Enabling mine closure and

transitions: Opportunities for

Australian industry
CRC TiME Project 3.17
November 2023
Citation CSIRO Futures
CSIRO (2023) Enabling mine closure and transitions: At CSIRO Futures, we bring together science, technology,
Opportunities for Australian industry. Prepared for CRC and economics to help you develop transformative
TiME. CSIRO, Australia. strategies that tackle your biggest challenges. As the
strategic and economic advisory arm of Australia’s national
science agency, we are uniquely positioned to transform
Authorship complexity into clarity, uncertainty into opportunity, and
This report was authored by Dominic Banfield, insights into action.
Anthea Moisi, Jose Francisco Carranceja, Jasmine Cohen
and Vivek Srinivasan.
CSIRO disclaimer
CSIRO advises that the information contained in this
Acknowledgements publication comprises general statements based on
CSIRO acknowledges the Traditional Owners of the land, consultations and scientific research. The reader is advised
sea and waters, of the area that we live and work on across and needs to be aware that such information may be
Australia. We acknowledge their continuing connection to incomplete or unable to be used in any specific situation.
their culture, and we pay our respects to their Elders, past No reliance or actions must therefore be made on that
and present. information without seeking prior expert professional,
scientific and technical advice. To the extent permitted
This project received strategic advice and direction from a
by law, CSIRO (including its employees and consultants)
Steering Committee including Dr Agnes Samper (CRC TiME),
excludes all liability to any person for any consequences,
Dave Clark (GHD Group), Dr Ewan Sellers (CSIRO), Dr Jason
including but not limited to all losses, damages, costs,
Kirby (CSIRO and CRC TiME), John Briggs (Intract Australia),
expenses and any other compensation, arising directly or
Dr Kirsty Becket (FMG) and Dr Laura Machuca Suarez
indirectly from using this publication (in part or in whole)
(MRIWA).
and any information or material contained in it.
The authors would like to thank the members of the
project’s Steering Committee and Advisory Group, and
Accessibility
acknowledge the contributions of all stakeholders that
provided input to this project through consultations, CSIRO is committed to providing web-accessible content
workshops, and reviews. The authors also thank Dr Guy wherever possible. If you are having difficulties with
Boggs, Jillian D’Urso and the CRC TiME team for their accessing this document, please contact csiro.au/contact.
support. Appendix C includes a complete list of the
organisations that provided input to this project. Copyright
All rights reserved. The contents of this publication
CRC TiME are copyright in all countries subscribing to the Berne
Part of the Australian Government’s flagship CRC Program, Convention. No parts of this book may be reproduced
the Cooperative Research Centre for Transformations in in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
Mining Economies (CRC TiME) brings together diverse in existence or to be invented, including photocopying,
stakeholders to help re-imagine and transform mine recording or by any information storage and retrieval
closure and transitions for the better. It is the world’s system, without the written permission of the authors,
only dedicated research focused on what happens after except where permitted by law.
mining ends. Copyright © 2023, Cooperative Research Centre for
Transformations in Mining Economies Ltd
Project partners
This Cooperative Research Centre for Transformations in Mining Economies (CRC TiME) project was led by CSIRO
with financial and in-kind support from the following partners:

Major partners

Partners

i
ii Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry
Contents
Forewords.....................................................................................................................................................iv
This report....................................................................................................................................................vi
Executive summary ...............................................................................................................................vii
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................1
2 Engagement and partnerships......................................................................................................5
2.1 Effective engagement..............................................................................................................................................6
2.2 Co-design and partnerships....................................................................................................................................8

3 Waste reduction and resource recovery................................................................................. 11

3.1 Waste reduction ....................................................................................................................................................12
3.2 Repurposing mineral waste...................................................................................................................................14
3.3 Mineral resource recovery.....................................................................................................................................16
3.4 Recycling non-mineral waste................................................................................................................................20

4 Mine rehabilitation............................................................................................................................22
4.1 Physical stability.....................................................................................................................................................24
4.2 Hydrological systems.............................................................................................................................................28
4.3 Pollutant management..........................................................................................................................................30
4.4 Revegetation and biodiversity..............................................................................................................................32

5 Land use transitions.........................................................................................................................37

5.1 Post-closure land use.............................................................................................................................................40

6 Enabling industry growth ............................................................................................................43

6.1 Multi-stakeholder actions.....................................................................................................................................44
6.2 MCS industry actions.............................................................................................................................................46
6.3 Mining industry actions.........................................................................................................................................48
6.4 Government actions...............................................................................................................................................48

Appendices................................................................................................................................................. 51
Appendix A: Glossary....................................................................................................................................................... 51
Appendix B: Economic analysis........................................................................................................................................53
Appendix C: Project participants.....................................................................................................................................62

iii
Foreword from the Minister
Mining has been key to Australia’s economic development There is now a much greater understanding of the risks and
since the very first coal exports from our continent in opportunities associated with rehabilitation processes, not
1802, and is at the heart of our reputation as a modern, just for local communities but also for the social licence of
trading nation. resource companies themselves.

Now, Australia is again looking to its miners to support our As we open more mines there will inevitably be growth in
nation and the world through the transition to a cleaner demand for expertise in mine closures and rehabilitation.
future on the path to net zero emissions by 2050.
This will bring immense opportunity for both workers and
The path to net zero runs through the resources sector. communities, including for First Nations communities.

If we are to reduce emissions, we will need to mine more. Just as Australia has a world leading reputation for our
Mining, Equipment and Technology Services, we can
We will need more minerals to build the wind turbines, become a major exporter of skills and expertise in mine
batteries, solar panels and transmission lines needed for closure and rehabilitation services.
the energy transition.
The Albanese Government is committed to working with
But as we undertake this enormous task, we must also industry to address challenges in this sector, to make the
ensure we are improving the way we go about mine most of opportunities and to create jobs.
closures once we have put those resources to good use.
We will ensure our mining and energy sectors remain
Just like exploration and investment in new projects, mine strong and sustainable for current and future generations.
closure is a normal part of the lifecycle of all mines.
This report is a significant milestone in the ongoing
This report estimates almost 240 existing mines will close conversation of how we make the world’s greatest mining
by 2040. In addition to this there are many thousands of industry even better.
unrehabilitated mines in Australia.
Hon Madeleine King MP
The way we have gone about closing and rehabilitating Minister for Resources
mines has changed radically over past decades. Minister for Northern Australia
Member for Brand

iv Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Foreword from CRC TiME
I am pleased to introduce this landmark report, Beyond land rehabilitation to asset
Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for repurposing and waste recovery
Australian industry.
This report also provides the first comprehensive mapping
Based on novel economic analysis and broad stakeholder of opportunities for growth in Australia’s mine closure
engagement, it establishes a compelling case for solutions industry.
coordinated action to help unlock new domestic and global
opportunities for Australian enterprises while helping solve Existing and emerging opportunities across four categories
the mine closure and transition challenge. were identified, namely:

• Engagement and partnership, such as solutions that

A significant opportunity for Australia enable effective engagement, co-design and mutually
CRC TiME brings together diverse partners to help beneficially partnerships between industry and regional
reimagine and transform what happens after mining and First Nations communities.
ends for the better. Our work covers all aspects of • Waste reduction and recovery, such as solutions that
transformations in mining economies. enable cost-effective reduction, reuse and recycling
of mine wastes. This includes recovery of critical and
An important goal is supporting further growth of the other minerals.
specialist part of the mining equipment, technology and
• Mine rehabilitation, such as solutions that
services (METS) sector supplying what we describe as
improve performance or cost-effectiveness of land
‘mine closure solutions’.
rehabilitation activities. This includes biodiversity and
These businesses – which include regionally based, revegetation activities.
export‑focused and Indigenous enterprises – are involved • Land use transitions, such as businesses specialise in
in the diversity of activities and strategies required to identifying, assessing and developing post-mining land
optimise environmental, social and governance (ESG) uses (i.e energy generation).
outcomes post‑mining.
Critically, the mapping process highlights both the
Demand for these specialist solutions is growing. diversity of opportunity as well as the additional social,
economic and environmental value that can arise from
In this report, CSIRO has identified almost 240 Australian
innovative solutions.
mines that are projected to close by 2040, with conservative
estimates of annual expenditure on mine closure and
remediation activities at these mines alone ranging from
Enabling actions
$4 billion to $8 billion annually. As outlined in the report, Australia could leverage the
domestic mine challenge to position itself as a leading
This is in addition to ongoing requirements ensuring mines
global supplier of mine closure solutions.
are prepared for and progressing integration of closure
at 2,200 active mines, as well as investment in tens of For CRC TiME, this report represents a major step forward
thousands of unrehabilitated legacy sites . in unlocking this potential. Yet further cooperation and
targeted action is needed.

We look forward to engaging widely about the enabling

actions identified that will support the growth of Australia’s
mine closure solutions industry. We also see partnering on
targeted studies of opportunities for Indigenous, regional
and export-focused businesses as a priority.

Dr Guy Boggs
Chief Executive Officer
Cooperative Research Centre for Transformations in
Mining Economies (CRC TiME)

v
This report
Objectives Methodology
The project’s objectives are to:
Interviews and workshops
• Identify growth opportunities for Australian businesses
This report was developed in consultation with
to provide mine closure solutions that address closure
114 individuals from 62 relevant organisations
risks, and deliver social, environmental and economic
during scoping and delivery. The focus of
value, including opportunities for Indigenous businesses.
consultations was on industry participants including
• Identify actions to support industry development miners, MCS providers (including Indigenous businesses),
and encourage export opportunities for Australian researchers, and government stakeholders. Consultations
MCS providers. with mining communities (including Traditional Owners
and other Indigenous stakeholders) are outside the scope
of this project. Stakeholders provided direction and input
Definitions
by participating in:
This report uses the term mine closure and transitions to
describe strategies and activities related to the completion • Interviews: Individual organisation consultations
of mining activities, rehabilitation of mined land, and the were undertaken with targeted stakeholders involved
establishment of post-closure land uses. These activities throughout the mine closure and transition cycle.
include engagement and partnerships, waste reduction These consultations were used to identify challenges
and resource recovery, mine rehabilitation and land use faced during mine closure and transition, opportunities
transitions. Mine closure solutions describe equipment, for Australian business and emerging solutions from
technology or services that support and enable these MCS providers, and the barriers and enabling actions
activities. Companies that provide these solutions are for industry growth.
referred to as MCS providers. Please refer to Appendix A • Workshops: Two workshops were undertaken with
for a complete glossary of terms used in this report. targeted stakeholders to refine and test findings from
the interviews. The first of these workshops was used
to define mine closure challenges and opportunities.
The second was used to explore enabling actions that
could support the growth of the MCS industry.

Novel economic analysis

This report developed two approaches to
showcase the economic opportunity of
mine closure and evidence of the scale
of the opportunity for MCS providers.
The first approach explores the opportunity of mine
closure broadly from a top-down approach based on the
number of Australian mines projected to close by 2040.
The second approach explores the scale of the potential
market for environmental remediation technologies in the
mining sector.

vi Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

 Executive summary
Improving the outcomes of mine closure and transitions This demand will create valuable opportunities for mine
is a critical challenge for Australia and the mining closure solutions (MCS) providers, including Australia’s
industry. This report explores opportunities for Australian world-class mining equipment, technology, and services
businesses to supply equipment, technology and (METS) industry and a broad range of other businesses
services-based solutions that help solve the industry’s such as plant nurseries, drone operators, software
mine closure challenges. developers, environmental services providers, and
specialist consultants. This demand can also create business
and employment opportunities for Indigenous and
Australia has a growing demand regional communities.
for solutions that support the
mining industry to optimise
Australia can leverage domestic
the social, environmental and
mine closure challenges to
economic outcomes of mine
become a global supplier of
closure and transitions
solutions that improve outcomes
This report estimates that expenditure on mine and reduce the costs of mine
rehabilitation and closure activities could exceed $4 billion
each year, with almost 240 existing Australian mines closure and transitions
expected to close by 2040. Mining will continue to play Over the last 20 years, stakeholder awareness of the
a critical role in Australia and the global economy by liabilities and risks associated with mining has increased
providing the mineral commodities essential to society significantly. The social dimensions of mine closure are also
and achieving
10 net-zero emissions by 2050. With increasing increasingly recognised as an important factor in the mining
demand 9 for many minerals, over 2,200 active mines life cycle, especially during closure. However, despite the
Projected mine closure

and tens
8 of thousands of unrehabilitated mines in
increasing focus on mine closure and transitions, there
expenditure ($B)

7
Australia, there will be an ongoing demand for innovative
6
are very limited examples of successful mine closure,
mine closure solutions that mitigate social, cultural, relinquishment and post-mining land use in Australia.
5
environmental
4
and economic risks and reduce the costs of Safe, cost-effective, and sustainable solutions will be
rehabilitation
3 and other activities. In addition, there is an needed to address the complex economic, environmental,
emerging
2 demand for mining transition solutions such as and social challenges posed by mine closures.
1 recovery and post-closure land use that optimise
resource
0
value for both local communities
2025 2030 and miners.
2035 2040
Year

Expenditure on mine rehabilitation and closure activities is projected to exceed $4 billion each year

10
9
8
Projected mine closure

7
expenditure ($B)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2025 2030 2035 2040
Year

vii
This report explores opportunities for Australian MCS providers across four categories of mine closure solutions:
engagement and partnership, waste reduction and recovery, mine rehabilitation, and land use transitions. For each of
these categories, industry consultations, workshops and desktop research identified challenges facing mine closure
practitioners and related opportunities for Australian businesses to supply mine closure solutions.

Engagement and partnerships

Solutions that enable effective engagement, co-design, and mutually beneficial partnerships to
improve social performance, reduce social and governance risks and optimise outcomes.

Challenges Opportunities
Effective • Facilitation services for complex stakeholder engagements
engagement • Tools to support data-driven engagement, governance, and decisions
• Tools for the effective and inclusive communication of complex information

Co-design and • Facilitation and capability development services to support sustainable partnerships
partnerships with communities
• Data management solutions to support transparency, governance, co-design and delivery of mine
closure outcomes

Waste reduction and resource recovery

Solutions that enable cost-effective reduction, reuse, and recycling of mine waste to minimise closure
liabilities, residual risk, and ongoing maintenance costs.

Challenges Opportunities
Waste reduction • Low-impact and precision mining technologies

Repurposing • Waste-derived materials and products

mineral waste

Resource • Technologies to characterise and recover minerals from waste

recovery

Recycling • Cost-effective and responsible recycling services for mining equipment and infrastructure
non‑mineral
waste

viii Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry
 Mine rehabilitation
Solutions that improve the performance or cost-effectiveness of mine rehabilitation activities to
ensure that mined land is safe, stable, non-polluting and able to support an appropriate land use.

Challenges Opportunities
Physical stability • Enhanced data collection with remote technology for landform design and monitoring
• Resilient landform construction products and engineering solutions
• Thickening and dewatering technologies to stabilise tailings
• Technology solutions to optimise the movement of excavated materials

Hydrological • Engineered solutions for hydrological system restoration, stabilisation and water
systems quality management
• Technology to monitor and model the long-term impacts of mining on surface and
groundwater systems

Pollutant • Prevention and monitoring technologies to mitigate hazardous pollutants

management • Improved pollutant remediation technologies

Revegetation • Modelling and monitoring technologies to measure biodiversity impacts

and biodiversity • Cost-effective treatment technologies to enhance the quality of disturbed topsoil
• Sustainable native seed collection services for revegetation
• Weed removal systems to reduce labour intensity and prevent potential hazards

Land use transitions

Solutions that address challenges preventing the establishment of post-closure land uses on mined
land to generate lasting economic, social, or environmental value and offset the costs of managing
ongoing liabilities.

Challenges Opportunities
Post-closure • Businesses specialising in identifying, assessing, enabling and developing of post-closure land uses
land use

ix
Enabling actions can support continued growth of Australia’s
MCS industry
To enable this opportunity, stakeholders will need to take coordinated and targeted action to address key barriers
to developing the MCS industry. These actions are designed to support the growth of a sustainable and productive
ecosystem of Australian MCS providers, irrespective of their specific closure solutions. Most actions require
collaboration, and a subset of identified measures will require leadership from multiple stakeholders.

Government and industry stakeholder actions to enable growth of Australia’s MCS industry

Multi-stakeholder actions
1. Increase visibility of mine closure challenges and opportunities to support partnerships and innovation with
MCS providers.
2. Develop and implement methods that value the social and environmental outcomes of mine closure and transitions.
3. Encourage collaborative research and support demonstration of innovative mine closure solutions.

MCS industry actions Mining industry actions Government actions

4. Develop a coherent MCS 8. Embed performance indicators 10. Review regulatory barriers
industry identity and aligned that increase the focus on mine to novel mine closure and
strategy. closure and transitions within transition solutions.
5. Broaden customer base mining companies and drive 11. Support MCS industry
through adaptability, uptake of effective solutions. capability development and
interoperability and export. 9. Ensure that procurement export opportunities.
6. Align solutions with evolving policies allow new market
stakeholder expectations and entrants and small companies
miner requirements. to provide innovative mine
closure solutions.
7. Strengthen commercialisation
and business development
skills of emerging providers.

x Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

xi
xii Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry
1 Introduction

Improving the outcomes of mine closure and transitions is a critical challenge for the global mining
industry that presents an opportunity for Australian businesses. This report explores opportunities
for Australian businesses to supply equipment, technology and service‑based solutions that can
address mine closure challenges and improve social, environmental and economic outcomes.
The report also identifies enabling actions to support this industry’s growth.

Improving the outcomes of However, it has only been in the last 20 years that
stakeholder awareness of the liabilities and risks associated
mine closure is critical to the with mining has increased, and the social dimensions of
future of Australian mining mine closure have begun to receive attention.3 This has
led to an increased focus on identifying and developing
Mining has contributed significantly to Australia’s economic
sustainable post-closure land use opportunities for mined
prosperity for well over 100 years. It will continue to
land to support economic and social transitions for mining
play a critical role in providing the mineral commodities
communities.4 Industry bodies, governments and research
essential to society and achieving net-zero emissions by
institutions have developed many standards, frameworks
2050. However, mining is a temporary land use that can
and guidelines to support leading practice closure and
have mixed impacts on local and regional communities and
encourage post-closure land use.5
environments. When mine closure does not adequately
address these impacts, it can diminish the already low levels Despite this increased focus on mine closure and
of trust in the mining industry.1 Miners, regulators, and transitions, there are extremely limited examples of
communities have become increasingly aware of the social successful mine relinquishment and repurposing in
and environmental effects of mining and mine closure and Australia.6 Previous studies have found that Australia has
identified the importance of addressing these issues to tens of thousands of inactive and unrehabilitated mine sites
rebuild trust in the sector.2 but only 15 examples of repurposed mined land.7 There is
also evidence that mine closure implementation has not
Over the last 50 years, Australia’s approach to mined
consistently kept up with leading practices.8 Consulted
land rehabilitation and closure has broadened. From an
stakeholders suggested a confluence of reasons why this
initial focus on undertaking rehabilitation only within
has been the case, including inconsistency of regulation
mine sites to meet environmental compliance standards,
between states and territories, a slow pace of regulatory
leading practice now seeks to understand cumulative
reform, and cost-cutting incentives in mining companies
regional impacts and undertake progressive rehabilitation.
leading to underfunding of mine closure activities and the
use of care and maintenance arrangements to delay closure.

1 A 2017 survey by CSIRO found that the Australian public has low levels of trust in the mining industry and its regulation, despite understanding the
importance of the mineral resources sector. Moffat K, Pert P, McCrea R, Boughen N, Rodriguez M, Lacey J (2017) Australian attitudes toward mining: Citizen
Survey – 2017 Results. CSIRO, Australia. <https://publications.csiro.au/publications/publication/PIcsiro:EP178434>
2 Environmental, Social and Governance risk has been identified as the top risk for the mining and metals sector for the last 5 years. EY (2023) Top 10
business risks and opportunities for mining and metals in 2023. https://www.ey.com/en_au/mining-metals/risks-opportunities; ATSE (2017) Addressing
the environmental impacts of Australian mining’s past and future. <https://www.atse.org.au/research-and-policy/publications/publication/addressing-the-
environmental-impacts-of-australian-minings-past-and-future/>
3 Unger CJ, Everingham J-A, Bond CJ (2020) Transition or transformation: shifting priorities and stakeholders in Australian mined land rehabilitation and
closure, Australasian Journal of Environmental Management, 27:1, 84-113, DOI: 10.1080/14486563.2020.1719440
4 Keenan J, Holcombe S (2021) Mining as a temporary land use: A global stocktake of post-mining transitions and repurposing. The Extractive Industries and
Society, 8(3), p.100924.
5 For example, ICMM (2019) Integrated Mine Closure: Good Practice Guide (2nd edition) <https://www.icmm.com/en-gb/guidance/environmental-
stewardship/2019/integrated-mine-closure> and Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2016a) Mine Closure: Leading Practice Sustainable
Development Program for the Mining Industry. Australian Government. <https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-05/lpsdp-mine-closure-
handbook-english.pdf>
6 In 2017, the Australia Institute was not able to identify any examples of major, modern open cut mines completing rehabilitation to the point where the site
could be relinquished: Campbell R, Linqvist J, Browne B, Swann T, Grudnoff M (2017) Dark Side of the Boom: What We Do and Don’t Know about Mines. The
Australia Institute. <https://australiainstitute.org.au/report/dark-side-of-the-boom/>
7 Over 80,000 inactive and unrehabilitated sites were identified in: Werner TT, Bach PM, Yellishetty M, Amirpoorsaeed F, Walsh S, Miller A, Roach M, Schnapp
A, Solly P, Tan Y, Lewis C (2020). A geospatial database for effective mine rehabilitation in Australia. Minerals, 10(9), p.745; Keenan J, Holcombe S (2021)
8 Keenan J, Holcombe S (2021)

1
 Future mine closures in Australia Expenditure on mine closure is expected to grow in the
coming decades. Around 240 Australian mines are expected
will create demand for mine to end their economically productive life between 2021 and
closure and transition solutions 2040.9 This report estimates that the annual expenditure on
mine rehabilitation and closure related to these mines alone
Closing mine sites and managing their associated risks is
could exceed $4 billion (see Figure 1 and Appendix B).10
complex
10 and expensive. Mine closure practitioners need
9
safe, cost-effective, and sustainable solutions to address the With increasing demand for many minerals, over
Projected mine closure

8
complex economic, environmental, and social challenges 2,200 active mines and tens of thousands of unrehabilitated
expenditure ($B)

7
of future
6 mine closures and historic mines. This creates mine sites in Australia, there will be an ongoing need
opportunities
5 for a diverse range of Australian businesses for innovative mine closure solutions that mitigate
and could
4 lead to new export opportunities to support the environmental, social and economic risks and reduce the
global 3mine closure and remediation market. costs of rehabilitation and other activities.11
2
1
0
2025 2030 2035 2040
Year

Figure 1: Projected expenditure on mine closure activities for known Australian mine sites closing (2025–2040)12

10
9
8
Projected mine closure

7
expenditure ($B)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2025 2030 2035 2040
Year

9 See Appendix B for further information. CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining
Properties, Australia.
10 CSIRO Futures calculation based on conservative assumptions; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining
Properties, Australia.
11 S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia; Werner et al. (2020)
12 CSIRO Futures calculation (see Appendix B); S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
Graph displays a 5-year moving average trendline, so 2021–2024 data points are omitted. 2025 data point is interpreted as average expenditure from
2021–2025 and so on.

