UNIT-I

Crystallography and Crystal Defects

Crystallography
(Outcomes: Explain the properties of crystal structure and apply them in
crystallography using X-ray diffraction techniques)
Introduction:
Solid: Solid is one of the three main states of matter, in which the particles
(atoms or molecules or ions) are closely packed together and are not free to
move.
On the basis of arrangement of constituent particles solids are divided into,
1. Crystalline solids
2. Amorphous(non-crystalline)solids
Crystalline Solids:
If the atoms or molecules in a solid are arranged in some regular fashion, then
the solid is known as crystalline solid.
In a crystalline solid, each atom or molecule is fixed at a definite point in space
at a definite distance and in a definite angular orientation to other atoms or
molecules surrounding it. The crystalline state of solid is characterized by regular
and periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules.

Difference between crystalline and amorphous solids

S.No Crystalline Amorphous
1 The constituent particles are The constituent particles are not
arranged in a regular fashion arranged in any regular fashion
2 They have definite geometric They have irregular shapes
shapes
3 They are anisotropic (Different They are isotropic (Same
properties in different directions) properties in all directions)
4 They have a long range order They have a short range order
5 They have sharp melting points They melt over a range of
temperature
6 They are ductile in nature They are brittle in nature
7 They are true solids They are pseudo solids or super
cooled liquids
8 Example- Quartz is crystalline SiO2 Example-Silica glass is
amorphous SiO2

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Crystallography: The branch of science, which deals with the study of
geometrical form and physical properties of crystalline solids, is called
crystallography.
Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the
arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids.

Crystal: A crystal is a three dimensional body, which is made up of regular and

periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules in space.

Lattice: The periodic arrangement of points is called lattice.

Space Lattice: It is defined as an array of points in three dimensional space

such that the environment about each point is same.
Let us consider the two dimensional array of points as shown in figure 2. It is
obvious from the figure that environment about any two points is the same
hence it represents a two dimensional space lattice.
If the environment about any points is not the same, then it is not a
space lattice.
Lattice points: The points in space lattice are called as lattice points.
Lattice line: The line which joined the lattice points is known as lattice line.

Figure 2. Space lattice

Basis and crystal structure:

A set of one or more atoms (unit assembly of atoms) about a lattice point is
called a basis.
The space lattice together with the basis gives the actual crystal structure i.e.,
Crystal structure is formed when a basis of atoms is attached identically to
each lattice point.

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When the basis is repeated with correct periodicity in all directions it gives the
actual crystal structure. The crystal structure is real, while the lattice is imaginary.
Mathematically it is expressed as
Space lattice + basis -------> Crystal structure

Figure 3.Crystalstructure

The number of atoms in a basis varies from one to several thousands. In

crystalline solids like Cu and Na the basis is Single atom, In NaCl & CsCl the basis
is diatomic, whereas in crystals, like CaF2 the basis is tri-atomic. Complex basis
are found in biological materials.

Unit cell and lattice parameters:

The unit cell is the smallest block or geometrical figure the repetition of which
gives the actual crystal structure. (Or)
The unit cell may also be defined as the fundamental elementary pattern of
minimum number of atoms or molecules which represents fully all the
characteristics of the crystal. (Or)
Unit cell may be defined as that volume of a solid from which entire crystal
may be constructed by translational repetition in three dimensions.

Figure 4.Unit Cell

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Lattice Parameters of Unit Cell:
Axial lengths or intercepts: The distance between two neighboring points is
called as the edges of the unit cell. The lengths OE, OC and OA along the three
axes OX, OY, and OZ are called as axial lengths or intercepts. The axial lengths
along the three axes are represented by vectors a, b, and c respectively.
Interfacial angles: The angles between the above three intercepts are called
interfacial angles (γ, α, and β). Or The angles between three crystallographic
axes are known as interfacial angles or inter-axial angles.
Both intercepts (a, b, and c) and interfacial angles (γ, α, and β) together are
known as lattice parameters of unit cell (or crystal). These parameters determine
the actual space and size of unit cell as shown in figure 6.

