. Identifying the Target Behavior: The first step in shaping is to clearly define the
specific behavior that you want to teach or modify. This behavior should be clearly
observable, measurable, and achievable.
2. Breaking Down the Behavior: Once the target behavior is identified, it is broken
down into smaller, more achievable steps or components. These steps should be
logical progressions leading towards the ultimate goal behavior.
3. Reinforcing Successive Approximations: In shaping, reinforcement is provided for
behaviors that are increasingly closer to the target behavior. Initially, any behavior
that even slightly resembles the target behavior is reinforced. As the learner
progresses, reinforcement is gradually shifted to behaviors that more closely
approximate the target behavior.
 4. Gradually Raising the Criteria: As the learner demonstrates proficiency in one
level of behavior, the criteria for reinforcement are gradually raised. This means that
the learner must exhibit behaviors that are closer to the target behavior to receive
reinforcement.
5. Fading Reinforcement: Once the target behavior is consistently demonstrated, the
reinforcement is gradually faded out. This means that the learner no longer receives
reinforcement for every instance of the behavior, but rather intermittently or only
when particularly exemplary instances occur.
6. Maintaining the Behavior: After the target behavior is successfully shaped and
maintained, it is important to continue to reinforce it periodically to ensure that it
remains strong and consistent over time.

Example: A teacher wants to shape a student's behavior of raising their hand before speaking out
in class discussions. Here's how shaping might be applied:

1. Identify the Target Behavior: Raising hand before speaking in class.

2. Breaking Down the Behavior:

 Step 1: Student makes any attempt to raise their hand, even if it's brief.
 Step 2: Student raises their hand for a slightly longer duration.
 Step 3: Student raises their hand and waits for teacher acknowledgment before
speaking.
 Step 4: Student consistently raises hand before speaking without reminders.

1. Reinforcement: Initially, the teacher provides immediate praise or a small reward for
any attempt to raise the hand. As the student progresses through the steps,
reinforcement is adjusted to only occur when the hand is raised for longer durations
or when waiting for acknowledgment.
2. Gradually Raising Criteria: The teacher gradually increases the expectations for
hand-raising, requiring the student to raise their hand higher or hold it up for longer
before receiving reinforcement.
3. Fading Reinforcement: Once the student consistently raises their hand before
speaking, the teacher begins to fade out reinforcement by providing praise
intermittently rather than every time.
4. Maintaining the Behavior: The teacher continues to reinforce the behavior
periodically to ensure that the student continues to raise their hand before speaking in
the long term.

Chaining
Like shaping, chaining is used to build complex behaviors by teaching smaller and less complex
components with a view toward an eventual terminal behavior. Chaining is defined as
reinforcement of combinations of simple behaviors that are already in the repertoire of the
individual to form more complex behavior. While in shaping neither the desired behavior nor
any component skills exist prior to instruction, chaining links together several smaller behaviors
that are already fluent in order to create a more complex behavior. Chaining is used to teach
complex behaviors composed of smaller discrete steps consisting of behaviors that the student
has already mastered. It is generally a simple procedure to implement. First, the teacher must
identify a behavior with a logical sequence of discrete skills that will increase the student's
independence or functioning level in the classroom.

1. Forward Chaining: This method starts by teaching the first step of the desired
behavior. Once the learner consistently performs the first step, the second step is
added, and then the third, and so on, until the entire behavior is mastered.
2. Backward Chaining: This method starts by teaching the last step of the desired
behavior. Then, the step before the last one is added, and so on, until the entire
behavior is mastered. This approach can be particularly helpful for tasks that have a
natural endpoint, such as getting dressed.
3. Total Task Chaining: This method involves teaching all the steps of the desired
behavior at once, with prompts and guidance provided by the instructor. As the
learner becomes more proficient, the prompts and guidance are gradually faded out.

Example: Tying of shoelace (Task)

 Forward Chaining:

 Step 1: Untie the shoelaces.

 Step 2: Make a loop with one shoelace.
 Step 3: Make a loop with the other shoelace.
 Step 4: Cross the loops over each other.
 Step 5: Pull the laces tight.

 Backward Chaining:

 Step 1: Pull the laces tight (already looped and crossed).