2 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Identifying opportunities New mine closure solutions are required to help optimise
closure and transition costs and outcomes. This report
for Australian industry explores opportunities for Australian MCS providers in
Australian businesses can become a leading supplier of four categories of mine closure solutions: engagement
mine closure solutions to domestic and international and partnership, waste reduction and recovery, mine
mines. Many mine closure activities are already supported rehabilitation, and land use transitions (see Figure 2).
or delivered by Australia’s mining equipment, technology,
For each category, desktop research, and consultations and
and services (METS) industry,13 with approximately a
workshops with targeted stakeholders identified challenges
quarter of companies in this $100 billion industry already
facing mine closure practitioners and related opportunities
offering mine closure and remediation solutions.14
for Australian businesses to supply mine closure solutions
Many other diverse businesses, such as plant nurseries,
(Sections 2–5). A selection of enabling actions is also
drone operators, software developers, environmental
identified to help Australian businesses capture these
services providers and specialist consultants also provide
opportunities (see Section 6).
mine closure solutions.
The report focuses on challenges that affected a wide
Mine closure can provide business and employment
selection of mines, and on solutions with limited availability
opportunities for Indigenous peoples and organisations
or adoption in Australia. The report should not be
across the span of MCS services. There are also
interpreted as an exhaustive description of mine closure
opportunities to incorporate local and Indigenous
related challenges and solutions in Australia.
knowledge into rehabilitation activities and mine transition
planning. In addition, mining transition opportunities
such as resource recovery and post-closure land use can
optimise social, environmental and economic value for
all stakeholders.

Figure 2: Categories of mine closure solutions explored in this report

Engagement and partnership Waste reduction and resource recovery

Solutions that enable effective Solutions that enable cost-effective
engagement, co-design, and mutually reduction, reuse, and recycling of
beneficial partnerships to improve mine waste to minimise closure
social performance, reduce social and liabilities, residual risk, and ongoing
governance risks and optimise outcomes. maintenance costs.
Mine
closure
solutions
Mine rehabilitation Land use transitions
Solutions that improve the performance or Solutions that address challenges preventing
cost-effectiveness of mine rehabilitation the establishment of post-closure land
activities to ensure that mined land is safe, uses on mined land to generate lasting
stable, non-polluting and able to support social, environmental and economic
an appropriate land use. value and offset the costs of managing
ongoing liabilities.

13 While this report recognises that the METS industry does not account for all businesses delivering mine closure activities, this term is used to align to
industry standard.
14 26% of 619 Australian METS businesses reported operating at the closure and remediation part of the mining lifecycle. Cumulative revenue for all
respondents was $114B for the 2018-19 financial year. Austmine (2020) 2020 National METS Survey. <https://austmine.imiscloud.com/Web/Public/News/
Reports_Pages/National-METS-Survey-2020.aspx>

3
4 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry
2 Engagement and partnerships
Supporting effective engagement and partnership change over time and differ significantly across regions of
development in the mine closure ecosystem is essential Australia. As such, meaningful and respectful engagement
to improving the mining industry’s social performance, is required to promote mutual understanding and to clarify
addressing the trust deficit, and optimising mine closure expectations related to mine closure.
and transition outcomes for local communities and
regions.15 Collaboration with partners and stakeholders Facilitating engagement and partnerships with diverse
during closure planning and throughout implementation stakeholder groups can be a significant challenge for
underpins the success of mine closure. This engagement mine closure practitioners. Addressing this requires the
is critical to provide a voice to communities, including implementation of mechanisms that enable effective
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, affected dialogues and mutually beneficial partnerships.
by the legacy of closed mines. Consultations with mining and government stakeholders
identified establishing effective engagement, co-design
Mine closure and transitions affect diverse stakeholders and partnerships as challenges that could benefit from
with different values and perspectives on the definition of mine closure solutions provided by Australian businesses
successful mine closure (see Table 1). These perspectives can (see Table 2).

Table 1: Examples of stakeholders and desirable mine closure and transition outcomes

STAKEHOLDER DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES OF DESIRED OUTCOMES

Miners Mine closure practitioners plan and manage • Satisfy regulatory conditions, achieve relinquishment and
mine closure activities, including stakeholder meet shareholder expectations
engagement. • Minimise expenses, address liabilities and retrieve funds held
by government

Communities Local community stakeholders (including • Mitigate safety, health and environmental risks
Indigenous communities and groups) may • Protect cultural, social and environmental assets
be directly and indirectly affected by mining
• Create and sustain economic and employment opportunities
and mine closure through its impact on local
communities, economies and environments. • Recognise heritage

Governments State and territory governments regulate most • Ensure mining companies achieve agreed mine closure
aspects of mine closure, with the Australian outcomes (e.g., safe, stable, and non-polluting land)
Government involved in some elements of • Mitigate the risk of abandoned assets and ongoing liabilities
rehabilitation, closure and abandoned mine to the government
management. Local governments are engaged in
• Optimise social, environmental, and economic outcomes for
discussions between miners and communities.
communities and local economies

Other industries Local industries and businesses may be impacted • Develop new industry opportunities from mine closures
by mining and mine closure and potential users and transitions
of mined land post-closure. • Ensure sustainability of local businesses after the
transformation of the mining economy

Table 2: Summary of engagement and partnerships related challenges and opportunities

Challenges Opportunities

Effective engagement • Facilitation services for complex stakeholder engagements

• Tools to support data-driven engagement, governance, and decisions
• Tools for the effective and inclusive communication of complex information

Co-design and partnerships • Facilitation and capability development services to support sustainable partnerships
with communities
• Data management solutions to support transparency, governance, co-design and delivery
of mine closure outcomes

15 ICMM (2022) Integrating Community Engagement across the Business Tools for Social Performance. <https://www.icmm.com/en-gb/guidance/social-
performance/2022/tools-for-social-performance>

5
2.1 Effective engagement

Solutions that aid in communicating complexity and facilitating effective and inclusive engagement
can improve social performance and governance for mine closure. Opportunities include:

• Facilitation services for complex stakeholder engagements

• Tools to support data-driven engagement, governance, and decisions
• Tools for the effective and inclusive communication of complex information

The success of mine closure and transition planning This opportunity includes providing skilled facilitation and
and implementation requires meaningful engagement training services to build miners’ engagement capabilities
of diverse stakeholders. However, managing effective and to strengthen communication and collaboration
communication and engagement around the complexities between mining operators and communities. Examples
implicit in mine closure activities is challenging. of Australian businesses focused on engagement training
Mine closure practitioners must successfully engage include TEH & CO16 and Greenfields Consulting.17
diverse stakeholders to explore and manage the social,
environmental, economic and technical challenges MCS providers supporting effective management of
associated with closure and transition opportunities. stakeholder relationships can play an integral role in
Consulted mining stakeholders noted that engagement enabling successful closure outcomes. Any facilitation by
skills and experience vary amongst closure practitioners, consultancies must recognise the necessity of tailored
and the support of skilled consultants with relevant approaches for different groups and of acting as a neutral
expertise is often required. third party to build confidence and trust between parties.
Culturally appropriate consultation services are especially
important in enabling respectful decision-making in
Opportunities partnership with Indigenous landholders, communities,
businesses, and organisations. Carey Group Holdings is an
Facilitation services for complex stakeholder Indigenous-owned civil and engineering service provider
engagements that offers Indigenous engagement support by managing
Stakeholders suggested that mine closure practitioners Indigenous business procurement opportunities as well
would value access to skilled consultants who can facilitate as recruitment, training, employment and mentoring for
effective dialogue and complex engagements. Specialised Indigenous workers. The Indigenous affairs team aim
providers focused on managing effective engagements for culturally appropriate best practice and economic
can improve a mining company’s social performance development through partnering the Carey group with
throughout the life of mine, delivering shared value for all emerging Indigenous businesses.18
stakeholders. The complexity of closure processes requires
ongoing engagement to understand and align various
stakeholder expectations and objectives. The input of many
stakeholders, including local communities, Traditional
Owner Groups and other Indigenous stakeholders,
is essential to inform mine closure planning.

16 Teh & Co (n.d) Empowering people to drive sustainable development <https://kteh.com.au> (accessed 29 August 2023)
17 Greenfields (2023) The Greenfields Story <https://greenfieldschange.com.au/about/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
18 Carey Group (2023) Indigenous Engagement. <https://careygroupholdings.com.au/indigenous-engagement/> (accessed 13 September 2023)

6 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Tools to support data-driven engagement, Tools for the effective and inclusive communication
governance, and decisions of complex information
Collecting and analysing social and economic data can MCS providers that provide solutions that effectively
support identification and management of risks and communicate complex and technical information associated
opportunities relating to mine closure activities. This can with mine closure activities can support inclusive
improve informed, collaborative decision-making for stakeholder engagement and informed decision-making.
closure plans and opportunities. Engaging, collecting and For example, dynamic modelling can be used to present
assessing social and economic data over time can help multiple closure scenarios and allows focus on attributes
closure practitioners understand, record and respond that impact the desired outcomes for a specific stakeholder
to stakeholder expectations, concerns and approvals. group. Sentient’s MAVI tool is one example of an Australian
This can also support transparency and enable enhanced company developing visual modelling tools for stakeholder
engagement approaches. engagement. The tool provides interactive maps that
overlap topic datasets and can provide animations to orient
Socio-economic impact assessments and social engagement stakeholders on the location within a mine site.21
tools can aid in creating a deep and clear understanding of
a mine’s socio-economic footprint and integrating social Enabling non-technical partners and stakeholders to
and economic data into closure planning. A socio-economic understand opportunities and challenges can foster
impact assessment includes assessment, management understanding stakeholder trust and generate mutual value
and monitoring of social and economic impacts of a while managing expectations and planning requirements.
mine, including providing baseline stakeholder data.19 This enables stakeholders to provide informed consent
A meaningful and independent assessment can be a crucial and approval for closure-related planning decisions. At a
input into managing complex stakeholder relationships regional level, these tools can also be used to understand,
over the life of a mine. One example of a company using monitor, manage and communicate the cumulative impacts
data and social science to inform stakeholder and partner of closure activities from multiple mine sites.
engagement is CSIRO spin-out Voconiq, which uses data
software to collect, aggregate and analyse social insights.20

19 Munday J (2020) Guide to Social Impact Assessment. Environment Institute of Australia and New Zealand Inc. <https://static1.squarespace.com/
static/5fd84a533ea9e15de736ac0b/t/60541d0d7db8ef1e23ce6d4c/1616125212404/Guide+to+Social+Impact+Assessment.pdf>)
20 Voconiq (2023) Engagement Science. <https://voconiq.com/engagement-science/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
21 Sentient Computing (2022) MAVI – INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATIONS TOOL <https://sencom.com.au/products/mavi/> (accessed 29 August 2023)

7
2.2 Co-design and partnerships

Solutions that enable the development and maintenance of inclusive community partnerships can
address the trust deficit in mining companies and enable better mine closure outcomes through
collaborations. Opportunities include:

• Facilitation and capability development services to support sustainable partnerships

with communities
• Data management solutions to support transparency, governance, co-design and delivery of
mine closure outcomes

A history of poor inclusion of partners and stakeholders in This is particularly important when establishing closure
closure decision-making and implementation has led to a plans, completion criteria setting, and undertaking
trust deficit between industry and communities. Creating rehabilitation activities.24 Stakeholders noted that leading
and sustaining an open, constructive and ongoing dialogue practices for Indigenous partnerships include addressing
between mining companies and community partners can the power imbalance between communities and mining
help to build trust, encourage long-term collaboration, companies, procurement targets for local communities
and create shared value.22 Shaping mine closure activities and ensuring communities are involved in decision-making
through co-design, including post-closure land use, can throughout the life of the mine.25 Doing so presents an
improve the legacy of mines, meet social, cultural and opportunity for Australian businesses, particularly local
community expectations, and help uphold the mining Indigenous businesses, to develop improved partnerships
company’s social performance. with Indigenous communities.

In particular, the global mining industry has often failed

to adequately consult or gain Indigenous communities’
consent for operations in regions, including around closure
activities. A history of poor relationships with companies
and governance structures highlights the need to build
trust, implement authentic engagement practices, and
develop genuine mutually beneficial partnerships with
Indigenous communities. The foundations of this approach
should be based on free, prior and informed consent.23

22 Everingham J, Svobodova K, Mackenzie S, Witt K. (2020). ‘Participatory processes, mine closure and social transitions’. Centre for Social Responsibility in
Mining. University of Queensland, Brisbane.
23 As described in: United Nations (2007) United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (A/RES/61/295). <https://social.desa.un.org/issues/
indigenous-peoples/united-nations-declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples>
24 Holcombe S, Elliott V, Keeling A, Berryman M, Hall R, Ngaamo R, Beckett C, Moon W, Hudson M, Kusabs, N, Ross River Lands Office. (2022) Indigenous
Exchange Forum: Transitions in Mine Closure. St Lucia: Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining, University of Queensland.
25 Holcombe et al. (2022)

8 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Opportunities Data management solutions to support
transparency, governance, co-design and delivery
Facilitation and capability development services to of mine closure outcomes
support sustainable partnerships with communities
Co-design and delivery of closure outcomes rely on
While mining companies continue to develop capabilities collection and access to meaningful, relevant, and
in partnering with local communities, including Aboriginal timely data to inform stakeholder decision-making,
and Torres Strait Islander groups, there is an opportunity enhance governance processes, and facilitate a two-way
for service providers that can provide culturally sensitive dialogue between stakeholders.27 Collaboration and
engagement, business development, facilitation, and partnerships are critical to improving closure outcomes and
training programs. Community members have diverse developing plans for mining transitions that satisfy local
interests, values and expectations. As such, respectful and community expectations.
informed engagement will be required to promote mutual
understanding and develop meaningful partnerships. Businesses delivering software solutions can improve data
This may also require the use of interpreters at times. transparency through improved collection and access.
These engagements can be vital in determining and These solutions can also facilitate a two-way exchange of
delivering opportunities for post-closure economic information, where mining operators provide information
development and land use (see Section 5), including reusing on sites and other stakeholders input ideas and concerns.
existing infrastructure for communities. Improved collection and access can ensure accurate
measurement of progress against objectives and support
Indigenous-led facilitation and training services may be management of outcomes from co-designed solutions.
especially well placed to enable culturally sensitive and For example, K2fly offers a cloud-based solution for
mutually beneficial collaborations with Aboriginal and heritage management that captures data from multiple
Torres Strait Islander communities. Australian businesses sources and spatially integrates this for visualisation,
can provide short to medium-term support and capability- analysis, and change detection. This software tool is
building for the industry while also implementing training designed to enable improved stakeholder engagement
programs to build internal capabilities of mine closure and heritage management, particularly with Traditional
practitioners. Australian company Linking Futures is Owner groups.28
an example of an Indigenous-owned business seeking
to develop cross-cultural understanding in complex
stakeholder relationships, by training commercial and
collaborative capabilities of businesses.26

26 Linking Futures Pty Ltd (n.d) Our Capabilities – Linking Futures <https://linkingfutures.com.au/our-services/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
27 Everingham et al (2020)
28 K2fly (2023) K2fly Heritage Management A Stakeholder & Preservation Solution. <https://k2fly.com/solutions/heritage-management/>
(accessed 29 August 2023)

9
10 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry
3 Waste reduction and
resource recovery
Effective waste management throughout the mining life waste can create environmental and safety risks and
cycle is critical to managing a mining company’s ongoing ongoing liabilities long after ceasing mining operations.
liabilities posed by environmental and safety risks. Mining
generates diverse waste streams such as waste rock, By applying circular economy and waste management
overburden, tailings, wastewater, equipment, infrastructure hierarchy principles (see Figure 3), proactively managing
and processing by-products (including sludge, chemical mining waste can reduce risks and liabilities during
reagents, solvents and metallurgical processing waste).29 closure. Consulted mining stakeholders noted the
importance of exploring other waste management
Traditional mining methods typically rely on mass opportunities before defaulting to engineered disposal
extraction of ore and surrounding rock, followed by and containment solutions. Stakeholders indicated that
extensive processing to recover targeted minerals. there are opportunities for Australian businesses to develop
These processes create large volumes of waste, especially innovative solutions to improve mining companies’ waste
for projects with a high strip ratio (the ratio of waste and management practices. Consultations identified four
overburden to ore) such as open-pit mining. The global challenges that require deploying solutions that enable
mining industry is estimated to produce around enhanced waste reduction and resource recovery on mine
100 billion tonnes of waste each year.30 Poorly managed sites (see Table 3).

Figure 3: Waste management hierarchy

Examples of mine closure activities

Prevention and reduction Reduction of overburden and waste rock

M
os
tp

Reuse Reuse of infrastructure

re
fe
ra
b le

Recycle Recycle water and equipment

Recover Recover valuable minerals in waste streams

Treat Treat contaminated waste

Le

Contain or Contain or dispose of remaining waste in landfill

as

dispose
t

or through on-site burial

pr
ef
er
ab
le

Table 3: Summary of waste reduction and resource recovery related challenges and opportunities

Challenges Opportunities
Waste reduction • Low-impact and precision mining technologies

Repurposing mineral waste • Waste-derived materials and products

Resource recovery • Technologies to characterise and recover minerals from waste

Recycling non‑mineral waste • Cost-effective and responsible recycling services for mining equipment and infrastructure

29 MiningNewsWire (2020) Mining Waste Management and Disposal Methods. <https://www.miningnewswire.com/mining-waste-management-and-disposal-

methods/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
30 Vuillier et al, (2021) The Future of Mining with Zero Mine Waste’. The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (SAIMM), Global tailings Standards
and Opportunities for the Mine of the Future, Rustenburg, South Africa

11
3.1 Waste reduction

Solutions that enable efficient and precise mineral extraction and processing can reduce the volume
of waste generated during mining production and reduce the associated waste management
liabilities at closure. Opportunities include:

• Low-impact and precision mining technologies

Significant volumes of mine waste are generated and infrastructure-related waste compared to conventional
throughout the mining life cycle and require resource- mining approaches.31 Due to the transformative nature of
intensive management activities to reduce the risks they these technologies, they are well-suited for implementation
may present. Waste accumulation and increased risk of in new mining projects. Economic limitations and impacts
waste-related hazards present a more complex burden on productivity may constrain the integration of these
at closure. For example, excess tailings can increase risks technologies within already operating mines.
associated with environmental contamination by toxic
substances and physical instability of tailings storage For operational mine sites, targeted process optimisation
facilities (TSF). Early interventions that prevent or reduce and readily implementable solutions can improve waste
wastes can help miners avoid some of the costs and risks of reduction practices with minimal disruption to production.
waste management during closure. The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM)
published the Tailings Reduction Roadmap in 2022,
Waste reduction practices need to be considered outlining a strategic direction for developing and adopting
throughout the life of mine. By implementing waste technologies for reduced tailings and waste production.32
hierarchy principles during the extraction phases, mining The ICMM roadmap outlines tailings reduction technologies
projects can consider waste sources and reduction with high Technology Readiness Levels and fast-scaling
opportunities throughout the mining value chain. potential that can be implemented while developing more
New mining projects may implement innovative mining transformative mining processes or designs. These include
methods with significant waste reduction potential, greater characterisation technologies such as continuous
while existing operations will require solutions that sorting, batch sensing, and mining machines.33 For example,
reduce waste by optimising select processes to ensure Novamera (US) has developed mobile surgical mining
continued production. technology that can be integrated with conventional
drilling equipment. Their technology can be used to reduce
overall waste generated through data-driven ore vein
Opportunities mapping and smart drilling systems, resulting in a minimal
environmental footprint.34
Low-impact and precision mining technologies
Developing and deploying novel mining technologies Commercially mature technologies, such as optimised
can increase the precision of and degree of selectivity blasting and precision comminution, can also improve
associated with mineral extraction, reducing waste volumes efficiency and reduce waste creation. Furthermore,
and related closure liabilities. In-situ recovery, in-line geochemical source control practices can reduce water
and in-mine recovery and modular mines (see Table 4) resources used, wastewater generated and treatment
can reduce the footprint of operations and minimise requirements to mitigate pollutants in hydrological systems
excavation, movement, and waste rock processing. In-situ (see Section 4.3).
recovery and modular mining may also reduce equipment

31 Mining3 (2017) In Place Mining – A transformational shift in metal extraction. <https://www.mining3.com/place-mining-transformational-shift-metal-

extraction/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
32 ICMM (2022) Tailings Reduction Roadmap <https://www.icmm.com/en-gb/guidance/innovation/2022/tailings-reduction-roadmap>
33 ICMM (2022)
34 Novamera (n.d.) Technology – Smart Precision Drilling <https://novamerainc.com/smd-technology/> (accessed 07 September 2023)

12 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Table 4: Mining technologies enabling waste reduction

TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION 35 MATURITY

In-situ recovery Dissolves valuable metals from ore into a chemical or • Commercially mature for Uranium mining36
biochemical solution (lixiviant) to allow the surrounding • EnviroCopper is undertaking pilot-scale projects for
rock to remain in place. In contrast, the solution is copper extraction from legacy copper mine sites in
pumped through the ore, dissolving the mineral, and Kapunda, South Australia 37
then to the surface for further processing. Challenges
remain in lixiviant control.

In-mine Where selective rock breakage (and/or pre-conditioning) • CSIRO undertook lab-scale feasibility studies through
recovery is combined with leaching of materials in place with no strategic resource-constrained planning models38
bulk material movement.

In-line recovery Combining precision mining, material preparation and • Lab scale at the conceptual level 39
processing stages (beneficiation, pre-concentration or
leaching) adjacent to the mining face.

Modular mining Utilising equipment and infrastructure designed for • Pilot studies in Europe have demonstrated small-scale
quick deployment, activation, and decommissioning. mining using modular and mobile plants to extract
This technology allows lesser excavation of material high-grade lead40
through mining smaller ore bodies and less non-mineral
waste as the equipment is designed is for adaptability
and reuse.

35 CSIRO (2017) Mining Equipment, Technology and Services A Roadmap for unlocking future growth opportunities for Australia, CSIRO, Canberra; Vella H
(2019) Switch on switch off: rethinking how smaller deposits are mined. Mining Technology. <https://www.mining-technology.com/features/switch-on-
switch-off-rethinking-how-smaller-deposits-are-mined/?cf-view>
36 World Nuclear Association (2020) In Situ Leach Mining of Uranium. <https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/in-
situ-leach-mining-of-uranium.aspx> (accessed 29 August 2023)
37 Environmental Copper Recovery SA Pty Ltd. (2021) The Kapunda Copper & Gold ISR Project. <https://www.envirocopper.com.au/kapunda-isr-project>
(accessed 29 August 2023)
38 Mousavi A, Sellers, E (2019). Optimisation of production planning for an innovative hybrid underground mining method. Resources Policy, 62, pp.184-192.
39 Mining3 (2017)
40 Beylot A, Muller S, Segura-Salazar J, Brito-Parada P, Paneri A, Yan X, Lai F, Roethe R, Thomas G, Goettmann F, Braun, M (2021). Switch on-switch off small-scale
mining: Environmental performance in a life cycle perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 312, p.127647.