Figure 6.Lattice parameters(Crystallographic axis and angles) of Unit Cell

Crystal systems:
The vectors a , b, c (axial lengths vectors) may or may not be equal. Also the
interfacial angles α, β and γ may or may not be right angles.
Based on these conditions, there are seven crystal systems. All these
crystal systems are divided to 7 groups or basic systems. The seven basic crystal
systems are distinguished from one another by the angles between the three
axes and the intercepts of the faces along them.
On the basis of the length and directions of the axes of the symmetry all the
crystals may be classified into following seven systems.
The basic crystal systems are 1) Cubic, 2) Tetragonal, 3) Orthorhombic, 4)
Rhombohedral (or) Trigonal, 5) Hexagonal, 6) Monoclinic, and 7) Triclinic.
1. Cubic crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths of the unit cell are
equal and the three axes are mutually perpendicular to each other. I.e.,
a=b=c & α=β=γ=90°.
Examples: NaCl, CaF, Diamond, Cu, etc.
2. Tetragonal crystal: In this crystal, two axial lengths of the unit cell are
equal while the third one is longer and the three axes are mutually

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 perpendicular to each other. I.e., a=b≠c & α=β=γ=90°.
Examples: TiO2, SnO2, NiSO4, etc.
3. Orthorhombic crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths of the unit
cell are different (unequal) and the three axes are mutually
perpendicular to each other. I.e., a≠b≠c & α=β=γ=90°.
Examples: Ga, BaSO4, KNO3, etc.
4. Rhombohedral or Trigonal crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths
of the unit cell are equal and all the three axes are equally inclined to
each other at an angle other than 90°. I.e., a=b=c & α=β=γ≠
90°.Examples: As, Sb, Bi, etc.
5. Hexagonal crystal: In this crystal, two axial lengths of the unit cell are
equal while the third one is longer and the two axes of the unit cell are
equal and perpendicular to each other and the third one is at 120°. I.e.,
a=b≠c & α=β=90°,γ=120°.
Examples: SiO2, AgI, Mg, Zn, Cd, etc.
6. Monoclinic crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths of the unit cell
are different (unequal) and two axes are right angles and third one is
obliquely inclined. I.e., a≠b≠c & α=β=90°≠ γ.
Examples: FeSO4, CaSO4.2H2O, etc.
7. Triclinic crystal: In this crystal, all the three axial lengths of the unit cell
are different (unequal) and also the three axes are not right angles and
not equal to each other. I.e., a≠b≠c & α≠β≠γ≠ 90°.
Examples: CuSO4, K2Cr2O7, etc.

Fig.7 Crystal Systems

Seven crystal systems:

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Sl. No. Name of the Lattice parameters Examples
Crystal system
Primitives/ Interfacial
Axial lengths Angles
1. Cubic a=b=c α=β=γ=90° NaCl, CaF, Diamond,
Cu, etc.
2. Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β=γ=90° NiSO4, SnO2, TiO2, etc.
3. Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90° BaSO4, KNO3, Ga, etc.
4. Rhombohedral( a=b=c α=β=γ≠ 90° As, Sb, Bi, etc.
or) Trigonal
5. Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=90°,γ=120° SiO2,Mg,Zn,Cd, etc.

6. Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=β=90°≠ γ FeSO4,CaSO4.2H2O,

etc.
7. Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠ 90° CuSO4, K2Cr2O7etc.

P:Primitive,I:BodycenteredF:FacecenteredC:Basecentered.

 Bravais Lattices:
In the year of 1948, Bravais showed that there are only fourteen independent
ways of arranging the points in three dimensional space such that each
arrangement confirms to the definition of space lattice. So, there are 14
lattices are sufficient to describe all the crystals.
Definition: There are fourteen different ways of arranging the points in three
dimensional space such that each point has identical surrounding. These 14
space lattices are known as Bravais lattices.
 Simple or Primitive (P): If the atoms are placed only at the corner of the
unit cell (cube) then it is called primitive and is denoted by ‘P.
 Body centered (I): If the atoms are placed at the corners of the unit cell
(cube) and the center of the unit cell (where body diagonals intersect)
then it is said to be body centered and is denoted by ‘I’.
 Face Centered (F): If the atoms are placed at the corners of the unit cell
(cube)and the center of their faces then it is said to be Face centered
and is denoted by ‘F’.
 Base centered (C): If the atoms are placed at the corners of the unit cell
(cube) and the center of the two bases of the unit cell (cube) then it is

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 called base centered and is denoted by ‘C’.
The diagrams of the unit cells are drawn below.