 Step 2: Cross the loops over each other (laces already looped).
 Step 3: Make a loop with the other shoelace.
 Step 4: Make a loop with one shoelace.
 Step 5: Untie the shoelaces.

 Total Task Chaining:

 The instructor demonstrates the entire process of tying shoes, breaking it down into
smaller steps verbally.
 The child attempts to tie their shoes with guidance and prompts from the instructor.
 As the child becomes more proficient, the prompts and guidance are gradually
reduced.
 1. Instructional Manipulations

While shaping and chaining represent techniques for developing errorless learning,
several other teaching strategies can be used to facilitate higher student success rates.
Modeling
Modeling is simply the act of demonstrating or modeling a key skill or behavior in order to
prompt an imitative response. Modeling is an effective part of any instruction because students
benefit from watching how to engage in appropriate behaviors and discriminate the contexts and
situations in which to use them. It is used explicitly as part of instruction when the teacher tells
the student the behavior being modeled and its key components during the demonstration.
Demonstrations typically are repeated while verbally engaging the student to evaluate
understanding.

Provide Opportunities to Respond

It is well established that engagement with instruction is highly correlated with achievement.
During instruction, the teacher is solely responsible for the degree to which students are engaged.
Certainly, students can choose not to be engaged regardless of the nature or content of the
instruction, but teachers can affect the probability of engagement through their instructional
strategies by allowing students opportunities to respond to academic and behavioral instruction
through requests, open-ended questions, and engaging materials, teachers may decrease student
deficits in academics and promote appropriate classroom behaviors such as staying on task. In
addition, providing sufficient opportunities to respond allows the teacher to adjust lessons based
on student feedback

Manipulate Task Difficulty

Task difficulty can be reduced by developing more basic tasks within the same content,
reviewing concepts that have already been mastered, or providing additional assistance or
arrangements to simplify the task. Of course, the key is to determine whether the student has the
necessary skills to complete the more difficult academic problems with sufficient effort. If he or
she does, this intervention is not appropriate. In addition, the teacher must assess the amount of
work the student is currently completing and determine the amount of manipulation of difficulty
most appropriate.

Manipulation of task difficulty is a strategy that, while very effective, cannot stand alone. Again,
the idea is to make the student more successful, and manipulation of difficulty should always be
combined with prompts and environmental arrangements, increased teacher attention, direct
instruction of academic strategies necessary to complete assigned tasks, and describing what
alternative behaviors the students can use when they get frustrated with the work.
Another way of implementing manipulation of task difficulty is to present easier problems
together with more academically difficult problems. In this case, the student is eased into the
more difficult content by maintaining a high success rate. Students are reinforced by their ability
to complete these problems.

Constant Time Delay

Constant time delay is an instructional strategy that provides students time to respond to an
initial direction or signal (e.g., a bell ringing) that involves few teachers' verbal prompts
(i.e., extra instructions, hints, or rule reminders) while continuing to obtain compliant behaviors
from the student. Constant time delay is effective for students who require extra time to respond
to an initial signal, especially students who are often off-task, noncompliant, or unprepared for
class

Constant time delay is a strategy that decreases students' reliance on teachers excessive
directions for compliance. Consistently giving students an adequate amount of time to follow
initial directions allows them to learn independent behavior in response to a more natural system
of directions and decreases their need for excessive teacher guidance. Because verbal prompts
can be used with multiple students (e.g., "Morning announcements are starting, so sit at your
desk, be quiet, and listen."), constant time delay can be used with as many or as few students as
necessary. This process can be especially effective with students with processing deficits who
take longer to process the initial signal and translate it into the appropriate action.

1. Behavior Intervention Plan

1. Rationale

Behavior Intervention Plan is a roadmap for understanding and addressing challenging behaviors
in individuals. It outlines proactive strategies to prevent unwanted behaviors, teaches
replacement skills, and establishes clear responses to challenging behaviors when they occur.
Conducting an FBA and identifying intervention strategies is not enough: Effective interventions
should be documented. Documenting the FBA and the support plan is important for several
reasons.

 documentation provides a cue for implementers

 teachers and others can review the document to ensure that

they are implementing the intervention as planned.