13
3.2 Repurposing mineral waste

Solutions that repurpose mined waste stockpiles for use on mine sites or in other industries can
reduce waste volume that must be managed during mine closure. Opportunities include:

• Waste-derived materials and products

Transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of Converted waste products can also support other
mineral waste can create significant costs and liabilities industries, such as agriculture, construction,
for miners during closure activities. Waste rock represents and manufacturing (see Table 5: Mineral waste repurposing
10–20% of the annual waste from the mining industry.41 examples). Technical solutions can convert mineral waste
Waste rock formed during excavation is commonly left as into neutral and stable products depending on mineralogy.
large stockpiles, which can incur additional costs during Ideally, solutions will align with circular economy principles
rehabilitation.42 Management of waste rock stockpiles and generate waste-derived products to meet local demand
and other mineral waste storage facilities is essential for such as the production of construction materials for
long-term safety and stability as they can present structural local infrastructure.
and geochemical risks, including acidic and metalliferous
drainage (AMD). MCS providers will need to ensure they address any risks
and environmental uncertainties as well as waste and
• Mineral waste left over in waste stockpiles, tailings and licensing regulations related to the products derived from
the various processing streams can find further use materials recovered from mine waste. Stakeholders noted
through repurposing. Identifying beneficial uses of that regulatory barriers around waste-derived products
mineral waste can unlock a commercial opportunity and may hinder repurposing activities. These activities include
reduce closure costs. repurposing benign waste rock, which may be treated as a
quarrying activity that may not be allowable under a mine’s
existing agreements. Similarly, some stakeholders needed
Opportunities clarification on whether royalties would be applied to
waste rock. Western Australia recognised the importance of
Waste-derived materials and products
clarity for waste repurposing and consulted on a proposed
Repurposing mineral waste may reduce the burden of legislative framework for waste-derived materials in 2020.44
waste management and generate cost-effective products. Potentially hazardous waste would require adequate
Converted waste products can support mine rehabilitation assessment and treatment before repurposing to reduce
processes. For example, a common practice of waste community and environment safety risks.
repurposing is the co-disposal of tailings and waste rock to
create physically stable mixtures to backfill mining voids.43

41 Vuillier C, Ingwersen M (2022) Making repurposed mine waste a reality. AusIMM Bulletin. <https://www.ausimm.com/bulletin/bulletin-articles/making-
repurposed-mine-waste-a-reality/> (accessed 31 August 2023)
42 Shengo LM (2021). Review of practices in the managements of mineral wastes: The case of waste rocks and mine tailings. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 232(7),
p.273.
43 Shengo, LM (2021)
44 Department of Water and Environmental Regulation (2020) Waste not, want not: Valuing waste as a resource. Government of Western Australia. <https://
www.wa.gov.au/service/environment/environment-information-services/waste-not-want-not-valuing-waste-resource>

14 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Table 5: Mineral waste repurposing examples

INDUSTRY REPURPOSING EXAMPLES

Mining Cementitious tailings and metallurgical processing waste such as fly ash and slag can be used to create paste
products to stabilise backfill.45

Agriculture Mineral rich waste from tailings can produce solid and liquid fertiliser containing high levels of key nutrients such as
potassium, magnesium and silicon.46

Construction Aluminosilicate minerals found in waste can be synthesised into polymer materials through repolymerisation for use
as construction materials such as cement.47 For example:
• Laboratory and field trials facilitated by Murdoch University has resulted in low emissions geopolymer concrete
‘Colliecrete’ derived from fly ash and other industrial by products.48
• Amira has partnered with CSIRO to research the repurposing of coal industry tailings into geopolymer concrete.49

Waste rocks supplemented with mineral carbonation techniques can offset carbon emissions by capturing CO2,
locking away carbon in carbonate materials.50 For example:
• MCi (Australia) is developing a carbonation process that can produce construction materials from mine waste and
carbon dioxide.51

Manufacturing Production of silica-sand products from mine waste can be utilised in construction and in the creation of products
such as ceramics and glass. For example:
• The Sustainable Minerals Institute at University of Queensland are undertaking research to develop processes to
capture ‘Ore-sand’ to meet the growing sand sustainability challenges.52

45 Behera SK, Mishra DP, Singh P, Mishra K, Mandal SK, Ghosh CN, Kumar R, Mandal, P.K (2021) Utilization of mill tailings, fly ash and slag as mine paste backfill
material: Review and future perspective. Construction and Building Materials, 309, p.125120.
46 Crusciol CA, de Campos M, Momesso L, Bossolani JW, Moretti LG, Portugal JR, de Melo CV, Calonego JC, (2022) Nickel Ore Mining Waste as a Promising
Source of Magnesium and Silicon for a Smart-Agricultural Management. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, p.880613.; Yong MT, Babla M, Karan S,
Katwal U, Jahandari S, Matta P, Chen ZH, Tao, Z (2022) Coal tailings as a soil conditioner: evaluation of tailing properties and effect on tomato plants. Plant
Growth Regulation, 98(3), pp.439-450.
47 Mabroum S, Moukannaa S, El Machi A, Taha Y, Benzaazoua M, Hakkou R (2020) Mine wastes based geopolymers: A critical review. Cleaner Engineering and
Technology, 1, p.100014.
48 Murdoch University (2022) Environmentally focused and sustainable concrete set to shake up building industry. <https://www.murdoch.edu.au/news/
articles/new-environmentally-focused-and-sustainable-concrete-set-to-shake-up-building-industry>
49 Amira Global (n.d.) Geopolymer concrete from tailings and other mine wastes. https://amira.global/2021/06/geopolymer-concrete-from-tailings-and-other-
mine-wastes/ (accessed 31 August 2023); CSIRO (2022) Tailings, an emerging market opportunity. https://www.csiro.au/en/work-with-us/industries/mining-
resources/resourceful-magazine/issue-26/tailings (accessed 31 August 2023)
50 Srinivasan V, Temminghoff M, Charnock S, Moisi A, Palfreyman D, Patel J, Hornung C, Hortle A, (2021) CO2 Utilisation Roadmap. CSIRO, Canberra.
51 MCi Carbon (2023) Mineral Carbonation. https://www.mineralcarbonation.com/mineral-carbonation (accessed 31 August 2023)
52 Sustainable Minerals Institute (2023) Ore-sand: A circular economy solution to reduce mineral wastes and improve global sand sustainability. The University
of Queensland. https://smi.uq.edu.au/project/ore-sand-circular-economy-solution-improve-global-sand-sustainability (accessed 31 August 2023)

15
3.3 Mineral resource recovery

Solutions that enable the cost-effective recovery of secondary minerals from mining waste can unlock
valuable critical and strategic mineral resources and may offset the costs of mine rehabilitation
activities. Opportunities include:

• Technologies to characterise and recover minerals from waste

Many legacy TSFs and waste stockpiles contain critical or Secondary mineral recovery is an emerging practice, with
strategic minerals that may present economic opportunities mining consultations noting the need for a clear policy
for recovery.53 It is estimated that tailings hold over and framework to support these activities. The Global
US$3.4 trillion of precious, critical and strategic minerals Industry Standard on Tailings Management (GISTM) provides
globally.54 Geospatial satellite imagery analysis has guidelines for defining the safe closure of tailings dams.
identified over 1,000 TSFs across six states in Australia.55 However, there is limited global guidance on reprocessing
Recognising the potential value of these assets, Geoscience tailings.58 The Sustainable Minerals Institute identified
Australia recently launched an online Atlas of Mine Waste institutional bottlenecks that limit the circular economy
to provide information about mine tailings, waste rock, and transition and tailings valorisation potential. These include
other mining waste stockpiles in Australia.56 limitations associated with environmental permitting,
land use and leasing regulations, waste disposal and
Secondary mineral recovery may also allow companies to reagent restrictions, stigma around contaminated land and
rehabilitate legacy and abandoned assets, reducing the inconsistent regulations in the local and global market.59
long-term safety and environmental risks that TSFs pose. Stakeholders suggested that valuable mineral recovery from
57
This rehabilitation may also support mining transitions waste streams would benefit from harmonised local and
and additional social and economic benefits if it can global guidelines. The European Union’s Circular Economy
enable the relinquishment and repurposing of land that Action Plan contains an alignment of waste directives
would otherwise be tied up due to the risk associated in member states to allow a well-functioning market for
with TSFs. This may benefit from a shift of TSF design and secondary raw minerals.60
management to include optimisation of value within the
asset alongside managing residual risk, allowing greater
characterisation and extraction of minerals.

53 Sarker SK, Haque N, Bhuiyan M, Bruckard W, Pramanik BK (2022) Recovery of strategically important critical minerals from mine tailings. Journal of
Environmental Chemical Engineering. 10(3) p 107622.
54 Minerals Research Institute of Western Australia (2023) Alternative Use of Tailings and Waste. Government of Western Australia <https://www.mriwa.wa.gov.
au/minerals-research-advancing-western-australia/focus-areas/alternative-use-of-tailings-and-waste/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
55 Sarker SK, Haque N, Bruckard W, Bhuiyan M, Pramanik, BK (2022) Development of a geospatial database of tailing storage facilities in Australia using satellite
images. Chemosphere, 303, p.135139.
56 Geoscience Australia (2021) Atlas of Australian Mine Waste. <https://portal.ga.gov.au/persona/minewaste> (accessed 29 August 2023)
57 Kinnunen P, Karhu M, Yli-Rantala E, Kivikytö-Reponen P, Mäkinen J (2022) A review of circular economy strategies for mine tailings. Cleaner Engineering and
Technology, 8, p.100499.
58 Global Tailings Review (2020) GLOBAL INDUSTRY STANDARD ON TAILINGS MANAGEMENT <https://globaltailingsreview.org/global-industry-standard/>
59 Kinnunen PHM, Kaksonen AH (2019) Towards circular economy in mining: Opportunities and bottlenecks for tailings valorization. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 228, pp.153-160.
60 European Commission (2020) Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee
and The Committee of the Region: A new Circular Economy Action Plan. Brussels.

16 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Opportunities Emerging local and existing international projects
demonstrate the viability of tailings retreatment in some
Technologies to characterise and recover minerals contexts. Australia now has multiple operational secondary
from waste mineral recovery projects extracting metalliferous materials
including tin, zinc, gold, silver and copper (see Table 6).
Cost-effective solutions that support secondary mineral
extraction from waste streams such as tailings, wastewater, In some cases, mineral resource recovery projects may
and waste rock stockpiles present an opportunity to be able to generate cash flow to offset the costs of
improve closure outcomes. Consultations have noted that remediating historic and ongoing liabilities. For example,
economic recovery opportunities are present in legacy sites Regeneration (US) is a social enterprise that seeks to
where less efficient extractive processes have left high convert mine waste from legacy sites into responsible
concentrations of target minerals in waste. Reprocessing minerals and use their profits for mine rehabilitation and
waste may also enable miners to implement strategic habitat restoration.61
rehabilitation activities while a site is still in a positive
cash flow. MCS providers and secondary mineral recovery
businesses can improve processes by implementing
innovative, cost-effective practices and reducing waste
volume and long-term liabilities from tailings creation
and storage.

Table 6: Identified Australian secondary mineral recovery projects

PROJECT COMPANY DETAILS

Ardlethan Tin, Australia Tin Rehabilitation and tailings reprocessing of the Ardlethan tin mine.62 A pilot plant has been
New South Resources Pty Ltd established, and commercial operations are planned to formally commence for recovery of
Wales tin concentrates.63

Century Mine, New Century Commercial recovery of zinc concentrate from historic zinc, lead and silver mine tailings
Queensland Resources through hydraulic mining techniques.64
(Silbayne Stilwater)

Mt Carbine, EQ Resources Tailings materials are processed alongside operational mines through a gravity plant to
Queensland recover tungsten minerals.65

Hellyer Tailings EnviroGold Full scale pilot program for metal recovery of gold, silver, zinc, lead, and copper contained
Reprocessing, within the tailings is in development.66
Tasmania (in
development)

Mt Morgan, Heritage Minerals Concurrent tailings reprocessing and rehabilitation of the abandoned historical Mt Morgan
Queensland (in gold mine to recover gold and copper.67
development)

Rentails project Metals X Proposed recovery project of tin and copper from historical tailings at the Renison tin mine.68
(proposed),
Tasmania

61 Resolve (n.d.) Regeneration Begin Again. <https://www.resolve.ngo/regeneration.htm> (accessed 29 August 2023)

62 Department of Enterprise, Investment and Trade (2023) Tin in NSW. NSW Government. <https://www.business.nsw.gov.au/industry-sectors/industry-
opportunities/mining-and-resources/base-metals/tin-in-nsw> (accessed 29 August 2023)
63 Australian Tin Resources Pty Ltd (2023) Ardlethan Tin Mine <http://atresources.com.au/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
64 Sibanye-Stillwater (2023) New Century Resources. <https://www.sibanyestillwater.com/business/new-century-resources-australia/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
65 EQ Resources (2023) Mt Carbine Tungsten Project <https://www.eqresources.com.au/site/what-we-do/mt-carbine-project> (accessed 29 August 2023)
66 EnviroGold Global (2023) EnviroGold Announces Positive Pilot Plant Results Confirming Efficacy of Metals Recovery Technology. <https://envirogoldglobal.
com/envirogold-announces-positive-pilot-plant-results-confirming-efficacy-of-metals-recovery-technology/> (Accessed 14 September 2023);
67 Heritage Minerals (2023) Mt Morgan. <https://heritageminerals.com.au/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
68 Metals X Limited (2023)

17
Developing non-invasive solutions for characterising Sustainable and scalable mineral recovery technologies
minerals in legacy TSFs will further support this are critical to enabling the full social and environmental
opportunity. Established and historic TSFs have been benefits of remining. Recovery of secondary minerals
designed to minimise the risk of seepage and structural must overcome technical challenges, including managing
failures, not for easy access and reprocessing. Consultations low mineral concentrations and high concentrations of
noted that current tailings characterisation methods are gangue material, and developing methods with lower
complex as they require invasive drilling and sampling of environmental footprints.69 Many secondary extraction
sealed TSFs. As a result, accessing and sampling historic methods utilise toxic processing agents that can present
and sealed TSFs is limited, expensive and potentially environmental and safety risks if not managed correctly.70
risky if landforms are disturbed. Safe and cost-effective Demonstration of non-toxic and non-polluting recovery
characterisation of tailings and waste at operational and technologies (see Table 7) at commercial scale can reduce
abandoned mine sites is necessary to identify opportunities the risk associated with secondary mineral recovery from
for secondary value recovery. TSFs, wastewater and waste rock stockpiles. Some of
these technologies also have applications in remediating
contaminated land and water bodies (see Section 4.3)

Table 7: Low-impact technologies for mineral recovery from waste

TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION

Biomining Bioleaching utilises the metabolic activity of microorganisms to extract minerals from ores and wastes into solution,
and bioprecipitation enables the recovery of valuable elements from leach liquors. Moreover, biobeneficiation
through bioflotation may enable the separation of minerals of interest from waste rock. In partnership with industry
and academia, CSIRO is developing biotechnical processes to extract and recover mineral commodities.71

Phytomining Hyperaccumulator plants can uptake and accumulate metals from the surrounding soil/wastes and can be harvested
to produce ‘bio-ore’. The University of Queensland is developing phytomining to value recovery metals (e.g., nickel,
zinc, selenium) from technology to be implemented on low grade ore bodies or mine tailings.72

Membrane Innovative membrane and separation technologies can filter substances within solutions such as wastewater.
technologies The membranes filter materials with high specificity based on the minerals physical and chemical properties.
They could be used to filter extracted secondary minerals from tailings.73

Geochemical Naturally absorbent minerals can be used to capture critical minerals and other chemical species within solutions.
approaches CSIRO is developing technology for the treatment wastewater as well as value recovery of critical minerals and
radioisotopes from contaminated uranium mine wastewater.74

69 Sarker et al. (2022)

70 Nkuna R, Ijoma GN, Matambo TS, Chimwani N (2022). Accessing Metals from Low-Grade Ores and the Environmental Impact Considerations: A Review of the
Perspectives of Conventional versus Bioleaching Strategies. Minerals, 12(5), p.506.
71 Kaksonen AH, Deng X, Bohu T, Zea L, Khaleque HN, Gumulya, Y, Boxall NJ, Morris C, Cheng KY (2020) Prospective directions for biohydrometallurgy.
Hydrometallurgy, 195, p.105376.
72 Sustainable Minerals Institute. (2021) Plants that absorb metal could help provide a sustainable future for mining. The University of Queensland.
<https://smi.uq.edu.au/article/2021/08/plants-absorb-metal-could-help-provide-sustainable-future-mining> (accessed 29 August 2023)
73 Panayotova M, Panayotov, V, (2021) Application of membrane processes in mining and mineral processing. In E3S Web of Conferences (Vol. 280, p. 08016).
EDP Sciences.
74 Douglas, G (2023) Radioactive waste isn't going away. We've found a new way to trap it in minerals for long-term storage. <https://www.csiro.au/en/news/
all/articles/2023/february/radioactive-waste> (accessed 08 September 2023)

18 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

19
3.4 Recycling non-mineral waste

Solutions that enable recycling of non-mineral by-products such as mining equipment and
infrastructure. Opportunities include:

• Cost-effective and responsible recycling services for mining equipment and infrastructure

In addition to mineral waste, mining activities generate Recycling of non-mineral waste streams presents an
diverse waste streams from their operations and equipment opportunity to recover resources and divert waste
decommissioning, including tyres, belts, textiles, electronic from disposal. While the economics of recycling can
waste, polyethylene piping and scrap metal.75 Depending on be challenging, stakeholders noted an increase in the
the economics of the mine location and the volume of these technological capability to cost-effectively recycle waste
materials, they may be disposed of in a landfill or buried equipment. However, these emerging solutions are yet to
onsite, posing risks for mine closure and relinquishment see wide commercial uptake within the mining industry.
as abandoned waste present safety and environmental
liabilities. For example, the Australian mining industry There are growing markets and providers for recycling
disposed of 63.3 thousand tonnes of used off-the-road tyres and belts using innovative technology (see Table 8).
(OTR) tyres onsite in 2019, with a large proportion Consultations identified gaps in the market for recycling
approved to be disposed of onsite due to the regional equipment such as polyethylene piping, network cabling,
nature of the mine.76 carbon fibre infrastructure and proprietary technologies.
Increasing waste volume and demand from the mining
sector may support a commercial marketplace for recycling
vendors and innovative solutions.

Table 8: Australia mining tyre and belt recycling companies

COMPANY SOLUTION

CTS Tyre Establishing a tyre recycling centre in Neerabup, WA, with support from the state and federal government to
Recycling process at initial stages 30,000 tonnes of tyres annually.77 The facility will be Australia’s largest OTR/mining tyre
recycling facility.

Novum Energy Utilising Thermo Vacuum Recovery (Green Carbon TVR) to convert the variable carbon feedstock from the tyres.78
Australia

Tytec Facilitating the breakdown OTR tyres using their single step destructive distillation reactors to convert tyres.79

RubberGem Recycling tyres and belts using proprietary technology, using the rubber to manufacture various products including
road base, concrete and recreational surfacing.80

75 Peel W (2021) Reconsidering waste in mining. Stantech. <https://www.stantec.com/en/ideas/topic/stantec-era/reconsidering-waste-in-mining>

(accessed 29 August 2023)
76 Randell P, Brock B (2020) Mining Industry Off The Road Used Tyre Analysis. Tyre Stewardship Australia. <https://www.tyrestewardship.org.au/reports-facts-
figures/mining-industry-off-the-road-otr-used-tyre-analysis/>
77 Smith S (2022) New recycling plant to help mining industry deal with one of its lesser known environmental problems. The Western Australian.
<https://thewest.com.au/business/mining/new-tyre-recycling-plant-aims-to-help-mining-industry-deal-one-of-its-lesser-known-environmental-
problems-c-7844423>
78 Novum Energy Australia Pty Ltd (2023) Technology. <https://novumenergy.com.au/technology> (accessed 29 August 2023
79 Tytec Recycling Pty Ltd (2023) OTR Tyre Recycling Procedure <http://www.tytecrecycling.com.au/process.html?> (accessed 29 August 2023)
80 RubberGem (2023) Technology <https://www.rubbergem.com.au/technology/> (accessed 29 August 2023)

20 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Opportunities Increasing the mobility and modularity of processing
equipment to cater to remote regions can improve recycling
Cost-effective and responsible recycling services for technology solutions. There is an increased demand for
mining equipment and infrastructure onsite processing that can also mitigate the capital intensity
of waste transport. For example, REVYRE is deploying
There is an opportunity for MCS providers to implement
modular, scalable, and mobile tyre recycling equipment
cost-effective recycling solutions that bring together and
in Australia and New Zealand to process stockpiles of
process the high volume of equipment waste held on
mining OTR tyres into rubber goods and feedstock for tyre
remote mine sites. Many recycling opportunities are limited
manufacturing and additives into paving.82 Similarly, Ecotyre
in commercial viability due to the high cost associated with
(Germany) have developed modular and containerised mine
establishing processing plants and transporting materials
tyre recycling equipment.83
from remote mines. Inconsistent markets for recycled
products may also impact their profitability. The recycling Australian equipment manufacturers can maintain market
industry has a commercial opportunity to develop appeal by aligning with industry sustainability trends and
sustainable business models that can aggregate recyclable generating social, environmental and economic value for
materials and build economies of scale. Consultations the sector. Stakeholders reported that sustainability trends
noted that hub and spoke models may aid in waste will drive demand for responsible equipment recycling,
aggregation, similar to the aggregation of extracted ores such as decommissioning the obsolete diesel-powered
in regional Canada.81 fleet due to the transition to renewables. Furthermore,
manufacturers undertaking product stewardship processes
developing new equipment will hold a competitive
advantage. This stewardship involves designing,
manufacturing and selling products with low-impact
end-of-life recycling processes.84

81 Calibre Mining Corp. (n.d.) UTILIZING A “HUB & SPOKE” OPERATING STRATEGY IN NICARAGUA <https://www.calibremining.com/assets/hub-spoke-strategy/>
(accessed 29 August 2023)
82 Gleeson D (2020) REVYRE recycling JV looks to tackle mining tyre problem in Australia, New Zealand. International Mining. <https://im-mining.
com/2020/05/27/revyre-recycling-jv-looks-tackle-mining-tyre-problem-australia-new-zealand/>
83 EcoTyre (2019) About EcoTyre <http://ecotyrelab.com/#rec127472685> (accessed 29 August 2023)
84 Product Stewardship Centre of Excellence (2023) What is product stewardship <https://stewardshipexcellence.com.au/product-stewardship/#what-is>
(accessed 29 August 2023)

21
4 Mine rehabilitation
Rehabilitation of mined land is critical to prepare for land Figure 4: Projected annual revenue for Australia’s mining
environmental remediation market88
relinquishment or reclamation of the site for future uses
(see Section 4.4). Rehabilitation objectives vary between
5,000

Projected annual revenue ($M)

sites but typically ensure that the mined land is safe, stable,
and non-polluting to support agreed land use. Specific 4,000
rehabilitation criteria are established in agreement with
regulatory bodies. Completing these criteria will allow 3,000
the relinquishment of the mining tenure and return of
2,000
government-held mining tenement bonds or equivalent.85
Rehabilitation is also critical to meeting stakeholder 1,000
expectations for community safety and well-being, and to
restoring and protecting environmental systems. Common 0
2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
rehabilitation activities include engineering landforms
Year
for long-term stability, managing hydrological systems,
Estimates Plus 50% uncertainty
remediating hazardous pollutants, restoring biodiversity,
and decommissioning equipment and infrastructure.86 Minus 50% uncertainty

Leading practice now encourages progressive rehabilitation

and routine progress monitoring throughout operations.87 Consulted mining stakeholders identified four mine
Many jurisdictions now mandate progressive rehabilitation. rehabilitation challenges that could benefit from mine
As such, MCS providers must consider how to implement closure solutions provided by Australian businesses
their solutions throughout the mine operations and how to (see Table 9).
integrate monitoring into their offerings.

This report estimates that the Australian market for

environmental remediation technologies and services for
mining (a subset of all mine rehabilitation solutions) was
worth $800 million in annual revenue in 2020. It could
grow to $3 billion annually by 2040 (see Figure 4 and
Appendix B). This projection illustrates the potential value
of mine rehabilitation solutions that could be captured by
Australian businesses.