Fig.8Typesofunitcells
1. Cubic crystal structure: (P, I, F)
In this crystal structure, there exists three (3) lattices and they are: Simple or
Primitive (P), Body centered (I), and Face centered (F).
2. Tetragonal crystal structure:(P, I)
In this crystal structure, there are only two (2) lattices exists and they are:
Simple or Primitive (P), and Body centered (I).
3. Orthorhombic crystal structure:(P, I, F, C)
In this crystal structure, there are only four (4) lattices exists and they are:
Simple or Primitive cubic (P), Body centered cubic (I), Face centered
cubic (F) and Base centered (C).
4. Rhombohedral or Trigonal crystal structure:(P)
In this crystal structure, there is only one (1) lattice exists and that is Simple
or Primitive (P).
5. Hexagonal crystal structure:(P)
In this crystal structure, there is only one (1) lattice exists and that is Simple
or Primitive (P).
6. Monoclinic crystal structure:(P, I)
In this crystal structure, there are only two (2) lattices exists and they are:
Simple or Primitive (P), and Body centered (I).
7. Triclinic crystal structure:(P)
In this crystal structure, there is only one (1) lattice exists and that is Simple
or Primitive (P).
The fourteen Bravais lattices are shown below:

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Table:Bravais Lattices with seven crystal systems:

Crystal System Lattice Types of No. of Examples

Parameters Bravais Bravais
lattices lattices
1. Cubic a=b=c& P, I, F 3 NaCl, CaF,
α=β=γ=90° Diamond, Cu,
etc.
2. Tetragonal a=b≠c& P, I 2 NiSO4, SnO2, TiO2,
α=β=γ=90° etc.

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 3. Orthorhombic a≠b≠c& P, I, F, C 4 BaSO4, KNO3, Ga,
α=β=γ=90° etc.
4. Rhombohedral a=b=c& P 1 As, Sb, Bi, etc.
or Trigonal α=β=γ≠ 90°
5. Hexagonal a=b≠c& P 1 SiO2,Mg,Zn,Cd,
α=β=90°,γ=120° etc.
6. Monoclinic a≠b≠c& P, C 2 FeSO4,CaSO4.2H2
α=β=90°≠ γ O, etc.
7. Triclinic a≠b≠c& P 1 CuSO4,
α≠β≠γ≠ 90° K2Cr2O7etc.

 Expression for Lattice Constant of a Cubic crystal (a):-

Let us consider a cubic unit cell in which ‘a’ is the edge length or primitive of a
cubic unit cell and ‘ρ’ is the density of the crystal.
Density ρ = (total mass of the unit cell) / (volume of unit cell)
The mass of the unit cell = ρ a3-------(i);
Where, a3 Volume of the cubic unit cell.
Let ‘M’ be the molecular weight and ‘NA‘ is the Avogadro number (i.e. no. of
molecules per Kg mole of substance)
Then the mass of the each molecule = M / NA; If each unit cell contains ‘n’
molecules, then mass of the unit cell = n M / NA-------------(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
ρ a3= n M / NA
a3= n M / ρ NA
Lattice Constant for Cubic Lattice, a = ( n M / ρ NA)1/3.
Where, nno. of molecules, NAAvogadro number, MMolecular weight,
ρDensity of unit cell, a Lattice constant / parameter of the unit cell/ crystal.

Lattice directions and planes:

In a crystal lattice there exist directions and planes which contain a large
number of atoms.
For understanding crystallography the concept of directions and planes
play an important role. It is necessary to locate their directions and planes for
crystal analysis.

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Lattice directions:
The direction in which lattice vector is pointing is called Lattice direction.
To understand the Lattice directions let us first take the case of two
dimensions. The crystal direction is described by writing the first integer point x, y
in square brackets [ ] through which the directional line passes. For example, in
figure the direction OA, OB, OC, OD are written as [1 3], [1 1], [3 2], [4 1]
respectively.

