MATH1231 Mathematics 1B – Algebra

Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces

Lecturer: Kevin Limanta (k.limanta@unsw.edu.au)

Slides: Laure Helme-Guizon, David Angell and many others

Term 2, 2024
Contact details
• Office: Anita B. Lawrence Centre Room 2075
• Email: k.limanta@unsw.edu.au
• Consultation Time: TBA

Structure of the course

This structure is similar to that of MATH1131.
• Weekly Möbius Lessons: best 6 out of 9 taken (10% total)
• Lab Test 1 in Week 5 (15%)
• Lab Test 2 in Week 9 (15%)
• Assignment: released in Week 5, due sometime in Week 8 (10%)
• Final Exam (on Möbius) (50%)

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 1/15

Some things to keep in mind...
• Make sure you are comfortable with the material in MATH1131.
• Check the MATH1231 Moodle page regularly.
• Unannotated lecture slides will be provided regularly as we go.
Annotated lecture slides will be uploaded at the end of each lecture.
• Lecture recordings will be available.
• You will encounter new concepts and a new way of thinking in this
course. Be prepared to learn some new terminologies and think in a
more abstract way that you are used to.
• Help is available in many form: Staff Consultation, Drop-In Centre,
PASS (Peer Assisted Study Sessions).

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 2/15

Investigation
Exercise 1.    
1 3
−1 1 4
1. Let a = 
 0  and b = −2 be vectors in R .
  

2 −1
Evaluate c = 3a + 2b.

   
1 −1 3 1
2. Let A = and B = be matrices in M2,2 .
0 2 −2 −1
Evaluate C = 3A + 2B.

3. Let p(x) = 1 − x + 2x 3 and q(x) = 3 + x − 2x 2 − x 3 be polynomials.

Evaluate r = 3p + 2q.

Question. What do you notice about these problems?

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 3/15

Investigation
Exercise 2.
1. Simplify 2(a + 4b) + a, where a and b are vectors in R5 .
See if you can give the answer to the next question with absolutely no
working!

2. Simplify 2(A + 4B) + A, where A, B are matrices in M3,7 (R) (the set of
all matrices with real entries of size 3 × 7).

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 4/15

Vector spaces
Since all of the examples on the previous page – and many more! – are
“really the same”, we shall study them together instead of individually.

• This will be more efficient, as we won’t have to do the same work over
and over again.
• Studying what all of these systems have in common will enable us to
gloss over superficial differences and concentrate on gaining a better
understanding of what is really important in all of them.

The term used for all of these systems when we study them simultaneously
is vector space.

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 5/15

What makes up a vector space?
What do we actually need in order to perform the kind of calculations we
did on page 4?
• The “objects” that we want to calculate with. These will be referred to
as
 vectors.
 Note that from now on, vectors don’t necessarily look like
1
−1. They may also be matrices, polynomials, functions and many
2
other things.
• We need to know how to add two vectors.
• We need a set of numbers. These numbers should form a field – that is,
we must be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide any two numbers
(except for division by zero) in accordance with “sensible” rules. In
vector space theory, the numbers are commonly referred to as scalars
(usually R or C).
• We need to know how to multiply a vector by a scalar.
Note that although we may in some cases know how to multiply a vector
by a vector (for example...?), this does not form part of vector space
theory – at least, not in first year.
Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 6/15
Field axioms (MATH1131 revision)
Recall from MATH1131 that Q, R and C are fields. More generally, a set F is a
field iff it satisfies the the following axioms:
• Closure under addition: x + y ∈ F for all x, y ∈ F.
• Additive associativity: (x + y ) + z = x + (y + z) for all x, y , z ∈ F.
• Additive commutativity: x + y = y + x for all x, y ∈ F.
• Additive identity: There exists 0 ∈ F such that x + 0 = x for all x ∈ F.
• Additive inverse: For all x ∈ F there is −x ∈ F such that x + −x = 0.
• Closure under multiplication: xy ∈ F for all x, y ∈ F.
• Multiplicative associativity: (xy )z = x(yz) for all x, y , z ∈ F.
• Multiplicative commutativity: xy = yx for all x, y ∈ F.
• Multiplicative identity: There exists 1 ∈ F such that 1x = x for all x ∈ F.
• Multiplicative inverse: For all x ∈ F where x ̸= 0, there exists x −1 ∈ F
such that xx −1 = 1.
• Distributivity: x(y + z) = xy + xz for all x, y , z ∈ F.

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 7/15

Properties of vector arithmetic
What rules should addition of vectors and multiplication by scalars obey?
To find out part of the answer, let’s do Exercise 1 from page 4 again, one
step at a time, noting what properties we use:

2(a + 4b) + a = (2a + 2(4b)) + a ........................ (1)

= (2a + (2 × 4)b) + a ........................ (2)
= (2a + 8b) + a ........................ (3)
= a + (2a + 8b) ........................ (4)
= (a + 2a) + 8b ........................ (5)
= (1a + 2a) + 8b ........................ (6)
= (1 + 2)a + 8b ........................ (7)
= 3a + 8b. ........................ (8)

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 8/15

Zero, negatives
The simplification on the previous page makes use of six properties which we would
want to be true if addition and multiplication are to be “sensible”. There are some more
which were not used in this example.