85 Tiemann CD, McDonald MC, Middle G, Dixon, KW, (2019) Mine relinquishment policy in Australia. In Mine Closure 2019: Proceedings of the 13th
International Conference on Mine Closure (pp. 1451-1460). Australian Centre for Geomechanics.; Department of, Energy, Environment and Climate Action
(2023) Rehabilitation bonds – minerals exploration mines and quarries. State Government of Victoria <https://earthresources.vic.gov.au/legislation-and-
regulations/guidelines-and-codes-of-practice/rehabilitation-bonds> (accessed 29 August 2023)
86 Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2016a)
87 ICMM (2019) Integrated Mine Closure Good Practice Guide, 2nd Edition. <https://www.icmm.com/en-gb/guidance/environmental-stewardship/2019/
integrated-mine-closure>
88 CSIRO Futures calculation.
ABS 2022, Australian industry, Table 1 Key data by industry subdivision, https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry-overview/australian-
industry/2020-21.
BCC Research 2021, Global markets for environmental remediation technologies.
IBISWorld 2022, Contract mining services in Australia industry report.
IBISWorld 2022, Contract mining services in New Zealand industry report.
Reserve Bank of Australia 2023, Historical data, Exchange rates – Monthly – January 2010 to latest complete month of current year, https://www.rba.gov.au/
statistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates.

22 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Table 9: Summary of mine rehabilitation related challenges and opportunities

Challenges Opportunities
Physical stability • Enhanced data collection with remote technology for landform design
and monitoring
• Resilient landform construction products and engineering solutions
• Thickening and dewatering technologies to stabilise tailings
• Technology solutions to optimise the movement of excavated materials

Hydrological systems • Engineered solutions for hydrological system restoration, stabilisation and water
quality management
• Technology to monitor and model the long-term impacts of mining on surface and
groundwater systems

Pollutant management • Prevention and monitoring technologies to mitigate hazardous pollutants

• Improved pollutant remediation technologies

Revegetation and biodiversity • Modelling and monitoring technologies to measure biodiversity impacts
• Cost-effective treatment technologies to enhance the quality of disturbed topsoil
• Sustainable native seed collection services for revegetation
• Weed removal systems to reduce labour intensity and prevent potential hazards

23
4.1 Physical stability

Solutions that optimise the creation of stable landforms and engineered structures can reduce costs
and mitigate the risks associated with structural failures. Opportunities include:

• Enhanced data collection with remote technology for landform design and monitoring
• Resilient landform construction products and engineering solutions
• Thickening and dewatering technologies to stabilise tailings
• Technology solutions to optimise the movement of excavated materials

Mined and engineered landforms, including TSFs, can Opportunities

present significant risks that require mitigation. These
landforms can be susceptible to structural deterioration Enhanced data collection with remote technology
caused by ongoing geochemical processes, complex and for landform design and monitoring
unfavourable geotechnical conditions, poor long-term
Customised remote surveying equipment and technology
engineering design, surface and subsurface water flows, or
can enable high-resolution, real-time data collection.
climate and other environmental factors. Structural damage
This can enable landform design and stability monitoring
and degradation can result in environmental impacts,
activities. Traditional methods of site surveying and land
including increased erosion, soil degradation, ecological
mass movement are labour-intensive and expensive.
destruction, and adverse effects on the surrounding region.89
They may present safety risks associated with working
Failures pose considerable safety risks to communities and
in potentially hazardous areas. MCS providers can utilise
may also damage infrastructure or heritage sites.90
modern remote and multimodal sensing technologies to
Improving the geotechnical design, execution, and help mitigate the inefficiency and safety risks associated
monitoring of landforms is essential to mitigating risks with manual surveying.93 The data collected can be
while controlling associated costs. International catastrophic incorporated into dynamic geotechnical modelling systems
TSF failures91 and other events of subsidence and landform or machine learning algorithms to provide insights
collapse have prompted the industry to reassess landform into landform design and long-term stability to plan
construction methods, emphasising residual risks and effective rehabilitation.94
commitments to more significant standards of operation.92
The industry may benefit from greater use of sensing
Consulted stakeholders suggested that earthworks can
technologies, including drones and satellites to inform mine
account for up to 40–50% of total direct mine rehabilitation
closure activities and enable greater prediction of landform
costs and evolving standards are driving increased
stability over time. Drones and satellites are commercially
expenditure on stabilisation activities. MCS providers can
mature technologies within adjacent markets (such as civil
develop and deploy innovative solutions that support the
construction and agriculture) and offer high potential for
design, construction and monitoring of complex landforms.
peripheral customisation to meet mining requirements.
These solutions can reduce costs, mitigate risks and enable
optimal outcomes for this critical mine closure challenge.

89 Joann, M., & Allan, J. (2021). Geomorphic Perspectives on Mining Landscapes, Hazards, and Sustainability. In Treatise on Geomorphology, (Eds. JJ Clague.)
106-143. Academic Press, Omaha.
90 Williams DJ (2023) A systematic and systemic review of mined landform stability and its impact on transitioning for regional benefits. CRC TiME Limited, Perth.
91 Most notably the failure of a tailings dam in Brumadinho, Brazil, in 2019 which resulted in at least 270 fatalities and impacted on downstream communities
up to 120km away. As noted in: Rotta LHS, Alcântara E, Park E., Negri RG, Lin YN, Bernardo N, Mendes TSG. Souza Filho CR, (2020). The 2019 Brumadinho
tailings dam collapse: Possible cause and impacts of the worst human and environmental disaster in Brazil. International Journal of Applied Earth
Observation and Geoinformation, 90, p.102119.
92 Piciullo L., Storrøsten E.B, Liu Z, Nadim F, Lacasse, S, (2022) A new look at the statistics of tailings dam failures. Engineering Geology, 303, p.106657.;
Global Tailings Review (2020)
93 Chen W. Li X. Wang L (2022) Multimodal Remote Sensing Science and Technology. In Remote Sensing Intelligent Interpretation for Mine Geological
Environment: From Land Use and Land Cover Perspective. pp. 7-32. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
94 Bai S, Zhao J (2023). A New Strategy to Fuse Remote Sensing Data and Geochemical Data with Different Machine Learning Methods. Remote Sensing, 15(4), p.930.

24 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Drones can be equipped with integrated 3D imaging The mining sector has previously used these technologies
and LiDAR technology for site surveying with greater for mineral exploration, and there is a recent increase
mobility and efficiency. 95 Satellites with multispectral and in their use to support landform design and monitoring
multitemporal cameras can support effective above-ground (see Table 10 for examples).97 These technologies can also
and underground surveying on a larger scale where be utilised to support environmental monitoring and
drone deployment isn’t practical. Satellites equipped revegetation activities (see Section 4.4)
with Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) are
increasingly being used to monitor the structural stability
of TSF. High-resolution data is captured and processed over
extended time periods to identify early warning signs of
catastrophic failures.96

Table 10: Remote sensing companies supporting rehabilitation activities

COMPANY SOLUTION

RocketDNA A multinational company operating in Australia and Africa providing mine inspection and survey services.
(formerly Uses aerial survey drones equipped with multispectral cameras and LiDAR sensors to capture and map data across
Rocketmine) the mining life. Data from TSF inspections, surface stability monitoring, and pit and stockpile surveys can be used to
create 3D maps of the mine.98

Geoimage An Australian business utilising low Earth orbit satellites mounted with hyperspectral, optical and radar sensors.
Data can be used to generate large-scale geospatial images and models that can enable long-term regional
monitoring of landforms and vegetation affected by rehabilitation.99

Satellite imagery of Handlebar Hill Mine in Queensland, displaying mine rehabilitation progress between 2016 (left) and 2023 (right).
Supplied by Geoimage Pty Ltd. © Airbus DS (2016) / © Airbus DS (2023).

95 Shahmoradi J, Talebi E, Roghanchi P, Hassanalian M, (2020) A comprehensive review of applications of drone technology in the mining industry. Drones, 4(3),
p.34.
96 Carlà T, Intrieri E, Raspini F, Bardi F, Farina P, Ferretti A, Colombo D, Novali F, Casagli N (2019) Perspectives on the prediction of catastrophic slope failures
from satellite InSAR. Scientific reports, 9(1), p.14137.
97 McKenna, PB, Lechner, AM, Phinn, S, Erskine PD (2020) Remote sensing of mine site rehabilitation for ecological outcomes: a global systematic review.
Remote Sensing, 12(21), p.3535.
98 Rocketmine (2023) Drone Surveying & Mapping Services <https://www.rocketmine.com/our-solutions/survey-mapping/> (accessed 29 August 2023)
99 Geoimage (2023) Mining & Exploration. <https://www.geoimage.com.au/mining-exploration/#industry-solution-section> (accessed 29 August 2023)

25
Resilient landform construction products and Thickening and dewatering technologies to
engineering solutions stabilise tailings
Using resilient materials for landform construction can Water removal or viscosity-increasing technology can
reduce environmental and safety risks such as structural reduce the burden of managing liquid tailings slurries,
instability and geochemical seepage. Stakeholders noted improve safety outcomes, reduce the volume of tailings
that cost-effective solutions are required to optimise the deposited, and increase water recovery. MCS providers
structure of stable landforms. Many available engineering can design tailings stabilising technologies to enable safe
solutions are capital‑intensive and have limited longevity. TSF construction that meets global safety standards and
Optimal materials and products should be sustainable, reduces ongoing risks. These processes require high-energy
maintain structural integrity and be non-reactive to the mechanical pump systems to transport and reduce the risk
environment. Geotechnical and geochemical characteristics of water impacting structural integrity that could cause TSF
of landforms will determine the suitability of solutions. failure.103 The primary barrier to the uptake of dewatering
Backfilling with waste rock is also used to stabilise mine technologies is its cost; however, there is evidence that
voids (see Section 3.3). dewatering technology can be financially superior to
business-as-usual tailings management when the potential
Sustainable and durable methods to line and cover TSFs financial impact of a failure is considered.104
are required to increase confidence in the long-term
containment of tailings. TSF liners and cover systems Several technologies can be utilised to increase tailings
provide a physical separative barrier between mine tailings slurry stability, with selection dependent on site feasibility
and the surrounding landmass to prevent leaching into the and prospective economic outcomes of deployment.
environment. Conventional lining products may result a Options include but are not limited to:
risk of long-term deterioration or potential ripping during
installation, which exposes the TSF to contamination • Thickening tailings using thickening agents to create
risks.100 Australian company Geofabrics manufactures a greater solid content and make a paste. Many
sustainable geosynthetic products from recycled plastics mining operations currently use this technology, with
that can be used for the lining and covering of tailings.101 expectations for broader deployment.105
Improved cover system solutions are also being developed • Dry stacking using solid-liquid separation technologies
for industry, including biological covers, new reinforcement (e.g., centrifugation and filtration) to create a
materials, and optimised placement strategies for pseudo-solid product that is stackable and transportable
tailings covers.102 by truck. Creating dry stack tailings is widely considered
the most sustainable long-term treatment option. It has
seen more applications in recent years.106

100 Tuomela A, Ronkanen AK, Rossi PM, Rauhala A, Haapasalo H, Kujala K (2021) Using geomembrane liners to reduce seepage through the base of tailings
ponds—A review and a framework for design guidelines. Geosciences, 11(2), p.93.
101 Geofabrics Australiasia Pty Ltd (n.d) Tailings and Waste. <https://www.geofabricsmining.com.au/mining-solutions/tailings-and-waste> (accessed 30 August
2023)
102 Rodin S, Champagne P, Mann V (2023) Pilot-scale feasibility study for the stabilization of coal tailings via microbially induced calcite precipitation.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(4), pp.8868-8882; ATC Williams Pty. Ltd (2020) The Groundwork Capping and Rehabilitation of Coal
Tailings Storages <https://atcwilliams.com/capping-and-rehabilitation-of-coal-tailings-storages/> (accessed 30 August 2023).
103 Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2016b) Tailings Management – Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program for the Mining
Industry. Australian Government. <https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-04/lpsdp-tailings-management-handbook-english.pdf>.
104 Armstrong M, Langrené N, Petter R, Chen W, Petter C (2019) Accounting for tailings dam failures in the valuation of mining projects. Resources Policy, 63,
p.101461.
105 Department of Industry Science, Energy and Resources (2016b)
106 Avery Q and Wilson K (2013) Red mud pressure filtration for the alumina refinery’s bauxite residue tailings disposal. 16th International Seminar on Paste and
Thickened Tailings 225–238. <https://papers.acg.uwa.edu.au/p/1363_17_Avery/>.

26 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Technology solutions to optimise the movement Autonomous vehicle systems can reduce inefficiency and
of excavated materials costs through optimised vehicle performance, longevity of
vehicle health, reduced idle times and reduced hazardous
Optimising solid material movement and placement during
conditions for onsite workers. As many of the vehicles
earthwork rehabilitation can reduce costs and decrease
involved in rehabilitation are also used in the operational
environmental impact. Stakeholders reported that primary
mining fleet, equipment manufacturers and other METS
earthworks account for a significant proportion of closure
businesses with existing solutions can potentially expand
expenses. They are also a significant source of emissions.
their offerings into closure activities where appropriate.
Optimising material and heavy vehicle movement can
This includes ensuring that electric vehicle technologies
also save costs through reduced fuel consumption
developed for the operations fleet are also supplied for
(and associated carbon emissions) and lower maintenance
rehabilitation-specific vehicles, as the mining sector strives
requirements.
to meet its decarbonisation objectives.
Emerging solutions, including digital diagnostics, strategic
site designs, and vehicle automation systems can increase
the efficiency of waste movement and fleet operations
efficiency. For example, on-board vehicle diagnostics
that monitor vehicle performance data (such as engine
performance, health, and fuel consumption) can improve
the rehabilitation fleet’s operational efficiency. Using data,
performance and efficiency can be optimised through
strategic route planning and site design. Australian business
Maxmine has developed a data platform to optimise the
load and haul system on a mine site and has been reported
to reduce carbon emissions by 20%.107

107 Resolution Systems Pty Ltd (2023) MaxMine Carbon <https://maxmine.com.au/maxmine-carbon> (accessed 30 August 2023)

27
4.2 Hydrological systems

Solutions that aid in restoring, monitoring, and modelling surface and groundwater systems
can protect long-term water quality and quantity and mitigate environmental and safety risks.
Opportunities include:

• Engineered solutions for hydrological system restoration, stabilisation and water

quality management
• Technology to monitor and model the long-term impacts of mining on surface and
groundwater systems

Mining activities including excavation and mine Opportunities

dewatering, affect hydrological systems above and below
the water table. They may alter water quality, quantity and Engineered solutions for hydrological
movement, potentially impacting downstream systems.108 system restoration, stabilisation and water
Hydrological systems connect the mining lease to the quality management
greater surrounding region. As such, poorly managed
There is demand for MCS providers to develop engineered
water systems may lead to geotechnical (e.g., erosion and
solutions to aid in restoring surface and groundwater
landform instability) and environment risks (e.g., ecological
systems and reduce mine dewatering impacts. Dewatering
disruption and compromised water chemistry) that can
of mines below the water table can adversely influence
extend well beyond the mine site.
surface and groundwater systems. Impacts on regional
Hydrological systems management presents a complex aquifer systems can cause unstable groundwater levels
challenge as miners need to manage onsite systems that and compromise water quality, potentially extending to
may have social, cultural, environmental, and economic surrounding communities and ecosystems. Recharging
impacts on the surrounding regions. For example, dewatered groundwater systems and filling pit lakes can
waterways can hold significant cultural importance to require investment in new infrastructure for water supply,
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and social which can increase costs. Water quality requirements and
and economic value to local communities.109 The technical water licensing legislation can compound by restricting
management of hydrological systems also provides access to available water sources.110
significant challenges as they are dynamic systems that can
Water restoration solutions are required to restore the
require ongoing monitoring. Mine closure practitioners
water systems in dewatered mining areas and manage
must also ensure that post-closure hydrological systems
quality and levels in new water systems in open pit
such as pit lakes are designed to meet local climate
mines. Emerging approaches for water system restoration
pressures and mitigate the risks associated with drought or
are explored in the CRC TiME report Hydrological and
flooding events.
geochemical processes and closure options, for below water
table open pit mines. These include engineered barriers
to reduce water drawdown and pumped aquifer recharge
to resupply extracted water into the subsurface aquifers
during mining. Pit lake water quality can be improved
through prevention of hazardous geochemistry by selection

108 Meißner S (2021) The impact of metal mining on global water stress and regional carrying capacities—a GIS-based water impact assessment. Resources,
10(12), p.120.
109 Department of Industry, Science and Resources (2016c) Working with Indigenous Communities - Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program for the
Mining Industry. Australian Government. <https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/leading-practice-handbooks-sustainable-mining/working-indigenous-
communities>
110 Productivity Commission (2021) National Water Reform 2020, Inquiry Report no. 96, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.

28 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

of neutral pit backfill materials, amendment of reactive includes modelling water flows and groundwater
materials or through innovative treatment options such as interactions post-closure, considering the potential
bioremediation.111 Furthermore, on site water retreatment impact regional water systems, biophysical interactions
may alleviate some of the restoration challenges as water of water systems, predicting and mitigating the impact of
of suitable quality is fed back into the mine site or regional extreme weather and managing the recovery of dewatered
waterways. Water system restoration may also help to groundwater systems.
enable post-closure opportunities such as agriculture,
recreation, or pumped-hydro energy storage opportunities. Improved data collection and modelling tools can inform
Australia’s well-developed wastewater treatment industry strategic planning and optimise water management
and high-water stewardship standards are an area of decisions for the long-term sustainability of post-closure
comparative advantage and may present an export water systems. Hydrological and hydrogeological modelling
opportunity for Australian business.112 tools and consulting services are relatively mature.
However, hydrogeological systems have great complexity
and uncertainty that can be challenging and expensive to
Technology to monitor and model the model accurately. Solutions that enable cost-effective and
long‑term impacts of mining on surface and reliable continuous monitoring of surface and groundwater
groundwater systems systems and their interactions can improve certainty and
The long-term impacts of mining on hydrological and optimise risk management. Groundwater assessments are
hydrogeological systems are challenging to accurately informed by point-based measurement using monitoring
predict. Mining companies now have a greater wells, satellite-based monitoring for regional storage,113
responsibility to monitor and manage their impact and numerical modelling approaches. Optimising the joint
of regional surface and groundwater systems during use of these approaches may help to assess and model
operations and closure. In the context of closure, this groundwater resources more efficiently.114

111 Cook PG, Black S, Cote C, Kahe MS, Linge K, Oldham C, Ordens C, McIntyre N, Simmons C, Wallis I (2021). Hydrological and geochemical processes and
closure options for below water table open pit mines. CRC TiME Limited, Perth.
112 Australian Trade and Investment Commission (2017) Water in Mining. <https://www.austrade.gov.au/international/buy/australian-industry-capabilities/
mining>
113 Particularly GRACE satellite data. National Drought Mitigation Center (2023) Groundwater and Soil Moisture Conditions from GRACE-FO Data Assimilation for
the Contiguous U.S. and Global Land. <https://nasagrace.unl.edu/>
114 Masood A, Tariq MAUR, Hashmi MZUR, Waseem M, Sarwar MK, Ali W, Farooq R, Almazroui M, Ng AW (2022) An overview of groundwater monitoring
through point-to satellite-based techniques. Water, 14(4), p.565.

29
4.3 Pollutant management

Solutions that prevent, treat and monitor mining-related pollutants can mitigate safety and
environmental risks and long-term mining liabilities. Opportunities include:

• Prevention and monitoring technologies to mitigate hazardous pollutants

• Improved pollutant remediation technologies

Pollutants that are exposed or introduced during mining between prediction, scale-up and residual risk to bridge
activities can cause long-lasting safety and environmental the gap between lab-scale methodologies and mine
impacts. Mining results in the exposure of sealed minerals, site implementation.119
which may react and contaminate the surrounding
environment. If pollutants are not effectively controlled,
they may diffuse into surrounding regional systems posing
Opportunities
risks to communities and ecosystems.115
Prevention and monitoring technologies to mitigate
Pollutant management is required throughout the hazardous pollutants
life-of-mine. However, pollutant control may encounter There is an ongoing need for effective management tools
unique challenges during and after closure activities. to predict, monitor and control the formation of AMD. AMD
For example, previously unidentified bio-geochemical is caused by the oxidation of sulphide minerals in mined
reactions may occur in natural settings, unidentified waste and land. This process can result in a typically acidic
pollutants may be overlooked in remediation strategies, solution that may also contain elevated concentrations
and diffusion of pollutants can be difficult to detect. of major ions or dissolved metals that can contaminate
Pollutant containment and treatment methods may incur surface and groundwater systems. This may lead to
high costs. For example, some active pollutant remediation ecological damage, and human and animal health impacts.
solutions require large energy requirements and extended The Australian Government released a handbook noting
treatment times.116 leading practices for the prevention and management acid
and metalliferous drainage.120
Common pollutants that must be managed include
AMD,117 toxic heavy metals,118 mineral processing The development of proactive prevention and
reagents or dangerous by-products (such as radioactive monitoring solutions is necessary to limit the oxidisation
species). The opportunities presented are framed of sulphidic ores and reduce the risk of AMD.121
to address AMD, however the diversity of pollutants Suitable preventative solutions may need to be tailored
generated throughout the mining cycle needs to be to different AMD‑causing minerals. Potential solutions to
managed, presenting opportunities for MCS providers inhibit oxidation include non-reactive oxygen barriers,
to develop innovative solutions. CRC TiME is aiming to microencapsulation technologies, chemical barriers, or
improve AMD management through exploring the links novel electrochemical strategies.122 Soil and waterway

115 Okereafor U, Makhatha M, Mekuto L, Uche-Okereafor N, Sebola T, Mavumengwana V (2020) Toxic metal implications on agricultural soils, plants, animals,
aquatic life and human health. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(7), p.2204.
116 Karaca O, Cameselle C, Reddy KR (2018). Mine tailing disposal sites: contamination problems, remedial options and phytocaps for sustainable remediation.
Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology, 17, pp.205-228.
117 Department of Industry, Science and Resources (2016d) Preventing Acid and Metalliferous Drainage – Leading Practice Sustainable Development Program
for the Mining Industry. Australian Government <https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/leading-practice-handbooks-sustainable-mining/preventing-acid-
and-metalliferous-drainage>
118 Karn R, Ojha N, Abbas S, Bhugra S (2021) A review on heavy metal contamination at mining sites and remedial techniques. In IOP Conference Series: Earth
and Environmental Science (Vol. 796, No. 1, p. 012013). IOP Publishing.
119 CRC TiME Limited (2023) Improved prediction, remediation and closure of AMD/NMD sites by examination of mine waste behaviour at the meso-scale
<https://crctime.com.au/research/projects/project-3-10/> (accessed 30 August 2023)
120 Department of Industry, Science and Resources (2016d)
121 Park I, Tabelin CB, Jeon S, Li X, Seno K, Ito M, Hiroyoshi N (2019) A review of recent strategies for acid mine drainage prevention and mine tailings recycling.
Chemosphere, 219, pp.588-606.
122 Park I et al. (2019); Singh A, Bourgault C, Kanse L, Oldham C (2022) Developing the business case for responsible acid and metalliferous drainage (AMD)
management. CRC TiME Limited, Perth.