Fig. Lattice Directions

In similar way the crystal direction in three dimensions is written as [x y z] where
(x, y, z) is the coordinate of the first whole number point through they pass. The
square brackets can used to indicate the direction (note: commas are
unnecessary). In general, the indices of a direction are written as [u v w]. A
negative index is indicated by a bar over the digit.
For example, the positive X-axis [1 0 0], and for negative X-axis [1̅ 0 0].
 Directions [3 3 3] and [2 2 2] directions are identical to [1 1 1]. In such a case
lowest combination of integers i.e. [1 1 1] is used to specify the directions.
Examples: Draw the direction [120] of a simple cubic crystal.
[120] direction:
 Along X and Y axes 1 & 2 units are moved and the position ‘p’ is marked.
 Since the directional unit corresponding to Z- axis is ‘0’.
 OP is joined, it gives [120] direction.

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 Fig: [120] direction.
[112] direction:
 Along X, Y and Z axes 1, 1& 2 units are moved and the position ‘p’ is
marked.
 OP is joined, it gives [112] direction.

Fig: [112] direction.

Lattice Planes:
The crystal lattices may be considered as made up of an aggregate of set of
equidistant parallel planes passing through lattice points which are known as
lattice planes. For a given lattice, the lattice planes can be chosen in different
ways as shown in the figure below. These planes are known as crystallographic
planes or atomic planes.

Fig. Crystal Planes

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Miller Indices:
Miller developed a method to designate a set of parallel planes in a crystal by
three numbers (h k l) which are known as miller indices.
Definition: “Miller indices are the reciprocals of the intercepts made by a plane
on the three crystallographic axes when reduced to smallest integers”.
Procedure for finding miller indices:
1. Find out the intercepts of the desired plane on the three coordinate axes
/crystallographic axes (x, y, z).
2. Express these intercepts in the terms of axial lengths / lattice parameters
(a, b, c) [Ex: 1a, 3b, c/2].
3. Take the reciprocals of the above intercepts. [1/1, 1/3, 2/1]
4. Reduce these numbers /reciprocal intercepts into smallest three integers
which have the same ratio (this can be done by taking LCM of numerical
values from the above reciprocals and multiplying with LCM to get
smallest numbers) [Ex: LCM of 1, 3, 1 will be 3, then 
1 1 2
[1 × 3 ∶ ×3: × 3] = 3 : 1 : 6.
3 1
5. Write the result in the parenthesis as (h k l) which are known as miller
indices of the crystal plane i.e. (3 1 6).

Important features of miller indices:

1. All the equidistant parallel planes have the same miller indices (h k l).
2. When a plane is parallel to one of the three crystallographic axes, then the
intercept made by that plane with that axes is ‘infinity’.
3. Miller indices are defined for a set of parallel planes but not for individual
planes.
4. If any plane making the intercept on negative axis then the corresponding
miller indices is represented by a bar on the top of miller index. Ex: (2̅ 0 0).
5. A plane passing through the origin is defined in terms of a parallel planes
having non zero intercepts.
6. For a cubic system, the distance ‘d’ between the adjacent planes of a set
of parallel planes of the indices (h k l) is given as, 𝑑 = √ 2 𝑎 2 2.
ℎ +𝑘 +𝑙

Significance/ importance of Miller Indices:

 Miller indices are used to specify directions and planes in crystals. It is
necessary to locate their directions and planes for crystal analysis.
 In Materials Science it is important to have a notation system for atomic
planes since these planes influence,
 Optical properties

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 Reactivity
 Surface tension
 Dislocations.

Example 1:

1. The plane cuts X- axis at ‘1a’ distance, Y-axis at ‘∞’ and Z-axis at ‘∞’.
2. Expressing these intercepts in terms of lattice parameters (1a, ∞b, ∞C) and
the intercepts are (1, ∞, ∞).
1 1 1
3. Reciprocals of the above intercepts ( 1 , ∞ , ∞ ) i.e. (1, 0, 0).
4. Reduce the reciprocals of intercepts into smallest integers it is noted that
here the reciprocals of the intercepts already smallest whole numbers.
Hence, the smallest numbers are (1, 0, 0).
5. Write these smallest numbers in parenthesis i.e. (1 0 0) and these are the
miller indices.

1. Different crystal planes with miller indices:

Fig. (a) BCGF plane with miller indices (100) (b) ADGF plane with miller indices
(101), and (c) AHF plane with miller indices (111).
2. Different crystal planes with miller indices:

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Examples: Draw the planes corresponding to following miller indices of (112) &
(120).
1. (112):
 Given miller indices (h k l) = (112)
1 1 1
 Reciprocals of miller indices = ( 1 , 1 , 2 )
1
 Take the reciprocals as intercepts i.e. (1, 1, 2 )
1
 Identify (1, 1, ) on the crystallographic axes and joining them to draw
2
(112) plane.