This is especially important when interventions are modified or carried out over extended
periods of time.
 1. Key Components of Behavior Support Plans

Behavior Intervention plan should have intervention measures linked to the results of a
functional behavior assessment (FBA), systems to ensure that the intervention will be
implemented with fidelity and sustained over time, and a plan for data collection to monitor
outcomes and guide decision making.

1. Identifying Information:

 Student's name, grade level, and diagnosis (if applicable)

 Team members involved in developing and implementing the plan
 Date the plan is developed and reviewed

1. Description of the Behavior:

 A clear and objective definition of the challenging behavior(s)

 Specific examples of the behavior (e.g., hitting, yelling, running out of class)
 Frequency, duration, intensity, and location of the behavior

1. Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA):

 This section explores the reasons why the behavior occurs. It identifies the triggers
(antecedents) that precede the behavior, the desired outcome (consequence) the
individual seeks, and the function the behavior serves (e.g., escape from demands,
access to attention).

1. Positive Interventions and Supports

 Strategies to prevent the challenging behavior from occurring in the first place. This
could include:
o Antecedent interventions: Modifying the environment or routines to
reduce triggers (e.g., providing clear instructions, offering breaks).
o Teaching replacement skills: Equipping the individual with appropriate
ways to communicate needs or achieve desired outcomes (e.g., using
communication boards, requesting breaks appropriately).
o Positive reinforcement: Acknowledging and rewarding desired
behaviors to encourage them (e.g., praise, stickers, social rewards).

1. Response to Challenging Behavior:

 Clear and consistent procedures for responding to challenging behaviors when they
occur. This should include:
o De-escalation techniques to calm the situation (e.g., providing quiet space,
offering calming activities).
o Reinforcement for appropriate behavior displayed during challenging
situations.
 1. Data Collection and Progress Monitoring:

 A system for tracking the frequency, intensity, and duration of the challenging
behavior, as well as the effectiveness of interventions. This data is used to evaluate
the plan and make adjustments as needed.

1. Communication and Collaboration:

 A plan for ongoing communication between all stakeholders involved, including

parents, teachers, therapists, and support staff. Regular meetings are crucial to ensure
everyone is on the same page and working towards common goals.

1. PRACTICES: KEY FEATURES OF THE INTERVENTION

Effective interventions are linked to the results of an FBA; that is, they address features
in the environment that are related to the occurrence of the problem behavior. Behavior support
plans generally consist of antecedent interventions, skill building interventions, and
consequences to decrease problem behavior and enhance prosocial behavior. When needed, a
safety plan is included as well. When determining the specific interventions components to
include in a support plan, ask the following questions:

1. Antecedent Interventions: Can we take steps to prevent the problem behavior from
occurring or increase the likelihood that the student will do the right thing?

2. Target Desired Behaviors: What do we want the student to do and are there
acceptable alternative behaviors?

3. Skill Building: What skills does the student need to learn and what behaviors need to
occur more often?

4. Reinforcement: How can we make sure that appropriate behavior pays off.

5. Minimizing Reinforcement: What can we do to minimize reinforcement

for problem behavior?

 6. Safety Plan: Is this student's behavior ever dangerous to self or others?

1. Systems for Implementation

The School Behavior Team has a stable membership and meets regularly (e.g., every
other week). Members include an administrator responsible for student discipline decisions; the
behavior specialist, who conducts FBAs and builds support plans and at least one teacher.
The School Behavior Team oversees support planning in the school, which includes selecting
students who may benefit from intervention, matching students to intervention, and progress
monitoring.
The specific composition of an SBT can vary depending on the size and resources of the school.

 School Principal or Administrator: Provides leadership and support for the team's
activities.
 School Psychologist: Conducts FBAs and provides expertise on behavior
management strategies.
 Special Education Teacher: Offers knowledge and experience in working with
students with disabilities who may also have behavioral needs.
 School Counselor: Supports students' social and emotional well-being and provides
guidance on addressing behavior concerns.
 Social Worker: Connects students and families with community resources that may
be able to offer additional support.
 General Education Teachers: Collaborate with the team to implement behavior
interventions within the classroom setting.
 Parents/Guardians: Active participation of parents is crucial for the success of
behavior support plans