30 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

monitoring tools will be required prior to and following Innovative passive treatment technologies such as
interventions to evidence the prevention of AMD formation. permeable reactive barriers, small-scale bioreactors, and
Prevention systems have shown positive results in feasibility ecological systems (e.g., wetlands) are all at variable levels of
studies but have yet to be widely adopted commercially.123 technological development and are not yet widely adopted.127
Source control practices such as strategic waste rock Passive treatments currently require improvements to
stockpile design may also mitigate the risks associated with overcome scalability and cost challenges.128 Internationally,
pollutant discharge.124 some passive and semi-passive treatments have been
demonstrated. An example of this is the use of saturated rock
Improved pollutant remediation technologies fill in Canada,129 which was enabled by Canadian regulators
publishing guidelines for the evaluation and use of emerging
There is an opportunity to develop more effective, water treatment technologies in mines.130 Active and passive
affordable, scalable pollutant remediation solutions. technologies can potentially be implemented together to
Current treatments often require the heavy use of eco-toxic offset the challenges present with both solutions.
chemicals, high energy inputs and sizeable equipment
costs.125 As such, there is also an ongoing cultural shift Pollution remediation technologies can also be
to utilise more sustainable and environmentally friendly integrated into post-closure land use to help support
treatment systems such as passive treatment approaches.126 environmental outcomes through ecological restoration.
Stakeholders noted that current active treatment methods For example, construction of wetlands can address AMD
would benefit from substituting hazardous chemicals with while supporting ecosystem development. In Australia,
non-toxic reagents. Evolution Mining, in collaboration with CSIRO and
Australian Wetlands Consulting, has demonstrated the use
of wetlands to treat sulphidic wastewater at Mt Rawdon
mine in Queensland.131

123 Singh et al. (2022)

124 The International Network for Acid Prevention (2020) Rock Placement Strategies to Enhance Operational and Closure Performance of Mine Rock Stockpiles.
<https://www.inap.com.au/research/>
125 Skousen JG, Ziemkiewicz PF, McDonald LM (2019) Acid mine drainage formation, control and treatment: Approaches and strategies. The Extractive Industries
and Society, 6(1), pp.241-249.
126 Moodley I, Sheridan CM, Kappelmeyer U, Akcil A (2018) Environmentally sustainable acid mine drainage remediation: Research developments with a focus
on waste/by-products. Minerals Engineering, 126, pp.207-220.
127 Shabalala A, Masindi V (2022) Insights into mechanisms governing the passive removal of inorganic contaminants from acid mine drainage using permeable
reactive barrier. Journal of Environmental Management, 321, p.115866.
128 Masindi V, Foteinis S, Renforth P, Ndiritu J, Maree JP, Tekere M, Chatzisymeon E (2022) Challenges and avenues for acid mine drainage treatment,
beneficiation, and valorisation in circular economy: A review. Ecological engineering, 183, p.106740.
129 International Mining (2019) Teck sees big future for saturated rock fill water treatment technology <https://im-mining.com/2019/02/13/teck-sees-big-future-
saturated-rock-fill-water-treatment-technology/> (accessed 30 August 2023)
130 Ministry of Energy, Mines and Low Carbon Innovation (2022) Technology Readiness Assessment – Interim Technical Guidance, Province of British Columbia.
https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/waste-management/industrial-waste/mining-smelting/guidance-documents
131 CSIRO (2021) Natures cleaners. Resourceful. <https://www.csiro.au/en/work-with-us/industries/mining-resources/resourceful-magazine/issue-16/natures-
cleaners> (accessed 11 September 2023)

31
4.4 Revegetation and biodiversity

Solutions that optimise revegetation, weed removal, and biodiversity management can reduce
associated costs and improve outcomes for local and regional environments. Opportunities include:

• Modelling and monitoring technologies to measure biodiversity impacts

• Cost-effective treatment technologies to enhance the quality of disturbed topsoil
• Sustainable native seed collection services for revegetation
• Weed removal systems to reduce labour intensity and prevent potential hazards

Revegetation of mined land is critical to the success of • Invasive weed species cause detrimental impacts on
mine rehabilitation, biodiversity restoration and long-term local ecosystems and may jeopardise mine rehabilitation
stability. Mining activities suppress the natural ecosystems outcomes. Invasive weeds are often better suited to
and vegetation that play an important role in maintaining survive harsher environments, compete with native flora,
the stability and function of the surrounding biophysical spread beyond the mine site and can increase risks of fire
environment. This increases the risk of adverse effects such and erosion.133
as erosion and can expose miners and local communities to
greater liabilities, risks, and costs. Stakeholders suggested that it is essential to draw upon
Indigenous ecological knowledge and co-design with
This section focuses on the challenges and opportunities Indigenous stakeholders to achieve the best environmental
related to the restoration and biodiversity of flora. and cultural outcomes from revegetation. The recently
The impact of mining on native fauna is a broader issue launched Australian Research Council Training Centre for
that is not primarily manageable through mine closure Healing Country is focused on supporting the development
solutions. Consulted mining stakeholders identified the of Indigenous-led ecological restoration businesses. This
following key challenges to revegetation: research and training initiative aims to provide training
and credentials for environmental restoration utilising
• Many mines face extensive topsoil deficits that increase Indigenous knowledge.134
the cost of revegetation activities. Access to quality
topsoil at the appropriate stage in closure timelines is Mine closure practitioners must ensure that they are
necessary to enable revegetation. The original topsoil is adequately addressing revegetation challenges to meet
displaced during extraction and may be combined with environmental regulations and closure completion criteria
other mine waste stockpiles, reducing its suitability for for relinquishment. MCS providers have opportunities to
revegetation. Remote mines with topsoil deficits will face develop technologies and services that help enable and
great costs and delays to revegetation due to the high monitor the success of revegetation activities and meet
transport costs of importing topsoil. closure requirements.
• There are supply bottlenecks for native seeds in Australia
including appropriate flora species needed to sustainably
revegetate a mine site and restore biodiversity.132
Seed selection and collection requires specialist
knowledge and skills to sustainably manage native
populations that are resilient enough to thrive in unique
environmental conditions and the changing climate.

132 Hancock N, Gibson-Roy P, Driver M, Broadhurst L (2020) The Australian Native Seed Sector Survey Report. Australian Network for Plant Conservation,
Canberra.
133 Department of Environment, Parks and Water Security (n.d.) Preventing weed spread is everybody’s business. Northern Territory Government of Australia
<https://depws.nt.gov.au/rangelands/publications2/weed-management-publications> (accessed 30 August 2023)
134 ARC Training Centre for Healing Country (2023) Healing Country Official Launch. Curtin University <https://archealingcountry.com.au/healing-country-
official-launch/> (accessed 11 September 2023)

32 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Opportunities Remote sensing technologies can be used to monitor
both mining impacts and revegetation success, providing
Modelling and monitoring technologies to measure baseline and ongoing data. For example, innovative
biodiversity impacts monitoring systems combined with advanced remote
detection methods, such as camera-mounted drones
Innovative systems that quickly and cost-effectively identify
or low Earth orbit satellites and image processing
biodiversity concerns and model their potential impacts
algorithms, can detect invasive weeds over large-scale
can be used to reduce revegetation costs. Traditional
regions. For example, Australian business Dendra uses
surveying and identification methods are labour and
automated drones to capture high-resolution imagery and
resource intensive. Emerging monitoring technology can
apply machine learning algorithms specifically trained in
track plant growth, assess threat levels of weed species, and
ecology to monitor plant species, vegetation health, weed
inform integrated management with great precision and
incursions, and the presence of pest and native fauna.136
efficiency.135 Modelling long-term biodiversity impacts can
These modes of remote monitoring solutions can be used
also be used to develop solutions and identify the scale of
to inform strategies that enable successful revegetation
the revegetation challenge prior to the implementation of a
and the restoration of biodiverse ecosystems in large mine
mine closure plan.
closure projects. These technologies may also be used to
monitor long-term landform stability (see Section 4.1).

135 Song W, Song W, Gu H, Li F (2020) Progress in the remote sensing monitoring of the ecological environment in mining areas. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(6), p.1846. ; Department of Primacy Industries (n.d.) Integrated weed management. State of New South
Wales. <https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/biosecurity/weeds/weed-control/general-management/integrated-weed-management> (accessed 30 August 2023)
136 Dendra Systems (2022) Ecosystem Analysis At Scale With Dendra RestorationOS. <https://dendra.io/solutions/ecosystem-analysis/>
(accessed 30 August 2023>

33
Cost-effective treatment technologies to enhance Current approaches to upgrading soils to topsoil quality
the quality of disturbed topsoil are time-intensive, requiring long treatment periods and
access to large volumes of water. Research in this space
Mine closure practitioners highlighted the high cost of
is exploring ways to efficiently increase the availability
sourcing quality fertile topsoils as a key challenge in
of nitrogen for plant growth in waste rock, tailings and
revegetation. Cost-effective solutions that can maintain
stockpiled soils.140 Solutions that improve soil properties in
the quality of excavated topsoil during mine operations or
short durations are likely to have a competitive advantage
upgrade the quality of other soils onsite are required to
compared to traditional upgrading approaches. Australian
meet the topsoil demand during rehabilitation.
company, SoilCyclers provides an example of treatment
Mines can operate for decades, and the quality of any opportunities through their soil amelioration expertise
topsoil that is stored for this duration is likely to decline which was successfully deployed at the Ensham coal mine
significantly. Maintaining topsoil over this period faces in Queensland (see Case Study below).
cost and technical challenges, such as acidity, low organic
matter, and low porosity.137 To address this, there is a Sustainable native seed collection services
demand for specialist consultancies that can develop and for revegetation
implement evidence-based strategies to reduce the rate of
The growing demand for seed supply presents an economic
soil deterioration. These may include design of stockpile
opportunity for Australian businesses, particularly those
facilities (e.g., drainage systems, erosion control measures,
that are Indigenous-owned, with experience in managing
vegetation covers, windbreaks),138 logistical arrangements
native plant populations and sourcing diverse plant species.
(e.g., volume and height of stored soil),139 and procedures
Demand from mining and other heavy industry for native
(e.g., soil testing and amendments).
seeds continues to grow as stakeholder expectations and
Developing cost-effective and time-efficient solutions regulatory requirements increase. Nurseries with seed
to improve the physical, chemical, and biological propagation capabilities will be required to address the
properties of stored or disturbed soil onsite can also growing concern that wild plant populations may not
reduce the costs associated with importing fertile topsoil. be able to sustainably meet demand for native species.

Case Study: Creating pasture from overburden material and bioremediated

pit water at Ensham Mine

Rehabilitation of the Ensham Mine in Queensland faced multiple challenges including

a topsoil deficit, erosion issues and water contamination. A collaborative project
involving Cammel Consulting, Innovate Enviro and SoilCyclers demonstrated both
the upcycling of overburden material to topsoil and the bioremediation of saline
pit water. SoilCyclers soil alteration solutions were deployed to facilitate topsoil
amelioration, geotechnical soil amendments, and acid sulphate soil remediation
to generated topsoil from overburden material. Innovate Enviro’s expertise in
bioremediation was used to demonstrate the treatment of mine water to create a
water source suitable to growing pasture. This project was enabled by funding from
Ensham Resources, Idemitsu and METS Ignited.141 Image: SoilCyclers

137 Guedes RS, Ramos SJ, Gastauer M, Júnior CFC, Martins GC, da Rocha Nascimento Júnior W, de Souza-Filho PWM, Siqueira, JO (2021) Challenges and potential
approaches for soil recovery in iron open pit mines and waste piles. Environmental Earth Sciences, 80(18), p.640.
138 Dai S, Ma Y, Zhang K (2022) Land Degradation Caused by Construction Activity: Investigation, Cause and Control Measures. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23), p.16046.
139 Fischer AM, Van Hamme JD, Gardner WC, Fraser LH (2022) Impacts from Topsoil Stockpile Height on Soil Geochemical Properties in Two Mining Operations
in British Columbia: Implications for Restoration Practices. Mining, 2(2), pp.315-329.
140 CRC TiME Limited. (2023) Increasing bio-available plant nutrients in mineral waste <https://crctime.com.au/research/projects/project-3-8/>
(accessed 30 August 2023)
141 SoilCyclers (2022) Ensham Mine Case Study (video). <https://soilcyclers.com.au/sectors/> (accessed 18 August 2023)

34 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

However, there is evidence that the costs associated with The native seed sector is currently small and faces some
this development may increase the cost of revegetation.142 barriers to its growth. The Australian native seed sector
is comprised predominately of siloed sole traders and
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and small operators. The sector has also noted that market
enterprises have a critical role to play in this emerging pricing does not always cover the cost of seed collection
industry, capturing economic gains through industry and propagation. This is further compounded by
development while facilitating the rehabilitation and inconsistency and unpredictability of demand as well as
restoration of Australia’s landscapes. There are already natural climatic conditions limiting sourcing activities.147
successful examples of Indigenous businesses operating Better management and support from the mining industry
in seed supply for mining revegetation, including: and other sectors will help to enable the growth and
• The Gelganyem Seed Project, established in 2019, maturity of this sector.
assembled a local Indigenous team to coordinate
a community seed collection program and provide Weed removal systems to reduce labour intensity
Traditional Owners near the Argyle mine in the and prevent potential hazards
Kimberley region (WA) with the opportunity to supply
Australian businesses offering novel technologies that
native seeds.143
reduce the need for manual weed removal and avoid
• A collaboration of multiple organisations within the the use of potentially toxic herbicides can improve
Midwest Employment and Economic Development revegetation outcomes. Current technologies for weed
Aboriginal Corporation (MEEDAC) which resulted removal rely on manual processes, chemical herbicides,
in the founding of the first Indigenous-owned and controlled burns, introduction of biological agents or
managed native seed farm for mining land restoration in large-scale mechanical disruption. These methods can be
regional WA.144 labour or resource-intensive and may pose hazards to the
• Kakadu Native Plants has partnered with Energy environment or local communities.148
Resources of Australia (ERA) to propagate local seeds
from the mine lease to rehabilitate the Ranger project Beyond traditional removal technologies, several novel
area in Kakadu National Park.145 systems are emerging that could offer improved safety and
efficiency outcomes in large-scale weed removal. Rapid
• Various local Indigenous collection groups supply seeds
developments and convergence in robotics, automation,
for over 60 native plant species to the Rio Tinto Weipa
machine learning and artificial intelligence technologies
bauxite mine in Cape York (QLD). The program has been
are enabling the development of novel weed detection and
running between the Aurukun, Napranum, and Mapoon
management systems.149 New approaches for targeted and
communities for many years.146
integrated weed management are also being explored,
including lasers, novel chemicals, and biological treatments
(e.g., RNA interference150).

142 Gibson-Roy P, Hancock N, Broadhurst L, Driver M, (2021) Australian native seed sector characteristics and perceptions indicate low capacity for upscaled
ecological restoration: insights from the Australian Native Seed Report. Restoration Ecology, 29(7), p.e13428.
143 Urzedo D, Pedrini S, Hearps C, Dixon K, van Leeuwen S (2022) Indigenous environmental justice through coproduction of mining restoration supply chains in
Australia. Restoration Ecology, 30, p.e13748.
144 Urzedo et al. (2022)
145 Energy Resources of Australia (2019) A journey with Kakadu native Plants to mine rehabilitation <https://www.energyres.com.au/ranger-rehabilitation/
stories/a-journey-with-kakadu-native-plants-to-mine-rehabilitation/> (accessed 30 August 2023)
146 Barnes R, Holcombe S, Parmenter J (2020) Indigenous groups, land rehabilitation and mine closure: exploring the Australian terrain. University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
147 Gibson-Roy et al. (2021)
148 Department of Environment, Parks and Water Security (2021) Weed Management Handbook, Northern Territory Government.
<https://nt.gov.au/environment/weeds/how-to-manage-weeds/weed-management-handbook>
149 Westwood JH, Charudattan R, Duke SO, Fennimore SA, Marrone P, Slaughter DC, Swanton C, Zollinger R (2018) Weed management in 2050: Perspectives on
the future of weed science. Weed science, 66(3), pp.275-285.
150 Zabala-Pardo D, Gaines T, Lamego FP, Avila LA (2022) RNAi as a tool for weed management: challenges and opportunities. Advances in Weed Science, 40,
p.e020220096.

35
36 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry
5 Land use transitions
Transitioning a site beyond mining provides an opportunity Establishing post-closure land uses may also enable
to generate lasting social, environmental or economic value the mining industry to recoup closure costs, offset the
and reduce potential adverse impacts of closure. The variety costs of managing any ongoing liabilities, and improve
of potential post-closure land uses presents an opportunity social performance. For example, utilisation of existing
to cultivate innovative, sustainable businesses and infrastructure (e.g., electricity networks) can reduce costs
communities that leverage a mine site’s infrastructure and associated with new projects and decommissioning.
final landform. Examples of post-closure land use include Communities can also benefit from repurposing mine
recreation and tourism, waste management and recycling, features, such as the conversion of underground mines
and energy generation and storage.151 for cold store food storage.152

Creating sustainable business models and associated land Reports have documented 15 examples of post-closure
uses that meet community and cultural interests requires land use in Australia.153 Figure 5 highlights five established
the identification of opportunities that deliver social, and emerging examples that showcase the diverse uses of
environmental and economic approach to value generation. mined land. Further case studies on emerging land use can
The optimal outcome of mine closure is for the site to be found in CRC TiME’s Post-mining land uses report.154
transition to a use that creates value for and is supported
by local communities. Consultations suggested the identification and
development of post-closure land uses as a challenge that
Working with communities to determine a land use offers opportunities for Australian businesses (see Table 11).
transition plan can help build trust and support the social
performance of mining companies. Local and regional
communities, including Indigenous communities, will
be best placed to determine suitable opportunities.
However, opportunities will vary from region to region
and between stakeholders. Sound engagement strategies
(see Section 2) will be necessary to ensure that the views
of each stakeholder are considered.

Table 11: Summary of land use transitions challenges and opportunities

Challenges Opportunities
Post-closure land use • Businesses specialising in identifying, assessing, enabling and developing
of post‑closure land uses

151 Beer A, Haslam-McKenzie F, Weller S, Davies A, Cote C, Ziemski M, Homles K, Keenan J (2022) Post-mining land uses. CRC TiME Limited, Perth, Australia.
152 Galgaro, Antonio & Dalla Santa, Giorgia & Cola, Prof. phD. Eng. Simonetta & Cultrera, Matteo & De Carli, Michele & Conforti, Fabrizio & Scotton, Paolo &
Viesi, Diego & Fauri, Maurizio. (2020). Underground warehouses for food storage in the Dolomites (Eastern alps – Italy) and energy efficiency. Tunnelling
and Underground Space Technology. 102. 103411. 10.1016/j.tust.2020.103411.
153 Keenan J, Holcombe S (2021).
154 Beer A et al. (2022)

37
Figure 5: Examples of innovative uses of mined land in Australia

Hannans North Clean energy hub

Tourist Mine Kidston, QLD
Kalgoorlie, WA
Gold mine under transition to develop renewable
Historic gold energy generation and storage site with solar,
mine converted wind and pumped hydro technologies.
into a visitor Image: Genex Power
attraction and
educational site.

Woodlawn
Eco-Precinct
Tarago, NSW

Open-cut mine pit

converted into a
bio-reactor landfill
creating bio-gas
to fuel a power
generator. Site also
Lake Kepwari holds aquaculture
Collie, WA facilities, solar and
wind farm.
Recreational lake
Image: Veolia
that was created
from conversion
of a coal mining
pit via local river
diversion.
Image: CRC TiME

SUPL: Stawell Underground Physics Laboratory

Stawell, VIC

Laboratory located in an operational gold

mine 1km underground, where conditions
are optimal for research into dark matter,
neutrinos and geoscience.

38 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Eden Project (UK) is a botanical garden
and visitor attraction established on a
reclaimed clay mine.

39
5.1 Post-closure land use

Solutions that address challenges preventing the establishment of post-closure land uses on mined
land can generate lasting economic, social, or environmental value and offset the costs of managing
ongoing liabilities. Opportunities include:

• Businesses specialising in identifying, assessing, enabling and developing post-closure land uses

Post-closure land use opportunities have traditionally been infrastructure can require extensive and regular community
limited to revegetating land. However, novel opportunities engagement to ensure asset life and management does not
or repurposing of existing infrastructure are emerging. negate these opportunities.
Stakeholders noted that regulatory preferences for
revegetation have limited alternative post-closure land use Closure plans may be developed decades before closure
on mining tenements in some jurisdictions. Alternatives to activities, which unless revisited regularly and updated
revegetation include novel post-closure land uses, including with appropriate engagement, can create a potential
economic development opportunities or repurposing disconnect between community expectations and available
existing infrastructure for community use. opportunities for post-closure land use at the time of
closure. Integrated closure planning, while necessary, faces
Determining and enabling optimal post-closure land uses several challenges. Regulatory processes may limit the
remains a challenge for the mining industry. The optimal activities undertaken on mined land as the presence of
use of a mine site varies significantly based on its location, residual risks and ongoing liabilities can create hurdles in
final landforms, infrastructure, community values and obtaining approvals and transitioning the mining leases.157
expectations, regulatory requirements, local skillsets, This may reduce opportunities for mine closure planning
and residual risks.155 The operational status of a mine site to integrate post-closure infrastructure and land use.
will also impact this, including whether the site is being
managed in perpetuity by a mining company, abandoned, Mining companies focus on optimising extraction
government-managed, returned to a landowner or divested processes, and therefore there may be a limited appetite
to a different entity. Historically, reuse of mined land has to invest in planning capability focused on post-closure
been driven by mining companies and government with land use. Partnerships are needed to enable post-closure
limited success, indicating that other actors are likely to land use and infrastructure repurposing. Expertise from
take on a leading role in mine transitions.156 non-mining industries is often required as the mining
industry is primarily focused on resource extraction.
Working with key stakeholders to inform and guide land Partnerships increase the complexity for mining companies
use decisions is essential to successful implementation. seeking to explore post-closure land use and infrastructure
Encouraging a productive dialogue on mine transitions reuse opportunities. Examples of industry-specific expertise
can support the management of complex stakeholder required include energy generation and storage, tourism,
relationships and train closure practitioners in local and agriculture. The need to partner across industries can
community concerns (see Section 2). Repurposing of create additional complexity and risk of the unknown for
mine site operators.

155 Beer A et al. (2022)

156 Keenan J, Holcombe S (2021)
157 Ashurst (2018) Mining rights in Australia. <https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=6ea86c96-ce2a-44aa-9efc-708727eb1966>
(accessed 30 August 2023)

40 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Opportunities Project developers and experts from other industries have
a critical role in identifying emerging opportunities for
Businesses specialising in identifying, assessing, post‑closure land use and attracting capital for investment.
enabling and developing post-closure land uses Many post-closure land uses require industry-specific
expertise, such as energy generation and storage, and
Businesses that can provide solutions that facilitate the
agriculture, as well as knowledge of mined land capabilities
development of high-value post-closure land and asset use
and limitations. There are emerging companies that
opportunities will be critical in enabling mine transitions
specialise in acquiring post-mining assets and developing
and allowing miners to focus on mining.
new projects that make use of the unique characteristics
While mining companies’ practitioners may lead closure of mined land. For example, Green Gravity is a company
planning and implementation, specialised consultancy that is focused on developing renewable energy projects
services can support the integration of opportunities into on abandoned or closing mines, making use of the energy
closure planning and increase awareness of emerging storage potential produced by changes in elevation in
transition options. The opportunity for these consultants mine shafts.
exists beyond the period of detailed planning for closure, as
Companies that facilitate the transition of site ownership
preliminary consideration of potential post-closure land use
and liabilities between the mining industry and post-closure
may be undertaken early in the mine life.
project developers can play a role in enabling emerging
Services offered may include identification and assessment post-closure opportunities. Consultancies that develop
of potential viable market and community opportunities, commercial transition models can de-risk investment and
post-closure business planning, project management, facilitate partnerships across industries. Legal services that
community engagement and partnership development, navigate the complex planning and regulatory processes
and supply chain assessment.158 BeyondLOM is one example for emerging post-closure land use options can support
of an emerging Australian business that seeks to support partnerships between mine operators and downstream
miners to develop integrated post-mining and post-closure industries. Stakeholders noted the existence of companies
land use solutions. BeyondLOM has developed strategic in other jurisdictions that assume or transfer environmental
partnerships with other specialist companies to expand the liabilities.160 There may also be opportunities for the
breadth of opportunities they can explore for their clients.159 development of Australian businesses that specialise in
mine closure and transitions and assume liabilities for
mining companies for a fixed price.