1
Fig: (112) plane with intercepts of (1, 1, 2 ) on coordinate axes.
2. (120):
 Given miller indices (h k l) = (120)
1 1 0 1
 Reciprocals of miller indices = ( 1 , 2 , 1 ) = (1, 2 , ∞)
1
 Now the intercepts are (1, 2 , ∞)
 The above intercepts are marked on three crystallographic axes and
joining them then the (120) plane is formed/drawn.

1
Fig: (120) plane with intercepts of (1, 2
, ∞)on coordinate axes.
 Inter-planar spacing:
The separation between successive lattice planes is known as inter-planar
spacing. It is defined as spacing between a plane (h k l) and other parallel
plane passing through the origin. The inter-planar spacing is denoted by dhkl. The
inter-planar distance for cube, tetragonal and orthorhombic crystals for which
α=β=γ=90° can be calculated by the following formula, dhkl=
1

√(h )2 +(k )2 +(𝑙 )2

a b c

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Derivation:
a
Let a plane ABC making the intercepts X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis at ,
h
b c
, respectively and another plane is passing through the origin. The normal
k l
distance between the two planes is called inter-planar spacing i.e. ON and On
= d. ON is a normal to the plane ABC and
making an angle with X, Y, Z-axis, i.e. α, β, γ.
ON d
From the figure, Cosα = = ---------- (1)
OA a/h
ON d
Cosβ = = ---------- (2)
OB b/k
ON d
Cosγ = = ---------- (3)
OC c/𝑙
According to the law of direction cosines
Cos2α + Cos2β + Cos2γ = 1
hd 2 kd 𝑙d
( ) + ( b )2 + ( c )2 = 1
a
𝟏
dhkl=
√(𝐡 )𝟐 +(𝐤 )𝟐 +(𝒍 )𝟐
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜

Special Cases:
(i) Cubic system: for Cubic system, a= b= c then, dhkl= 𝐡
𝟏
𝐤 𝒍
√( )𝟐+( )𝟐 +( )𝟐
𝐚 𝐚 𝐚

Therefore,𝑑 = √ 𝑎
ℎ2 +𝑘2+𝑙2

(ii) Tetragonal system: for tetragonal system, a=b≠c then, dhkl= 𝐡+𝐤 𝟐
𝟏
𝒍
√( ) + ( )𝟐
𝐚 𝐜

 Diffraction of X-rays by crystal:

Introduction:
Diffraction effects can be observed only if the spacing between the lines ruled
on the grating is of the order of magnitude of the wave length of light used. In
case of diffraction of light, the spacing between the lines of grating element is in
the order of 10–6 m.
X-rays are discovered by Rontgen. X-rays are produced when a beam of
fast moving electrons strikes a solid target material (tungsten or molybdenum).
The wavelengths of X-rays ranging from 0.01Å to 100Å and are not deflected by
electric field and magnetic fields. X-rays are the electromagnetic radiations with
a wavelength of the order of a Å (Angstrom), i.e. 1/1000th of wavelength of
visible light. Therefore to observe diffraction pattern of X-rays the grating should
have a spacing 1/1000th of the grating used for the diffraction of light.
Laue suggested that the crystal consists of arrays of atoms in three
dimensions and it can be used for the diffraction of X-rays because the spacing

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between the atoms of a crystal is of the order of 1Å. The diffraction centers in the
crystal are not in one plane thus the crystal act as three dimensional grating.
Bragg’s Law:
Crystals serve as grating to the X-rays to produce the diffraction of X-rays. W.H
Bragg and W.L. Bragg while studying the properties of X-rays studied the X-ray
diffraction pattern of few crystals. W.L. Bragg first derived a relation between
inter-planar spacing and angle of reflection.
“Bragg’s law states that the X-rays are reflected from different parallel
planes of a crystal interfere constructively when the path difference is the
integral multiple of the wavelength of X-rays”
According to W.H Bragg and W.L. Bragg, the diffraction is due to the
reflection of some incident X-rays from the various set of parallel crystal planes
(known as Bragg’s law) which contain a large number of atoms. When the two
consecutive planes scatter waves in phase with each other, then the path
difference must be equal to integral multiple of the incident wavelength.