Exercise 3. What can you deduce from the equation

a+c=b+c ?

Solution. We would like to subtract c from both sides of the equation, that is,
add the negative of c. Thus
a+c=b+c
⇒ (a + c) + (−c) = (b + c) + (−c) ....................... (9)
⇒ a + (c + (−c)) = b + (c + (−c)) ....................... (10)
⇒ a+0=b+0 ....................... (11)
⇒ a=b. ....................... (12)

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 9/15

Closure
There are two properties that we haven’t discussed yet, although arguably they are the
most important of all.
What type of object should we get as the final result of all our calculations?
If we start with vectors in R3 then the answer should be... a vector in R3 .
If we start with 2 × 5 matrices then the answer should be... a 2 × 5 matrix,
and so on.
We need the closure laws.

• If u and v are vectors, then u + v is a vector “of the same kind” – that
is, from the same vector space.
• If v is a vector and λ a scalar, then λv is a vector “of the same kind”.

These might sound totally obvious, but you have studied operations where
the result produced from two objects is an object “of a different kind”: for
example...?

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 10/15

Vector space: the definition
Definition. A vector space over a field F is a non–empty set V of vectors, together
with an operation of vector addition and an operation of multiplication by scalars from
F, for which the following properties hold.
1. Closure under (vector) addition. If u, v are in V , then u + v is in V .
2. Associativity of (vector) addition. For all u, v, w in V we have
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w).
3. Commutativity of (vector) addition. For all u, v in V we have u + v = v + u.
4. Zero vector. There exists an element 0 of V such that for all v ∈ V we have
v + 0 = v.
5. Negatives. For each element v of V there is an element w of V such that
v + w = 0. (We usually denote this element by −v.)
6. Closure under scalar multiplication. If λ is in F and v is in V , then λv is in V .
7. “Associativity” of multiplication. For all λ, µ ∈ F and all v ∈ V we have
λ(µv) = (λµ)v.
8. Multiplication by (the scalar) 1. For each v ∈ V we have 1v = v.
9. Scalar distributive law. For all λ, µ in F and all v in V we have (λ + µ)v = λv + µv.
10. Vector distributive law. For all λ in F and all u, v in V we have λ(u + v) = λu + λv.

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 11/15

Helpful ways to think about vector spaces
The more you become involved with abstract mathematical concepts, the more
you will find it helpful to develop a “dual perspective” on the things you study.
• You need to know precisely what a vector space is – that is, you need to know
the ten axioms. We want to prove things about vector spaces, and to be
certain that the results we obtain are reliable. This can only be done on the
basis of an absolutely precise definition of the concept.
• However, it is very difficult from the definition alone to acquire a good
intuitive understanding – a “gut feeling” – for what is meant by a vector
space. You need to supplement the definition by a good “rough idea” of what
a vector space is. My own rough idea is this: a vector space is “something
where we know how to add objects and multiply objects by numbers, and
where the addition and multiplication satisfy ‘sensible’ laws”.
It may help to visualise things in terms of the most familiar vector spaces, such
as R2 and R3 , as long as you remember that we may actually be working with
vectors which appear very different from these.
It may also help to realise that none of the vector space axioms are really new to
you! – they are all algebraic rules which you know very well for vectors, matrices,
polynomials and so forth.

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 12/15

Examples of sets which are vector spaces
Some of the sets you already encountered are vector spaces...
1. The vector spaces R2 , R3 , R4 and in general Rn . These are just
“ordinary” vectors in the sense of Chapter 1 from MATH1131. They can
be thought of either as n–tuples of real numbers, or as geometric
vectors: in the latter case we can define addition and scalar
multiplication by means of diagrams, and we can then use diagrams to
prove that the vector space axioms hold.
2. The vector space Cn is just the same as Rn , except that the
components of the vectors are complex numbers. The field of scalars for
Cn will also be the complex numbers (unless clearly specified otherwise).
3. Two matrices can be added provided that they have the same numbers
of rows and columns. The set of all m × n matrices is a vector space
and is denoted Mm,n .
4. The set of all polynomials is a vector space.

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 13/15

Examples of sets which are NOT vector spaces
In order to properly understand any mathematical concept, it is important
to see why some examples work, and to see why other examples do not
work.  
x
1. The set of vectors y  with integer components is not a vector space.
z
2. The set of all matrices is not a vector space.
3. The set of vectors in R2 with length less than 5 is not a vector space.
4. The set of vectors in R2 which point into the first quadrant is not a
vector space.
5. The set of polynomials of degree 3 is not a vector space.

Mathematics 1B – Algebra Section 1: Introduction to Vector Spaces 14/15

Note that the scalars are important too!
1. Vectors in Cn form a vector space over C – that is, the scalars may be
complex.
2. Vectors in Cn form a vector space over R – that is, the scalars must be
real – but it is not the same as the one in the previous example.
3. Vectors in Rn do not form a vector space over C.

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