158 Brock D (2020) Consultants and the future of mine closure. AusIMM Bulletin. <https://www.ausimm.com/bulletin/bulletin-articles/consultants-and-the-
future-of-mine-closure/> (accessed 30 August 2023)
159 BeyondLOM (2022) Opportunities Beyond Mining – Repurposing Liabilities into Assets <https://www.beyondlom.com.au/> (accessed 30 August 2023)
160 Environmental Liability Transfer in the United States (2023) ELT Services <https://eltransfer.com/services/> (accessed 30 August 2023)

41
42 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry
6 Enabling industry growth
As a major mining nation, Australia has the potential to The success of MCS providers is closely tied to the value that
leverage domestic mine closure challenges to become a miners and governments place on improving mine closure
leading supplier of solutions that improve outcomes and and transition outcomes. Some companies and jurisdictions
reduce the costs of mine closure and transitions. To enable are showing leadership, but many consulted stakeholders
this opportunity, government and industry stakeholders can shared concern that mine closure teams and activities may
take coordinated and targeted actions to address key barriers continue to be undervalued by mining companies that focus
that will limit sustainable growth of the MCS industry. primarily on operational productivity and reducing costs to
increase their competitiveness. To address this, stakeholders
In the sections below, a series of enabling actions that noted that broader reforms and industry actions to drive
can address barriers to the growth of a sustainable and successful mine rehabilitation, closure, relinquishment,
productive ecosystem of MCS providers are discussed. and post-closure land use will also be critical to enabling
These were identified through a workshop, stakeholder these opportunities.
consultations, and desktop research. Figure 6 summarises
the actions identified for the consideration of government
and industry stakeholders. Most of the identified actions
require a degree of collaboration and a subset has been
identified that will require coordinated action from multiple
stakeholders (Section 6.1).

Figure 6: Government and industry stakeholder actions to enable growth of Australia’s MCS industry

Multi-stakeholder actions
1. Increase visibility of mine closure challenges and opportunities to support partnerships and innovation with
MCS providers.
2. Develop and implement methods that value the social and environmental outcomes of mine closure and transitions.
3. Encourage collaborative research and support demonstration of innovative mine closure solutions.

MCS industry actions Mining industry actions Government actions

4. Develop a coherent MCS 8. Embed performance indicators 10. Review regulatory barriers
industry identity and aligned that increase the focus on mine to novel mine closure and
strategy. closure and transitions within transition solutions.
5. Broaden customer base mining companies and drive 11. Support MCS industry
through adaptability, uptake of effective solutions. capability development and
interoperability and export. 9. Ensure that procurement export opportunities.
6. Align solutions with evolving policies allow new market
stakeholder expectations and entrants and small companies
miner requirements. to provide innovative mine
closure solutions.
7. Strengthen commercialisation
and business development
skills of emerging providers.

43
6.1 Multi-stakeholder actions • Research-led initiatives that explore and promote mine
closure challenges and opportunities. For example,
researchers have demonstrated the development of a
Action 1: Increase visibility of mine closure
country-wide database of inactive hard rock mine sites to
challenges and opportunities to support
aid in identifying mine closure and transition challenges
partnerships and innovation with MCS providers
and opportunities.164
Workshop participants suggested that there is limited
transparency and awareness of challenges and Indigenous-led MCS business development could be
opportunities presented in mine closure. Low levels of specifically encouraged through active industry and
engagement with non-mining industries (e.g., agriculture, government engagement with accessing existing initiatives
tourism, energy) have resulted in poor knowledge transfer that promote Indigenous businesses, including Aboriginal
and hindered development of innovative solutions. Enterprises in Mining, Energy and Exploration Ltd (AEMEE)
Improving the visibility of mine closure challenges and and the members of the National Indigenous Business
opportunities could encourage emerging MCS providers Chambers Alliance.
(including Indigenous, regional, and non-mining
This report itself attempts to increase the visibility of mine
businesses) to provide their diverse expertise to support
closure challenges and to illustrate the scale of related
mine closure and transitions.
opportunities by quantifying the potential expenditure
Industry, government and research organisations can on mine closure activities in Australia (see Appendix B).
play a key role in promoting cross-sector collaboration, To support better targeting of solutions development,
improving transparency and fostering partnerships related more granular and detailed economic analysis could be
to mine closure. This could help to attract businesses undertaken to identify the mine closure and transition
to address mine closure and transition challenges. cost drivers for mines of different scales, commodities
Specific examples include: and processes.

• Industry-led public innovation challenges like the BHP

Action 2: Develop and implement methods that
and Rio Tinto Tailings Technologies Open Call161 and
value the social and environmental outcomes of
Austmine’s mineinnovate platform.162 These initiatives
mine closure and transitions
attract new perspectives and approaches to solving mine
closure and transition challenges by publicly promoting The social and environmental aspects of mine closure
them to potential solutions providers. are often undervalued. Beyond accurately valuing
• Government-led information sharing platforms that economic impacts, translating the social, environmental
allow businesses and developers to engage with mine and economic impacts and benefits of mine closure and
closure and transition opportunities. Geoscience transitions into economic terms can improve the value
Australia has developed an Atlas of Australian Mine proposition for investing in innovative closure solutions.
Waste that supports identification of potential resource This will require the use of models and frameworks that
recovery projects by providing an online mapping tool prescribe value to environmental and social outcomes.
for mine tailings, waste rock, smelter residue and other For example, CRC TiME’s partners are developing natural
mine waste materials (see Section 3).163 Similar platforms capital accounting methods. These methods are aimed at
could be used to share data on expected mined land supporting miners in meeting their disclosure expectations
characteristics and encourage post-closure land use. and encourage greater investment into solutions that
improve biodiversity and conservation outcomes.165

161 BHP (2023) BHP and Rio Tinto invite collaboration on new tailings technologies. <https://www.bhp.com/news/media-centre/releases/2023/05/bhp-and-rio-
tinto-invite-collaboration-on-new-tailings-technologies> (accessed 30 August 2023)
162 Austmine (2022) mineinnovate <https://mineinnovate.com.au/> (accessed 30 August 2023)
163 Geoscience Australia (2021)
164 Werner et al. (2020)
165 CRC TiME Limited. (2023) Natural capital accounting in the mining sector. <https://crctime.com.au/research/projects/project-2-7/> (accessed 30 August 2023)

44 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Frameworks that improve the way the industry evaluates To address these challenges, government and industry
both social and economic performance can support the can support research, development and demonstration
value proposition for closure solutions that are harder to to reduce risk, improve commercialisation and encourage
quantify. The updated perspective of value can support market uptake of innovative solutions. Stakeholders
miner uptake and regulatory sign off on innovative suggested collaborative actions to support the
solutions where positive social and environmental demonstration and commercialisation of mine closure
impacts offset financial risk. Design and implementation solutions could include:
of these frameworks will require collaboration amongst
all stakeholders and robust community consultation • Collaborative investment to develop solutions that can
to ensure values are aligned. Miners can play a role in be used to address common challenges. This can be in
leading adoption of these new value frameworks, with the form of government grant initiatives and funding
government incentivising their use by incorporating them pools that can be accessed by industry to supplement
into regulatory processes. These models may also support research and development activities. Collaborative
the business case for progressive closure or concurrent research funding models can help ensure that research is
reclamation activities during operational phases. aligned with industry closure requirements and limiting
risks to individual parties.
• Development of pilot testing sites at abandoned mines to
Action 3: Encourage collaborative research
demonstrate emerging closure and transition solutions.
and support demonstration of innovative mine
Governments can foster pre-competitive collaboration
closure solutions
by incentivising collaborative testing models and
Low levels of funding and limited access to test sites for reducing the accessibility barriers on abandoned sites.166
mine closure solutions constrain the opportunities for Using abandoned sites for technology demonstration
researchers and businesses to generate data on real-world could help to address Australia’s abandoned mine legacy
performance and demonstrate the value of their solutions. while supporting businesses to prove the effectiveness
Consulted stakeholders noted that risk aversion is limiting of their solutions. The Queensland Resources Industry
investment and commercialisation of novel solutions. Development Plan has identified the opportunity of
Mining stakeholders reported reluctance to invest in closure re-commercialising Queensland’s abandoned mines
solutions that have not already proven their ability to to retrieve valuable resources from mine waste and is
reduce liabilities. Similarly, some government stakeholders supporting pilot studies.167
reported reservations in approving closure plans that
include solutions that have not already been demonstrated
at scale.

166 Salmi EF, Bekele EB, Schmid S (2022). Towards an inventory of abandoned mines in Australia: risk, prioritisation, and opportunities. CRC TiME Limited,
Perth, Australia
167 Department of Resources, Queensland (2022) Queensland resources industry development plan <https://www.resources.qld.gov.au/qridp>

45
6.2 MCS industry actions Solutions providers that demonstrate high performance and
adaptability across various sites with different commodities,
mine characteristics, social contexts, and regional factors
Action 4: Develop a coherent MCS industry identity
such as regulation and climate will have a significant
and aligned strategy
advantage. Similarly, designing solutions to be compatible
MCS providers may be associated with the METS industry or and interoperable with conventional mining practices and
a range of other diverse industries including environmental, systems will facilitate easier implementation of solutions on
planning, engineering, and consulting services. This leads mine sites. This can reduce integration barriers to solution
to a poorly defined industry identity, siloing of skills and deployment and strengthen the value proposition for
low levels of industry collaboration. The establishment mining customers.
of professional communities and initiatives could bring
MCS providers together to collaboratively develop the To further broaden their customer base, MCS providers
industry, nurture productive collaborations, network can seek to export their solutions to target international
with mine closure practitioners, and discuss emerging markets. Australia’s relatively high standards of
mine closure challenges. These initiatives can help environmental regulation and performance mean that
to strengthen the industry’s brand and drive greater Australian providers will be well placed to enhance mine
global interest in using Australian businesses to support closure outcomes in international markets. Alongside
mine closure and transitions. It may also support the Australia, analysis suggests that China, Canada, the US,
development of best practices and collaborative solutions South Africa and Mexico are expecting the highest number
to address the industry’s challenges. This may also of mine closures between 2021–2040.168 Some MCS
support the development of Indigenous and regional providers may also benefit from targeting non-mining
businesses through professional networking and markets to maintain cashflow between mine closure
training opportunities. related activities.

EnviroMETS Qld is an example of an industry-led,

Action 6: Align solutions with evolving stakeholder
not-for-profit company that promotes METS solutions
expectations and miner requirements
and businesses to improve the sustainability and value
of post‑closure outcomes in Queensland. At the national Increasing community and shareholder expectations
level, the Closure Planning Practitioners Association, METS for positive social and environmental outcomes
Ignited, and Austmine exist to support Australia’s mine are driving miners’ decision-making, government
closure planning and METS industries, but no national regulatory requirements and industry best practices.
initiative exists specifically for MCS providers and as such Stakeholders noted that this is now directly influencing
their importance is often overlooked. the selection and procurement of solutions. To maintain
competitiveness, MCS providers need to be aware of
where their business can align with community values, and
Action 5: Broaden customer base through
solutions can help miners meet the evolving expectations.
adaptability, interoperability and export
Active engagement with industry stakeholders can identify
The cyclical nature of the mining industry can lead to evolving expectations and future priorities to inform
intermittent demand for many mine closure solutions. the development of solutions.
Providers that offer highly specific or niche solutions will
face natural barriers to their business growth due to their
constrained addressable market. To enable sustainable
industry growth in the long term, MCS providers will be
well placed to develop solutions that are compatible with
different commodities and mining processes, and to target
export opportunities.

168 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties.

46 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

MCS providers can increase their competitiveness by The benefit of solutions must be demonstrated to
designing solutions that align with the mining industry’s customers at the enterprise and operational levels.
growing need to demonstrate strong environmental, social Validation of cost-effectiveness and performance will be
and governance performance. Solutions should be designed critical to assuring clients that new solutions can meet
to operate within sites and jurisdictions that which uphold closure standards without increasing cost and risk, and
best practice. High degrees of transparency on issues such ensure that the value is clearly communicated to key
as ethical supply chains, embodied emissions, and safety decision-makers with customer organisations. This can be
outcomes can increase the potential value proposition showcased by presenting capabilities and performance
and provide a point of difference from competitors. through case studies, commercial advocates and previous
For example: projects across other industries.

• The mining sector’s target to achieve net-zero emissions MCS providers could align themselves with early
by 2050 will increase demand for zero-emissions mine commercial development strategies and insights attained
closure solutions. For example, it is expected that the from the growth of the broader Australian METS industry.
diesel-powered rehabilitation fleets and equipment will This can be facilitated through programs that assist
need to be replaced with zero-emission alternatives such researchers in developing their commercialisation skills
as electric vehicles.169 such as Austmine’s Innovation Mentoring program173 or
• MCS providers may improve market appeal by adopting CSIRO’s ON Prime program.174 Greater commercialisation
responsible product stewardship approaches for their and business development skills can build industry
products and materials.170 reputation, positioning the Australian mine closure and
transition solutions industry for greater competitiveness in
local and export markets.
Action 7: Strengthen commercialisation and
business development skills of emerging providers MCS providers may benefit from undertaking courses
Historically, the mining sector has had an inconsistent track developed for mine closure practitioners to better
record for technology translation,171 and the METS industry understand how their solutions can target key issues of
has identified a requirement to further develop its research mine closure. For example, the Australasian Institute of
translation and commercialisation capabilities.172 It will be Mining and Metallurgy (AusIMM) is launching an Integrated
critical for MCS providers to continue to strengthen their Mine Closure course and professional certification in
commercialisation and business development skills to October 2023. This may provide a platform for MCS
encourage adoption from miners and secure clients. providers and other resource professionals to gain
knowledge from industry leaders to develop capabilities
Robust communication of the alignment with customer in risk assessment generating the business case for
values and drivers can improve the value proposition integrated closure.175
of MCS providers. Stakeholders highlighted the
importance of providers tailoring their pitches to
demonstrate the suitability and value of their solutions.

169 Constable T (2022) Media Release - Mining industry continues progress with emissions reduction. Minerals Council of Australia.
<https://minerals.org.au/resources/mining-industry-continues-progress-with-emissions-reduction/> (accessed 30 August 2023)
170 Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (2023) Product stewardship accreditation. <https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/
protection/waste/product-stewardship/product-schemes/voluntary-product-stewardship> (accessed 30 August 2023)
171 CSIRO (2017)
172 METS Ignited (2020) Mining Equipment Technology Services – Sector Competitiveness Plan 2020 Update. Department of Industry, Science, Energy and
Resources, Australian Government. <https://metsignited.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/METS-Ignited-Sector-Competitiveness-Plan-2020-Update-Web.pdf>
173 Austmine (2023) Austmine Innovation Mentoring Program. <https://austmine.com.au/Public/Public/Programs/IMP.aspx> (accessed 30 August 2023)
174 CSIRO (2023) ON Prime. <https://www.csiro.au/en/work-with-us/funding-programs/innovation-programs/on-prime> (accessed 30 August 2023)
175 AusIMM (2023) Professional Certificate - Integrated Mine Closure https://www.ausimm.com/courses/professional-certificates/integrated-mine-closure/
(accessed 12 September 2022)

47
6.3 Mining industry actions Action 9: Ensure that procurement policies allow
new market entrants and small companies to
Action 8: Embed performance indicators that provide innovative mine closure solutions
increase the focus on mine closure and transitions Stakeholders indicated that mining companies often have
within mining companies and drive uptake of procurement policies that can be barriers to engaging with
effective solutions innovative MCS providers. Procurement barriers include
strict vendor lists, complex procurement processes with
Stakeholders reported that inconsistent uptake of mine
long lead times, inconsistent procurement policies, mining
closure performance indicators reflects and reinforces
experience requriements, meeting strict health and safety
the low prioritisation of closure and transitional activities
requirements for operating on a mine site and establishing
within mining companies. This can have adverse effects on
relationships with top-tier mining companies. Meeting
collaboration and create knowledge silos that make the
mining companies high procurement policies can be a
transdisciplinary practice of mine closure more challenging.
high-cost and time-intensive practice for solution providers
Consideration of closure and transitions throughout the
and may make the mining sector an unappealing market for
entire mining life cycle may help shift the appetite for
small and medium-sized enterprises as well as cross-vertical
innovation and create opportunities for the deployment
businesses who may turn to other industries with lower
of innovative mine closure solutions. Mining companies
barriers to entry.
can encourage this by including closure in corporate and
operational objectives. Ensuring that procurement policies are effective and
balanced will enable small businesses and market
Consulted stakeholders supported the embedding
entrants from other sectors to participate in a competitive
of closure and transition-related KPIs into existing
market for innovative mine closure solutions. Possible
organisational frameworks to establish a culture
strategies include flexible qualification criteria to measure
that favours sustainable outcomes. KPIs for senior
vendor capability and expanded market access to allow
decision‑makers could include closure and residual
businesses who have proven technology use outside of
risk management objectives, with value metrics
a mining context but in similar environments, such as
considering social, environmental and economic
revegetation specialists operating in agricultural or energy
outcomes. Measurement of performance matched with
generation industries.
incentives can drive a top-down cultural shift throughout
organisations. By encouraging a culture of closure from
the outset, knowledge transfer within mining companies 6.4 Government actions
can be strengthened, ensuring effective use of insights
and expertise.
Action 10: Review regulatory barriers to novel mine
The ICMM has developed a Key Performance Indicator closure and transition solutions
Tool, which outlines a set of Key Performance Areas aligned Stakeholders noted that a variety of regulatory and policy
with context-dependent closure objectives to support barriers are limiting the implementation of existing
responsible closure.176 This tool is to be used in alignment solutions and deterring entrepreneurship within the closure
with the ICMM Integrated Mine Closure: Good Practice space. These insights are supported by previous studies
Guide and implemented throughout the closure process. that describe departments and regulatory frameworks
that govern many closure activities as ineffective,177
siloed and potentially hindering the deployment of
innovative solutions.178

176 ICMM (2020) Key Performance Indicators: Tool for Closure. https://www.icmm.com/en-gb/guidance/environmental-stewardship/2020/kpi-tool-for-closure
(accessed 30 August 2023)
177 Unger et al. (2020)
178 Beer et al. (2022)

48 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Government stakeholders could explore how current Action 11: Support MCS industry capability
regulatory framework and policies can be aligned development and export opportunities
to encourage the uptake of closure solutions and
Skills and training, professional development and export
opportunities for optimised social, environmental and
support initiatives can enhance MCS provider capability
economic outcomes. Stakeholders and past reports have
development and growth. Government can play a role
identified various legislative barriers that are limiting
in programs focused on the development of closure
the uptake of novel closure solutions. These include
competencies among closure practitioners and MCS
administrative complexity, risk adversity and varying
providers through funding, incentives and alignment
requirements between jurisdictions.179 Stakeholders
with regulatory requirements and global standards.
suggested that Australia’s regulatory environments could
Government can support the delivery of these programs
better incentivise proactive and progressive closure
and ensure adequate training to Indigenous and regional
activities. This would encourage the uptake of innovative
community businesses, who may otherwise be limited due
solutions and support the growth of MCS providers. These
to location and local resources. This can also extend to
include exploring where frameworks can support circular
commercialisation skills to ensure providers are equipped
economy initiatives such as waste recovery and resource
to navigate commercial and regulatory barriers and enable
management, as well as mine closure planning that
long-term business sustainability of MCS providers.
incorporates suitable post-closure land use. Stakeholders
also suggested that this could be encouraged by reducing MCS providers would benefit from government
environmental bonds (where applicable) or providing and government-backed industry association skills
other incentives when early interventions and progressive and training programs. For example, the Australian
rehabilitation practices are successfully implemented. Government-supported industry growth centre,
METS Ignited, has previously run accelerator courses
Achieving post-closure land use transitions was identified
and masterclass programs to develop innovation
as a particularly complex challenge that is hindered
cultures, business models, and commercial skills for
by unclear regulatory pathways for miners to achieve
METS businesses. 181
relinquishment and transference of mining. Regulatory
barriers to the economic transformation of mine-affected Government organisations can also support export
land may be explored in more detail in an EnviroMETS-led opportunities for mine closure solutions by working with
CRC TiME project, Navigating the Regulatory Framework the MCS industry to develop export strategies, including
Impacting the Economic Transformation of Mine Affected targeting export markets and potential trade partners.
Land, commenced in August 2023.180 Stakeholders noted that the Australian Government
may have the ability to nurture export opportunities
Government can continue to strengthen the capability of
by encouraging other nations to raise their mine
regulatory departments through skills development and
closure standards and by leveraging existing productive
knowledge sharing between jurisdictions. Stakeholders
international relations. Austrade promotes the METS
reported limitations in regulatory experience in closure
industry internationally and could expand this support to
and siloing of knowledge, which can lead to unclear
include MCS providers. As noted above, countries that are
closure criteria and inefficiencies in the approval process.
expected to have large numbers of mine closures in the
Consulted stakeholders advocated for continuing the
coming years (including China, Canada, USA, South Africa
development of regulatory departments through increasing
and Mexico) could be suitable targets for mine closure
the closure experience of regulatory staff, enhancing
solutions-focused trade missions and promotion.
knowledge sharing between jurisdictions, and greater
collaboration with appropriate environmental, planning
and development departments. Strengthening regulatory
capability can allow regulators to operate beyond the
business-as-usual, which may enable governments to
explore how they can facilitate improved closure and
transition outcomes.

179 Hamblin L, Gardner A, Haigh Y (2022) Mapping the Regulatory Framework of Mine Closure. CRC TiME limited, Perth, Australia.
180 CRC TiME Limited (2023) New collaborative project with enviroMETS kicks off. <https://crctime.com.au/blog/new-collaborative-project-with-enviromets-
kicks-off/> (accessed 30 August 2023)
181 METS Ignited (n.d.) METS Ignited Accelerator Programs <https://metsignited.org/accelerators/> (accessed 30 August 2023); METS Ignited (n.d.) METS Ignited
Masterclass Programs <https://metsignited.org/masterclasses/> (accessed 30 August 2023)

49
50 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry
Appendices
Appendix A: Glossary
This report’s glossary has been compiled with the aid of multiple sources, including:

• Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2016a) Mine Closure: Leading Practice Sustainable Development
Program for the Mining Industry. Australian Government. 182
• ICMM (2019) Integrated Mine Closure Good Practice Guide, 2nd Edition183
• ISO 20305:2020 Mine closure and reclamation — Vocabulary184

TERM/ACRONYM DEFINITION

Abandoned mine or site An abandoned site describes a mine where mining leases or titles no longer exist, and responsibility for
rehabilitation cannot be allocated to any individual, company or organisation responsible for the original
mining activities.

Acid and metalliferous Traditionally referred to as ‘acid mine drainage’ or ‘acid rock drainage’; includes both acidic and
drainage (AMD) near-neutral but metalliferous drainage. Acidic drainage results from the oxidation of sulphides such as
pyrite in mine wastes.

Backfilling Refilling of an excavation or void.

Care and maintenance Phase following a temporary cessation of operations, when infrastructure, plant and equipment remain
intact and are maintained in anticipation of production recommencing. May also be referred to as
‘temporary closure’; such a site may be referred to as ‘inactive’.

Closure planning A process that extends over the mine life cycle and that typically culminates in tenement relinquishment.
This includes decommissioning and rehabilitation. The term ‘closure’ alone is sometimes used to indicate
the point at which operations cease, infrastructure is removed, and management of the site is largely
limited to monitoring.

Community In mining industry terms, the inhabitants of immediate and surrounding areas who are affected by a mining
operation’s activities. ‘Local community’ usually indicates the community in which operations are located
and may include Indigenous and non-Indigenous people.

Completion criteria Agreed standards or levels of performance that indicate the success of rehabilitation and enable an
operator to determine when its liability for an area ceases.

Decommissioning Begins with the cessation of production, when infrastructure, plant and equipment are isolated from
services such as power and water. Commonly includes the removal (deconstruction or demolition) of
unwanted plant and equipment. Individual facilities may be decommissioned and removed if no longer
required, while mining and processing operations continue.

Dewatering Tailings dewatering: removal of water from tailings or slurry by either passive or active treatment such as
thickening, filtration or centrifuging.
Mine dewatering: Removal of groundwater or surface water from a mine site.

Groundwater Water beneath the earth’s surface that fills pores between porous media—such as soil, rock, coal and
sand—usually forming aquifers. In some jurisdictions the depth below the soil surface is also used to define
groundwater (although different states use different depths).

Leaching Chemical or biological processes that dissolve minerals or metals out of ore.

Landholder The owner of freehold land, the holder of leasehold land, or any person or body that occupies or has
accrued rights in freehold or leasehold land.

METS Mining Equipment, Technology and Services (industry/business)

182 Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources (2016a)

183 ICMM (2019)
184 International Organisation for Standardisation (2020) ISO 20305:2020 Mine closure and reclamation — Vocabulary <https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/
en/#iso:std:iso:20305:ed-1:v1:en>

51
 TERM/ACRONYM DEFINITION

Mine closure and There are varying interpretations of the term mine closure. It is often used interchangeably with
transitions mine rehabilitation or to indicate the point at which operations cease, infrastructure is removed,
and management of the site is largely limited to monitoring.
In this report, the term mine closure and transitions is used to describe strategies and activities related to the
completion of mining activities, rehabilitation of mined land, and the establishment of post-closure land
uses. This includes not only mine rehabilitation, but also engagement and partnerships, waste reduction
and resource recovery, and transitioning mined land.

Mine closure solutions Equipment, technology or services that support and enable mine closure and transitions.

Mine closure solutions Businesses that provide mine closure solutions to mining companies or other parties responsible for mine
(MCS) providers closure. In this report this includes both METS and non-METS businesses.

Post-closure land use Refers to the use of mined lands after the completion of extractive mining, closure activities and
relinquishment of the land.

Post-mining land use A land use that occurs after the cessation of mining operations.

Post-mining landform A constructed topographic feature for which rehabilitation has been completed to support long-term
stability.

Progressive Proactive rehabilitation activities that take place during operations to reduce the rehabilitation burden at
rehabilitation the end of mining operations.

Reclamation Treatment of previously degraded and often contaminated land to achieve a useful purpose. Often used
outside Australia instead of ‘rehabilitation’.

Rehabilitation Mine rehabilitation describes the biophysical repair of a mined landscape to render it safe, stable,
and non-polluting, taking into account beneficial uses of the site and surrounding land.

Relinquishment The end of site ownership by the mining company and of their responsibility for the site, with transition of
ownership and residual liability to the jurisdictional authority or a third party.

Remediation Cleaning up or mitigating contaminated soil or water.

Residual risk The risk that a rehabilitated area (or closed mine), in the foreseeable future, fails to perform as predicted
and the consequence of the failure will result in the need for repair, replacement or maintenance works,
and thus associated costs

Tailings A combination of the fine-grained solid material remaining after the recoverable metals and minerals have
been extracted from crushed and ground mined ore, and any process water remaining.

Tailings management Managing tailings over their life cycle, including their production, transport, placement and storage,
and the closure and rehabilitation of the TSF.

Tailings storage facility An area used to contain tailings; its prime function is to achieve solids sedimentation, consolidation and
(TSF) desiccation, and to facilitate water recovery or removal without affecting the environment. Refers to the
overall facility and may include one or more tailings storages.

Thickened tailings Tailings thickened to a high density, which beach at a steeper slope and segregate less than tailings slurry,
producing far less supernatant water.

Waste rock Uneconomic rock extracted from the ground during a mining operation to gain access to the ore.

Water table The underground boundary between the aerated zone (above) and saturated zone (below). The saturated
zone sits below the water table, where groundwater fills the space between soil and rock, underground
aquifers are present below the water table. The aerated zone sits above the water table, where both oxygen
and water fill the spaces between soil and rocks, surface water systems are present above the water table.

52 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Appendix B: Economic analysis Projected expenditure on mine
closure activities
This report undertook an economic analysis of projected
expenditure on mine closure activities to assess the
Approach
commercial opportunity for Australia’s mine closure market
by 2040. This Appendix summarises the parameters, Publicly available data on historical expenditure on mine
methodology and results, developed in consultation with closure activities is limited. An assumed cost of each
stakeholders and used to produce the estimates presented mine’s closure based on mine claim area was applied to its
in this report. expected closure year to estimate projected expenditure
on mine closure activities to 2040. This data showcases
This report developed two approaches to showcase the a ready-to-go opportunity for Australia over the coming
economic opportunity of mine closure. The first approach decades, including for activities such as decommissioning
explores the opportunity of mine closure broadly from infrastructure, stabilising landforms and waterways,
a top-down approach. In contrast, the second approach and managing contaminants and pollutants.
explores the specific opportunity for environmental
remediation.

Results of both approaches should be interpreted as

indicative, given limitations arising from data quality
and uncertainties implicit in projecting forward multiple
decades. As this economic analysis is the first for Australia,
further research building on this analysis is encouraged.

For simplicity, inflation has not been incorporated, so the

estimates should be interpreted in 2023 Australian dollars.

Figure 7: Visualisation of projected mine closure expenditure approach

Mine site #1: 5-year mine life

Mine site #2: 10-year mine life

Mine site #3: 15-year mine life

2020 2025 2030 2035 2040

Closure cost Closure cost Closure cost

incurred for incurred for incurred for
mine site #1 mine site #2 mine site #3

53
Parameters
The parameters used in this report’s economic analysis to estimate Australia’s projected mine closure expenditure are
summarised in Table 12.

Table 12: Parameters for estimating projected mine closure expenditure

PARAMETER DEFINITION DATA SOURCE

A Mine start-up year Actual or projected mine start-up year up to S&P Global Market Intelligence185
2040 for all Australian mine sites where data
is available and has been publicly reported.

B Mine closure year Actual or projected mine closure year up to S&P Global Market Intelligence186
2040 for all Australian mine sites where data
is available and has been publicly reported.
Assumes that mines become permanently
closed in the given year.

C Average mine life Estimated average mine life for Australian CSIRO Futures calculation
mine sites based on mine start-up year and
mine closure year.

D Average mine closure cost Assumed conservative average mine closure Conservative assumption informed by
cost for Australian mines held constant consultations with mine closure practitioners
from 2021 to 2040, varying based on mine and validated by desktop research. Actual
claim area. mine closure costs will vary significantly
between commodities, locations, practices,
and outcomes.

The S&P Capital IQ Pro dataset reports the latest available As of 7 July 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro reported 5,317
publicly available information on mine properties. As such, Australian mine properties. Of those, 558 mines had
it should be noted that this information is not holistic for available and valid data for both start-up year and closure
Australia and may be outdated, missing or inaccurate in year, whereby start-up year was reported in the same or
some cases. This dataset also is unable to account for future prior year to closure year.187 Of those, 249 mines had closure
unexpected mine closures. years from 2021 to 2040. 12 mines were excluded as they did
not have area data, leaving a total of 237 mines for analysis.

185 S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
186 S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
187 In the S&P Capital IQ Pro dataset, closure year may be reported prior to start-up year if a mine property has closed and re-opened, as only the latest
published start-up year and latest published closure year is reported. In these cases, this report investigated and took the earliest start-up year and latest
closure year reported to resolve where possible.

54 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Descriptive statistics of the sample of 237 mines expected to close from 2021 to 2040 are summarised below.

Table 13: Mine life of Australian mines closing from 2021 to 2040188

STATISTIC MINE START-UP YEAR MINE CLOSURE YEAR MINE LIFE (YEARS)

Minimum 1898 2021 0

Q1 1995 2026 11

Median 2010 2030 20

Q3 2019 2034 36

Maximum 2026 2040 136

Table 14: Location of Australian mines closing from 2021 Table 16: Primary mine type of Australian mines closing from
to 2040189 2021 to 2040191

STATE OR TERRITORY COUNT MINE TYPE COUNT

New South Wales 33 Open pit 161

Northern Territory 16 Underground 65

Queensland 53 Other 9

South Australia 8

Tasmania 9 Table 17: Claim area of Australian mines closing from 2021
to 2040192
Victoria 3
CLAIM AREA COUNT
Western Australia 115
Under 5,000ha 59

5,000 to 15,000ha 56
Table 15: Primary commodity of Australian mines closing from
2021 to 2040190 15,000 to 55,000ha 62

COMMODITY COUNT Over 55,000ha 60

Coal 44

Iron ore 27

Base metal 54

Precious metal 79

Bulk commodity 9

Specialty commodity 24

188 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
189 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
190 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
Base metal includes cobalt, copper, lead, molybdenum, nickel, tin, zinc.
Precious metal includes gold, platinum, silver.
Bulk commodity includes bauxite, manganese, phosphate, potash.
Speciality commodity includes diamonds, graphite, heavy mineral sands, ilmenite, lanthanides, lithium, scandium, tungsten, uranium, vanadium.
191 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
Other includes brine, dredging, in-situ leach, stock pile, tailings.
192 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
Thresholds rounded from quartiles of sample dataset.

55
 It is recognised that in reality, mine closure costs will vary significantly between com
practices, outcomes, and other factors. However, these assumptions are plausibly be
publicly available historic Australian industry statistics and should be interpreted as
Furthermore, projections of mine closure years may be inaccurate if mines close late
expenditure on closure is spread over a longer timeframe than assumed. Results are
year moving average to address this.
Table 18: Average mine closure cost assumptions by area for Australian mines closing from
Claim area Assumed mine closure cost
Under 5,000ha 50
5,000 to 15,000ha 250
Assumptions
Assumptions ofof averagemine
average mineclosure
closurecosts
costsfor
for Parameter
Parameter15,000
𝐷𝐷 aretosummarised
55,000ha below. Closure costs are
Methodology 500
aredefined by areabelow.
summarised quartiles for thecosts
Closure sampleare of mines closing
defined from55,000ha
by areaOver 2021 to 2040 to distinguish between small 1,000
and large This report’s methodology used to estimate Australia’s
quartiles formines, notingof
the sample that mines
mines may have
closing frommultiple
2021 toclaims
2040 associated with a single mine property. This
Methodologyprojected
and mine closure expenditure using the parameters
to report has elected
distinguish between to keep
smallclosure costsmines,
and large static over
notingtime
thatdue to market price uncertainty. Post-closure
defined above
monitoring costs and unknown risks and uncertainties are also not included in this analysis. is summarised193 here.
mines may have multiple claims associated with a single This report’s methodology used to estimate Australia’s projected mine closure expe
It isproperty.
mine recognisedThis
thatreport
in reality,
has mine
electedclosure costs
to keep will vary
closure significantly
parameters between
Thedefined
results arecommodities,
above bylocations,
is summarised
calculated here. an assumed cost of
applying
practices,
costs outcomes,
static over time dueandtoother factors.
market However,
andAssumptions these
price uncertainty. assumptions
of average mine
each are plausibly
closure
mine’s costs benchmarked
forapplying
closure Parameter
(Parameter against
𝐷𝐷 ,are summarised
Table 18) toofits below.
expectedClosure costs are
The results are calculated by an assumed cost each mine’s closure (Param
publicly available historic Australian industry
defined statistics
and and
by area should bethe
quartiles interpretedofasmines
indicative.194from 2021 to 2040 to distinguish between s
Post-closure monitoring costs and unknown risks expectedfor closuresample
closure year (Parameterclosing
year(Parameter ). The
𝐵𝐵). The methodology
methodologysteps stepsare outlined below.
are
Furthermore, projections of mine closure
uncertainties are also not included in this
years
largemay
andanalysis. 193 be inaccurate if mines close later than expected or if
mines, noting that mines below.
may have multiple claims associated with a single mine property.
1) than
Calculate outlined
mine life for all
expenditure on closure is spread over areport
longerhas
timeframe
elected to assumed.
keep closure Results arereported
costs static also Australian 5-
overreported
mine sites where mine start-up year
time dueastoamarket and price uncertainty. Post-cl
year moving average to address this.
It is recognised that in reality, mine closure costs will are
vary available.
monitoring costs and unknown risks andmine
1. Calculate uncertainties
life for allare also notAustralian
reported included inmine
this analysis.193
significantly between
Table 18: Average minecommodities, locations,by
closure cost assumptions area for2)Australian
practices, Calculatemines the average mine
closing from life where
2021 to 2040mine
195
start-up year andyearmine closure year a
It is recognised that in reality,sites minewhere
closure mine
costsstart-up
will varyyear and minebetween
significantly closure commodities, locatio
outcomes,
Claim areaand other factors. However, practices,
these assumptions sites. arefactors.
available.
outcomes,Assumed
and other mine closure cost (A$M)
However, these assumptions are plausibly benchmarked agai
are Under
plausibly benchmarked against publicly available
publicly available3)historic
Sum
50 mine closures from 2021 to 2040
andfor allwhere
Australian
Australian industry statistics should minemine
be interpreted sites estimated
as indicative. to cl
194
5,000ha 2. Calculate the average mine life start-up year
historic Australian
5,000 to 15,000ha industry statistics and should be
Furthermore, projections 250 of mine closure years may be inaccurate iffor
mines close later than expected
and mine closure year are available
4) Calculate the total mine closure cost for each year from 2021 to 2040. mine sites.
interpreted
15,000 toas indicative.194 Furthermore,
55,000ha expenditure
projections onofclosure500 is spread over a longer timeframe than assumed. Results are also reported as
3. Sum mine closures from 2021 to 2040 for all Australian
mine closure
Over years may be inaccurate ifyear
55,000ha mines moving
closeaverage
later 1,000to address this.
mine sites estimated to close each year.
than expected or if expenditure on closure Tableis18:
spread over
Average minea closure cost assumptions by area for Australian mines closing from 2021 to 2040195
Methodology 4. Calculate the total mine closure cost for each year from
longer timeframe than assumed. Results are also reported
Claim area Assumed mine closure cost (A$M)
as This report’s
a 5-year methodology
moving average toused to estimate
address this. Australia’s projected mine 2021closure expenditure using the
to 2040.
Under 5,000ha 50
parameters defined above is summarised here.
5,000 to 15,000ha 250
193 For further discussion on unknown risks and uncertainties in mine closure cost estimation, see:

The18:
Table results are mine
Average calculated bycost
closure applying an15,000
assumed
assumptions cost
toarea
by forof
55,000ha eachB,mine’s
Maybee closure
Lilford E and Hitch M(Parameter 𝐷𝐷) to social
2023, Environmental, its500and governance (ESG) risk, uncertainty, and the mining
Industries and Society, vol. 14, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X23000357?dgcid=coau
expectedmines
Australian closure yearfrom
closing (Parameter
2021 to 𝐵𝐵).
2040The
195
methodology
Over 55,000ha steps
194 are outlined below.
Commonwealth of Australia 2019, Rehabilitation of mining 1,000
and resources projects and power station ash dams a
responsibilities,
1) Calculate mine life ASSUMED
for all reported Australian COST
mine sites where mine start-up year and mine closure year
CLAIM AREA Methodology(A$M)
MINE CLOSURE https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/Mining
are available. Fletcher D, Hutton A and Dick C 2011, The “smoking gun” of detailed mine closure cost over-run – a review using ca
Under 5,000ha associated
This report’s methodology
50 with the demolition
used to estimateand removal of infrastructure
Australia’s in mine
projected closure,
mine in AB Fourie,
closure M Tibbett &using
expenditure A Beersing
the(
2) Calculate the average mine life where mine start-up year and mine
Proceedings closure
of the Sixth year are
International available
Conference forClosure,
on Mine mine Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp.
parameters defined
ICMM above is summarised here.
sites.to 15,000ha
5,000 250 2019, Integrated mine closure: good practice guide, 2nd edition, https://www.icmm.com/website/publicatio
stewardship/2019/guidance_integrated-mine-closure.pdf?cb=56219
The results are calculated
Lock the Gate by applying
2016, an assumed
Mine rehabilitation cost cost:
and each
closure of each mine’s closure (Parameter 𝐷𝐷) to its
3) Sum
15,000 to mine closures from 2021 to 2040 for all Australian
55,000ha 500mine sites estimated to close year.a hidden business risk, https://www.lockthegate.org.au/m
expected closureNehring
year (Parameter
M & Cheng X 2016, 𝐵𝐵).AnThe methodology
investigation stepsofare
into the impact mineoutlined
closure andbelow.
its associated cost on life of mine p
4) Calculate Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 127, pp. 228–239.
Over 55,000hathe total mine closure cost for each year from
1,000 2021 to 2040.
1) Calculate mineNorthern
life forTerritory
all reported
GovernmentAustralian mineheld
2023, Securities sites where
for mining mine
sites, start-up year and mine closur
https://nt.gov.au/industry/mining/decisions/
are available. Parshley JV, Bauman W and Blaxland D 2009, An evolution of the methods for and purposes of mine closure cost es
Tibbett (eds), Mine Closure 2009: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Mine Closure, Australian C
pp. 187-200.
2) Calculate the average mine life where mine start-up year and mine closure year are available for m
The Australia Institute 2017, Dark side of the boom, https://australiainstitute.org.au/report/dark-side-of-the-boom/
sites. 195 This was developed in consultation with mining industry, METS and economic stakeholders and is supported by h

CSIRO Futures assumption; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining P
3) Sum mine closures from 2021
CSIRO Australia’s to 2040
National Sciencefor all Australian mine sites
Agency estimated
Enabling to and
mine closure close each year.
transitions: Opportun
193 For further discussion on unknown risks and uncertainties in mine closure cost estimation, see:

Maybee B, Lilford E and Hitch M 2023, Environmental,4) Calculate

social the total
and governance (ESG) mine closureand
risk, uncertainty, cost thefor each
mining life year from
cycle, The 2021 to 2040.
Extractive
Industries and Society, vol. 14, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X23000357?dgcid=coauthor
194 Commonwealth of Australia 2019, Rehabilitation of mining and resources projects and power station ash dams as it relates to Commonwealth

responsibilities,
193https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/MiningandResources/Report
For further discussion on unknown risks and uncertainties in mine closure cost estimation, see:
Fletcher D, Hutton A and Dick C 2011, The “smoking gun” of detailed mine closure cost over-run – a review using case studies of the real costs
Maybee B, Lilford E and Hitch M 2023, Environmental, social and governance (ESG) risk, uncertainty, and the mining life cycle, The Extractive Industries and
associated with the demolition and removal of infrastructure in mine closure, in AB Fourie, M Tibbett & A Beersing (eds), Mine Closure 2011:
Society, vol. 14, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X23000357?dgcid=coauthor
Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Mine Closure, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 97-106.
194ICMM
Commonwealth of Australia
2019, Integrated 2019,
mine closure: Rehabilitation
good practice guide, of 2nd
193 For
mining andhttps://www.icmm.com/website/publications/pdfs/environmental-
edition, resources projects and power station ash dams as it relates to Commonwealth
further discussion on unknown risks and uncertainties in mine closure cost estimation, see:
responsibilities, https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/MiningandResources/Report
stewardship/2019/guidance_integrated-mine-closure.pdf?cb=56219
Maybee B, Lilford E and Hitch M 2023, Environmental, social and governance (ESG) risk, uncertainty, and the mining life cycle, The Extracti
Lock the Gate
Fletcher 2016, Mine
D, Hutton rehabilitation
A and Dick C 2011, andThe
closure cost:
“smoking a hidden
gun”
Industries and business
of detailed
Society, risk, https://www.lockthegate.org.au/mine_rehabilitation_and_closure.
mine
vol. 14, closure cost over-run – a review using case studies of the real costs associated
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214790X23000357?dgcid=coauthor
Nehring
with theM& Cheng X 2016,
demolition andAn investigation
removal into the impact
of infrastructure of mine
in mine
194 Commonwealth closure
closure, and
in ABitsFourie,
of Australia associated
2019, M cost on &
Tibbett
RehabilitationlifeAofof mine planning
Beersing
mining and(eds), and
Mine
resources resource
Closure
projectsrecovery,
2011:
and Proceedings
power station ashof the as
dams Sixth
it relates to Common
Journal of Cleaner
International Production,on
Conference vol.Mine
127, Closure,
pp. 228–239.
Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 97-106.
responsibilities,
Northern Territory Government 2023, Securities held https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/MiningandResources/Report
for mining sites, https://nt.gov.au/industry/mining/decisions/securities-held
ICMM 2019, Integrated mine closure: good practice guide, 2nd edition, https://www.icmm.com/website/publications/pdfs/environmental-stewardship/2019/
Parshley JV, Bauman W and Blaxland D 2009, An evolution
guidance_integrated-mine-closure.pdf?cb=56219 of the
Fletcher methods
D, Hutton for and
A and Dickpurposes of mine
C 2011, The closure
“smoking gun”cost
ofestimation,
detailed mine in AB Fouriecost
closure & Mover-run – a review using case studies of the real co
Tibbett (eds), Mine Closure 2009: Proceedings of the Fourth International
associated with the Conferenceand
demolition on removal
Mine Closure,
of Australian Centre
infrastructure in mine for Geomechanics,
closure, in AB Perth,
Fourie, M Tibbett & A Beersing (eds), Mine Closure 201
Lock
pp. the Gate 2016, Mine rehabilitation and closure cost: a hidden business risk, https://www.lockthegate.org.au/mine_rehabilitation_and_closure.
187-200. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Mine Closure, Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, pp. 97-106.
The Australia
Nehring M Institute
& Cheng2017, DarkAn
X 2016, sideinvestigation
of the boom, into
https://australiainstitute.org.au/report/dark-side-of-the-boom/
ICMM the2019,
impact of minemine
Integrated closure andgood
closure: its associated
practice guide, cost2nd
on edition,
life of mine planning and resource recovery, Journal
https://www.icmm.com/website/publications/pdfs/environmental
195 This was developed in consultation with mining industry, METS and economic stakeholders and is supported by high-level desktop research.
of Cleaner Production, vol. 127, pp. 228–239. stewardship/2019/guidance_integrated-mine-closure.pdf?cb=56219
CSIRO Futures
Northern assumption;
Territory S&P Global
Government Market
2023, Intelligence
Securities held
Lock 2023,
thefor S&P
mining
Gate Capital
2016, IQhttps://nt.gov.au/industry/mining/decisions/securities-held
sites,
Mine Pro, Asset Data,
rehabilitation andMetals
closure&cost:
Mining Properties,
a hidden businessAustralia.
risk, https://www.lockthegate.org.au/mine_rehabilitation_and
CSIRO Australia’s National Science Agency Nehring M & Enabling
Cheng X mine An
2016, closure and transitions:
investigation into the Opportunities
impact of mine forclosure
Australian industry
and its | 67 cost on life of mine planning and resource r
associated
Parshley JV, Bauman W and Blaxland D 2009, An evolution of the methods for and purposes of mine closure cost estimation, in AB Fourie & M Tibbett
Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 127, pp.
(eds), Mine Closure 2009: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Mine Closure, Australian Centre 228–239. for Geomechanics,
CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT Perth, pp. 187-200.
Northern Territory Government 2023, Securities held for mining sites, https://nt.gov.au/industry/mining/decisions/securities-held
The Australia Institute 2017, Dark side of the boom, https://australiainstitute.org.au/report/dark-side-of-the-boom/
Parshley JV, Bauman W and Blaxland D 2009, An evolution of the methods for and purposes of mine closure cost estimation, in AB Fourie &
195 This was developed in consultation with mining industry,
Tibbett (eds),METS
Mineand economic
Closure stakeholders
2009: Proceedings and
of the is supported
Fourth International by high-level
Conferencedesktop
on Mineresearch.
Closure, Australian Centre for Geomechanic
CSIRO Futures assumption; S&P Global Market pp. 187-200. 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
Intelligence
The Australia Institute 2017, Dark side of the boom, https://australiainstitute.org.au/report/dark-side-of-the-boom/
195 This was developed in consultation with mining industry, METS and economic stakeholders and is supported by high-level desktop resea
56 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities CSIRO Futuresfor Australian
assumption; S&Pindustry
Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
CSIRO Australia’s National Science Agency Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian indu
 Results Table 19: Projected number of known mine closures for Australia
(2021–2040)196
The results of this report’s economic analysis of
Australia’s projected mine closure expenditure are PERIOD PROJECTED NUMBER OF MINE CLOSURES
summarised here. Expenditure graph displays a 5-year 2021 5
moving average trendline to account for year-to-year
2022 7
variation in annual projections that are expected
to occur, as well as closure expenditure spent over 2023 15

multiple years. 2024 11

The results show that expenditure on mine closure is 2025 14

expected to grow in the coming decades as an estimated 2026 13

240 Australian mines reach the end of their economically 2027 16
productive life between 2021 and 2040. It is projected
2028 14
that total expenditure on mine closure activities could
range from $4–8 billion on average annually between 2029 22
2021 and 2040. This expenditure is projected to be 2030 21
highest in 2030 due to both the number and size of
2031 11
mines closing.
2032 12

2033 7

2034 11

2035 11

2036 11

2037 8

2038 11

2039 7

2040 10

Figure 8: Known Australian mine sites projected to close (2021–2040)197

25
Number of projected mine sites closing

20

15

10

0
2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040

Year

196 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
197 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.

57
Table 20: Projected expenditure on mine closure activities for Figure 9: Projected expenditure on mine closure activities for
known Australian mine sites closing (2021–2040)198 known Australian mine sites closing (2025–2040)199

PROJECTED 5-YEAR MOVING 10

PERIOD EXPENDITURE (A$B) AVERAGE (A$B) 9

Projected mine closure

8

expenditure (A$B)
2021 1.8
7
2022 3.1 6
5
2023 3.9 4
3
2024 5.1
2
2025 7.4 4.3 1
0
2026 6.0 5.1 2025 2030 2035 2040
Year
2027 6.8 5.8

2028 7.2 6.5

2029 8.2 7.1

2030 11.4 7.9

2031 3.7 7.4

2032 6.2 7.3

2033 3.1 6.5

2034 4.7 5.8

2035 7.8 5.1

2036 4.3 5.2

2037 4.6 4.9

2038 6.1 5.5

2039 2.4 5.0

2040 4.6 4.4

198 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
199 CSIRO Futures calculation; S&P Global Market Intelligence 2023, S&P Capital IQ Pro, Asset Data, Metals & Mining Properties, Australia.
Graph displays a 5-year moving average trendline, so 2021–2024 data points are omitted. 2025 data point is interpreted as average expenditure from
2021–2025 and so on.

58 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Environmental remediation for mining Figure 10: Visualisation of market sizing approach

market sizing
Global forestry and mining environmental
Approach remediation market
There was limited publicly available data to support
this analysis. As such, data on the global environmental Asia-Pacific forestry and mining
remediation market was used to assess this opportunity. environmental remediation market
As Australia’s mine closure solutions industry will provide
further opportunities than just environmental remediation,
Australia and New Zealand’s forestry and
it should be recognised that this analysis quantifies only a
mining environmental remediation market
portion of this emerging MCS industry.

Australia’s forestry and mining

Parameters and methodology
environmental remediation market
As seen in Table 21 and Table 22 below, BCC Research
reports historical data and projections for the
Australia’s mining
environmental remediation market, subdivided environmental
geographically and by application. remediation market

Table 21: Market for environmental remediation technologies by geographic region200

2019 2020 2021 2022 2027

Australia and New Zealand market 4,340 3,685 4,635 4,915 6,940
(US$M)

Total Asia-Pacific market (US$M) 25,650 21,535 27,365 29,275 41,290

Total global market (US$M) 117,900 99,040 125,790 134,780 189,100

Table 22: Market for environmental remediation technologies for forestry and mining applications201

2019 2020 2021 2022 2027

Asia-Pacific market for forestry and 4,115 3,455 4,390 4,690 6,605
mining applications (US$M)

Global market for forestry and 18,910 15,885 20,175 21,585 30,275
mining applications (US$M)

200 BCC Research 2021, Global markets for environmental remediation technologies.
201 BCC Research 2021, Global markets for environmental remediation technologies.

59
Since no data is directly available for Australia for For Step 2, to portion out the Australian market from the
environmental remediation technologies for mining Australian and New Zealand market, data from a similar
applications, analysis portioned this out utilising data market was used; IBISWorld reports historical data and
from Tables 21 and 22. This report developed a four-step projections for the contract mining services industry for
approach to do this: both Australia and New Zealand. The average Australian
percentage share is obtained by adding annual revenue
1. Portion out Australia and New Zealand from the for both countries for the same years as the BCC Research
Asia-Pacific market for environmental remediation data.203 This share was then multiplied by the data on
technologies for forestry and mining applications. the Australian and New Zealand market for forestry and
2. Portion out Australia from the combined Australian mining applications. As such, the Australian market for
and New Zealand market. environmental remediation technologies for forestry and
3. Portion Australia’s mining environmental remediation mining applications was obtained.
from its environmental remediation market for forestry
For Step 3, the Australian industry data portioned out only
and mining applications.
mining applications from forestry and mining applications.
4. Apply a growth rate out to 2040 and apply relevant The ABS reports historical data on the forestry and logging
conversions. industry and the total mining industry. The average mining
For Step 1, the Australia and New Zealand market is divided percentage share is obtained by adding annual sales and
by the total Asia-Pacific market to obtain a percentage services income for both industries.204 This share was then
share. This share is then multiplied by the Asia-Pacific multiplied by the data on the Australian market for forestry
market for forestry and mining applications to obtain and mining applications, obtaining the Australian mining
estimates of the Australian and New Zealand markets for environmental remediation market.
forestry and mining applications.

Similarly, estimates of this market are obtained by dividing

the Australian and New Zealand market by the total global
market and multiplying this share by the worldwide market
for forestry and mining applications. These estimates were
averaged to consider both approaches, summarised in
Table 23.

Table 23: Estimated market for environmental remediation technologies by region and application202

2019 2020 2021 2022 2027

Australia and New Zealand market 696 591 743 787 1,111
for forestry and mining applications
(US$M)

202 BCC Research 2021, Global markets for environmental remediation technologies.
203 IBISWorld 2022, Contract mining services in Australia industry report.
IBISWorld 2022, Contract mining services in New Zealand industry report.
Calculated average Australian share of contract mining services revenue in Australia and New Zealand from 2019 to 2027 as 97%. This was assumed to be an
appropriate proxy as forestry data was unavailable to portion out.
204 ABS 2022, Australian industry, Table 1 Key data by industry subdivision, https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry-overview/australian-
industry/2020-21
Calculated average share of total mining as portion of total mining plus forestry and logging sales and services income from 2010-11 to 2020-21 as 98%.

60 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

 to portion out the Australian market from the Australian and New Zealand market, data from a
to
ketportion
was used; out IBISWorld
the Australian reports market from data
historical the Australian
and projections and New for Zealand
the contract market, miningdataservices
from a
rket bothwasAustralia
used; IBISWorld
and Newreports Zealand. historical
The average data Australian
and projections for theshare
percentage contract mining services
is obtained by
rual
toboth Australia
portion
revenue outforthe and
both New
Australian Zealand.
countries for The
market thefrom average
same the Australian
Australian
years as the BCC percentage
and New Zealand
Research share is203obtained
data.market, This data
sharebyfrom
was a
2,
ual torevenue
portion for outboth the Australian
countries market
for the from years
same the Australian
as the BCC and New Zealand
Research data. market,
203
This datawas
share from a
ket was
plied by theused; data IBISWorld reports historical
on the Australian and Newdata and projections
Zealand market for for the contract
forestry and mining mining services
applications.
arketby
plied was the used;
data IBISWorld
on the reports historical
Australian and New data andmarket
Zealand projections for for theand
forestry contract
mining mining services
applications.
er both Australia
Australian market and for New Zealand. The remediation
environmental average Australian technologiespercentage share isand
for forestry obtained
miningby
eor
sual
both Australia
Australian
was revenue
obtained. market and New
for bothfor countries
Zealand. Theremediation
environmental average Australian percentage
for the same years astechnologies the BCC Research
shareand
for forestry
data.203
is obtained
mining
This
by
share was
nnual
s was revenue
obtained. for both countries for the same years as the BCC Research data.203 This share was
plied by the data on the Australian and New Zealand market for forestry and mining applications.
the Australian
tiplied by the data industry
on thedata portioned
Australian andout New only miningmarket
Zealand applications from forestry
for forestry and mining andapplications.
mining
etheAustralian
Australian marketindustry for environmental remediation technologies forfrom
forestry and mining
s. The
he ABS reports
Australian market fordata
historical portioned
data
environmental on theout only mining
forestry
remediation applications
and technologies
logging industry for and forestry andand
the total
forestry mining
mining
mining
s.s was
The obtained.
ABS reports historical data on is the forestryby and logging industry and
he
ons average
n outwasthe mining percentage
obtained.
Australian market from share the obtained
Australian andadding
New annual
Zealand sales
market, andthedata
total mining
servicesfromincome
a for
he the
tries. average
Australian
204
This
For Step
mining
share was
4, to estimate
percentage
industry data
then share
portioned
multiplied
the
is by
missing by
obtained
out theonlydata
years
miningadding
on
from
the
2022 sales
annual
applications
Australian
to 2027
from and
market forestry
for
Results
services income
and
forestry mining
and for
used;
3, the204IBISWorld
Australian reports
industry historical
data toportioneddata and out projections
only mining for the contract
applications mining
from services
forestry and mining
tries.
s. The ABS
lications, This share
and
reports
obtaining wasthethen
forecast
historical out multiplied
data
Australian 2040,
on the
mining by
the the dataand
compound
forestry
environmental on logging
the Australian
annual growth
industry
remediation market
and the
market. fortotal
forestry
mining and
ons.stralia and
The ABS New
reports Zealand.
historicalThe average
dataminingon Australian
theenvironmental
forestry percentage
and logging share
industryis obtained
and theThe by
total summary
mining of this report’s market sizing is shown in
lications,
he average obtaining
rate (CAGR)the Australian
from 2022 to 2027 was calculated, remediation
as seen inmarket.
nue for
to estimate
The bothmining
average countries
the
mining
percentage
missing foryears
percentagethe same shareyears
from share
is obtained
2022 as 2027
to
is obtained the BCCby adding
by Research
and forecast
adding
annual data. sales
203 and services income for
out tosales
annual This
2040, andshare
the was24.
Table
compound
services As seen
income for in Figure 11, estimates are also shown with
tries.
to
204
estimate This Equation
share
the was
missing 1 below.
then
years multiplied
from 2022 by the
to data
2027 andon the
forecastAustralian
out to market
2040, forcompound
the forestry and
he
wth data
stries.rateon
204 theshare
(CAGR)
This Australian
from was 2022 and
then New
2027Zealand
tomultiplied was calculated,
by themarket datafor as forestry
onseen and mining
in Equation
the Australian applications.
1 below.
market for
plusforestry
or minus and50% accuracy, a standard industry percentage
wth
ianlications,
market obtaining
rate (CAGR)for from the
environmental2022Australian 2027mining
to remediation was environmental
calculated,
technologies as seen remediation
for in Equation
forestry and market.
1mining
below.
pplications, obtaining the Australian mining environmental ! remediation market.that stakeholders typically use to account for uncertainty
tained.
to estimate the missing 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
years 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
from 2022 to 2027
! 1,111 and#$#%&#$##
forecast
! out to 2040, theassociated compound with closure projections.
4, to estimate the missing
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 years from
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 )!" 2022
− 1 =to81,111 2027 and forecast−out
#$#%&#$## 1 =to7.122040, the compound
wth rate (CAGR)
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 from 2022
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=portioned
( 2022 tooutto 2027
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 was
) − 1=calculated,787 as
< seen in Equation 1 below.
ralian
owth rate industry
(CAGR) datafrom 2027
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
only
"
was mining applications
calculated,
8 787 < as seen in−Equation
from 1 = 7.12
forestry 1and mining
below.
S reports historical data on the where forestry 𝑡𝑡 =and time logging
in years industry! and the total mining The results show that the Australian market for
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
where
where ! 𝑡𝑡 = = time
time 1,111
in
in years
years#$#%&#$## !
environmental remediation technologies and services
ge mining percentage 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶to=Table (share is obtained
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 " !− by adding 1,111annual sales and 1services income for
to)obtain 1= from−2019 = to7.12
#$#%&#$##
was then applied 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = ( 3 data
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ) " − 1 annual =8 787 revenue
< − 1 = 2040 via Equation 2
7.12
his share
was was then
then applied tomultiplied
Table 3 data
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 by the data on
to obtain
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 the
annual
8 787Australian
revenue
< market
from 2019 fortoforestry
2040 via and
for mining (a
Equation 2 subset of mine rehabilitation solutions) was
obtaining the ThisAustralian
CAGR was thenwhere
mining applied 𝑡𝑡 = to
environmental
where 𝑡𝑡 = time in
timeTableinremediation
years
23 data
years to market.
obtain estimated at $800 million in 2020 and could grow to
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 $3 Equation
billion per
wasthe
ate then applied
missing
annual torevenue
years Table
from32022 data
(𝑡𝑡 +to
from to
1) obtain
2027
2019 = 𝑡𝑡toand annual
∗ 2040
(1 forecast
+ via revenue
out <) tofrom
Equation
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
8 100
) 2040, 2019the to
2 below. 2040 via
compound 2 annum by 2040. This illustrates the potential
R was then applied to Table 3(𝑡𝑡data + 1)to=obtain 𝑡𝑡 ∗ (1 annual
+ revenue from 2019 to 2040value via Equation
of mine 2rehabilitation solutions more broadly.
(CAGR) from 2022 to 2027 was calculated, as seen 8 100 in Equation
< 1 below.
where 𝑡𝑡 = time in years and 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 7.12
! 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 where
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ! (𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 = time1,111 in years and 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 7.12
9 to𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
2040 estimates were converted + 1) =
from 𝑡𝑡 ∗ (1 +
#$#%&#$## )
= ( ) " −(𝑡𝑡 1 +
= 1) = 𝑡𝑡USD ∗ (1to +8AUD 100 using
− <1 )=the 10-year historical
7.12 Tableexchange rate annual revenue for Australia’s mining
24: Projected
9hetofinal2040results.
estimates
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 were converted8from
205 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 787USD < to AUD 8 100 using< the 10-year historical exchange rate
environmental remediation market
he final results.205 where 𝑡𝑡 = time in years and 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 7.12
where
where
where 𝑡𝑡 =
𝑡𝑡
= = time
time
time ininin years
years
years
e noted that this analysis relies on revenue data reported by market research reports and
and 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 == 7.12
7.12 and
9e to 2040that estimates were reliesconverted from USD toreported
AUD using the 10-year historical YEARexchange rate PROJECTED ANNUAL REVENUE (A$M)
19 noted
relevant
to 2040
applied to Table this
shares
estimates analysis
based on
were conversion
convertedon revenue
ratios,
from data
both
USD to ofAUDwhich by
usingmay market
thebe research
subject
10-year to reports
data
historical and
inaccuracies
exchange rate
2053 data to obtain annual revenue from 2019 to 2040 via Equation 2
he final results.
relevant
ed final shares
theinformation.results. based
205 on conversion ratios, both of which may be subject to data
These 2019 to 2040 estimates were converted from USD
2020inaccuracies 789
ed information.
e noted thattothis analysis relies on revenue data reported by market research reports and
be noted that AUD using the
this analysis relies10-yearon revenue historical
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶dataexchange
reported by rate to obtain
market research reports2025 and 1,097
relevant shares based (𝑡𝑡 + on1) conversion
=205𝑡𝑡 ∗ (1 +ratios, both ) of which may be subject to data inaccuracies
g relevant shares based on conversion ratios,
the final results. 8 100 both of which may be subject to data
< inaccuracies
ed information. 2030 1,547
ated information. where 𝑡𝑡 = time in years and 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 7.12
It should be noted that this analysis relies on revenue 2035 2,183
estimates were
data converted from
reported by USD to
market AUD using
research the 10-year
reports historical exchange rate
and portioning
2040 3,079
esults.205 relevant shares based on conversion ratios, both
of which
hat this analysis reliesmay be subject
on revenue datatoreported
data inaccuracies
by market and
research reports and
shares based on conversion
outdated ratios, both of which may be subject to data inaccuracies
information. Figure 11: Projected annual revenue for Australia’s mining
mation. environmental remediation market

5,000
Projected annual revenue ($M)

4,000

022, Contract mining services in Australia industry report. 3,000

022, Contract
, Contract mining
mining services
services in Australia
in New Zealandindustry
industryreport.
report.
,ageContract mining
Australian services
share in Newmining
of contract Zealand industry
services report.in Australia and New Zealand from 2019 to 2027 as 97%. This was assumed
revenue
age Australian
priate proxy as share
forestry of data
contract
was mining services
unavailable revenueout.
to portion in Australia and New Zealand from 2019 to 2027 as 97%.2,000 This was assumed
priate
ustralian
022, proxy asmining
forestry
industry,
Contract Table data
1 Key
services was unavailable
indata by industry
Australia to subdivision,
industryportion
report.out. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry-
,2022,
ustralian Contract
industry,
alian-industry/2020-21
Contract mining mining
Tableservices
services 1 Key
in New in Australia
data industry
by industry
Zealand report. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry-
subdivision,
industry report. 1,000
22,ageContract
share of mining
alian-industry/2020-21
Australiantotal
share services
mining in New
as portion
of contract Zealand
of total
mining industry
mining
services report.
plus
revenue forestry and logging
in Australia and New sales and services
Zealand income
from 2019 from
to 2027 as2010-11
97%. Thistowas
2020-21 as
assumed
erage
age Australian
share of total share
mining of contract
as portion mining
of services
total
priate proxy as forestry data was unavailable to portion out.mining revenue
plus in Australia
forestry and and
logging New
salesZealand
and from
services 2019 to
income 2027
from as 97%.
2010-11 This was assumed
to 2020-21 as
kopriate
ustralian proxy
of Australia as forestry
2023,
industry, 1data
Historical
Table was
dataunavailable
Keydata, Exchange to
by industryrates portion out.
– Monthly
subdivision, – January 2010 to latest complete month of current year,0
https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry-
Australian industry,
kalian-industry/2020-21
of Australia Table 1 Key
2023, Historical data
data, by industry
Exchange
ba.gov.au/statistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates ratessubdivision,
– Monthly https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry-
– January 2010 to latest complete month of current year, 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
stralian-industry/2020-21
ba.gov.au/statistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates
age exchange ratemining
share of total from January
as portion2010
ofto December
total mining plus2020forestry
as US$1=A$1.19.
and logging sales and services income from 2010-11 to 2020-21 as Year
erage
age
a’s shareScience
exchange
National ofrate
totalfrom
mining
Agency as portion
January 2010 toof December
total mining plusasforestry
2020
Enabling mine and
US$1=A$1.19.logging
closure and sales and services
transitions: income from
Opportunities 2010-11 to
for Australian 2020-21
industry | 73as
k’s of
National Science
Australia 2023,Agency
Historical data, Exchange rates –Enabling Monthlymine closure
– January andtotransitions:
2010 Opportunities
latest complete month offor year, industry |Estimates
Australian
current 73 Plus 50% uncertainty
ank of Australia 2023, Historical data, Exchange rates – Monthly – January 2010 to latest complete month of current
ba.gov.au/statistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates year,
CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT
t mining services in Australia industry report. Minus 50% uncertainty
.rba.gov.au/statistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates
age exchange rate from January 2010 to December 2020 as US$1=A$1.19. CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT
ining services in New Zealand industry report.
erage exchange rate from January 2010 to December 2020 as US$1=A$1.19.
a’s
an National Science Agency
share of contract mining services revenue in Australia Enabling mineZealand
and New closure from
and transitions:
2019 to 2027Opportunities
as 97%. Thisfor
wasAustralian
assumedindustry | 73
lia’s National Science Agency Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry | 73
as forestry data was unavailable to portion out.
CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT
ustry, Table 1 Key data by industry subdivision, https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/industry- CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT
y/2020-21
total mining as portion of total mining plus forestry and logging sales and services income from 2010-11 to 2020-21 as

a 2023, Historical data, Exchange rates – Monthly – January 2010 to latest complete month of current year,
atistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates
e rate from January 2010 to December 2020 as US$1=A$1.19.
Science Agency Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry | 73

CONFIDENTIAL DRAFT

205 Reserve Bank of Australia 2023, Historical data, Exchange rates – Monthly – January 2010 to latest complete month of current year, https://www.rba.gov.au/
statistics/historical-data.html#exchange-rates
Calculated average exchange rate from January 2010 to December 2020 as US$1=A$1.19.

61
Appendix C: Project participants
The report was developed with input from 114 individuals from 62 organisations. This includes input from the
project steering committee, advisory group, and a broad range of engagement with industry, research and
government stakeholders.

Steering Committee
ORGANISATION REPRESENTATIVE

CRC TiME Dr Agnes Samper

CSIRO Dr Ewan Sellers

CSIRO and CRC TiME Dr Jason Kirby

Fortescue Metals Group Dr Kirsty Beckett

GHD Dave Clark

Intract Australia and CRC TiME First Nations Advisory Team John Briggs

Minerals Research Institute of Western Australia Dr Laura Machuca Suarez

Advisory Group
ORGANISATION REPRESENTATIVE

enviroMETS Allan Morton

K2Fly Sean Helm

METS ignited Dr Adrian Beer

Okane Consultants Miriam Clark

Queensland Department of State Development, Infrastructure, Stephen Bird

Local Government and Planning

University of Queensland Dr Anna Littleboy

62 Enabling mine closure and transitions: Opportunities for Australian industry

Project participants

Alfa Laval Geoimage Okane Consultants

Anglo American Geoscience Australia Pershke Consulting

Austrade GHD Pilbara Development Commission

BCC Research Hanson Australia Planning 4 Sustainable Development

BHP Hatch Queensland Dept. of State

Development, Infrastructure,
Cammel Consulting / Beyond LOM Indigenous Business Australia Local Government and Planning
Charles Darwin University Institute of Environmental Queensland Mine Rehabilitation
Management and Assessment Commissioner
Circular Mine Consortium (IEMA)
CRC TiME Regeneration
Intract
CSIRO Revyre
K2fly
CTS Tyre Recycling Rio Tinto
Landloch
Curtin University RPMGlobal
METS Ignited
Dendra Rum Jungle Mine Rehabilitation
Mine Land Rehabilitation Authority
Department of Industry, S&P Global
Minerals Council of Australia
Science and Resources Shire of Murray
Minerals Research Institute of
Department of Regional Western Australia Soil Cyclers Pty Ltd
New South Wales
Mining and Energy Related Councils South 32
Ecocene New South Wales
University of Queensland
Energy Australia MMG Limited
Resources Victoria, Department
EnviroCopper National Indigenous Australian of Energy, Environment and
enviroMETS Agency (NIAA) Climate Action

Erizon New Century Resources Western Australia Department

(Silbane-Stilwater) of Mines, Industry Regulations
Federation University and Safety
Newmont
FMG WSP
North Australian Resource and
Geofabrics Australia Commodity Consultant Services

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As Australia’s national science agency,
CSIRO is solving the greatest
challenges through innovative
science and technology.
CSIRO. Creating a better future
for everyone.

Contact us
1300 363 400
csiro.au/contact
csiro.au

For further information

CRC TiME
hello@crctime.com.au
crctime.com

B&M | 23-00511