Fig. Reflection of X-rays from the crystal planes

Let us consider a set of parallel lattice planes of a crystal separated by a
distance ‘d’ apart. A narrow beam of X-rays of wavelength ‘λ’ be incident upon
these planes at angle ‘θ’. The beam will be reflected in all directions by the
atoms of various atomic planes. The condition for the reflected waves to be all
in phase is that path difference between two reflected waves must be an
integral multiple of wavelength.
Consider two parallel rays PA and RB of the incident beam which are
scattered by two atoms A and B in adjacent layers as shown in Fig. Constructive
interference takes place only between those scattered rays that are parallel
and whose path differ exactly λ,2λ, 3λ and so on., i.e. the path difference Δ
must be nλ, where ‘n’ is an integer. Draw AM and AN perpendicular to the rays
RB an BS. Path difference between the X-rays along PQ and RS are given by
Δ= MB+BN = AB Sinθ + AB Sinθ
dSinθ + dSinθ
Δ =2d Sinθ -------------- (1)

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 Where AB=d is the interplaner spacing. i.e. spacing between the atomic
planes. For constructive interference to take place, the path difference
Δ= nλ -------------- (2)
Where n=1, 2, 3 etc. for first order, second order, third order maxima etc.
From equation (1) & (2) 2d Sinθ = nλ
This relation is known as Bragg’s law for X-ray diffraction.
Since the maximum possible value for sinθ is 1 then nλ/2d ≤ 1 (or) nλ≤ 2d
This sets limitation on wavelength. The wavelength λ should not exceed twice
the inter-planer spacing for diffraction to occur.

X-ray diffraction methods:

There are three main X-ray diffraction methods by which the crystal structure
can be analyzed.
1. The Laue method (for single crystals)
2. The Powder method (for finely divided crystals or polycrystalline specimen
powders)
3. The rotating crystal method (for single crystals)
Powder Diffraction method:
Powder X-ray diffraction method is usually carried for polycrystalline materials.
This method reveals the information regarding the size of the crystal, presence of
imperfections, distortion, and preferred orientations of crystals etc. The given
polycrystalline material is grinded to get fine powders and this powder can be
taken either in a capillary tube made up of non-diffracted material fixed at the
centre of cylindrical camera known as Debye Scherer camera whose length is
small compared to diameter. A collimated beam of monochromatic X rays is
produced by passing the X rays through a filter and collimator. Then the
monochromatic X rays enter the camera through a small hole and strike the
powder specimen. Since the specimen contains large number of small
crystallites with random orientations. The diffraction takes place for those values
of ‘d’ and ‘θ’ satisfy the Bragg’s condition i.e. 2dSinθ =nλ.
If θ is the glancing angle corresponding to a value of ‘d’ for one set of
planes the reflected ray will be inclined at an angle ‘2θ’. The open of the cone
is the point of contact of X-ray with the specimen.
Different cones are observed for different sets of ‘d’ and ‘θ’ for a particular
value of ‘n’ and also for different combinations of ‘θ’ and ‘n’ for a particular
values of ‘d’. The transmitted ray move out of the camera through an exit hole
located diametrically opposite to the entrance hole. A part of each reflected
cone is recorded on the film which is positioned around the camera. The

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recorded lines are in the form of arc’s as shown in figure.

Fig. (a)

Fig. (b)

Fig. (c)
Fig. Powder method (a) Experimental arrangement (b) Reflection of X ray from
the crystal plane, and (c) Reflection ray pattern on the photographic film.

The film is removed from the camera, processed and flattened. It shows the
diffraction lines and the holes for the incident and transmitted beams. The
distance between two successive arcs “S” is measured and using the relation,
S 180
4θ = ( ), Where ‘R’ is the radius of the camera. A list of θ values can be
R π
obtained. Since the wavelength λ is known, substituting these θ values in Bragg’s
formula, a list of inter-planar spacing ‘d’ can be calculated. Each spacing is the
distance between neighboring planes (hkl). From the ratio of inter-planar
spacing, the type of the lattice can be identified as well as lattice parameter is

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evaluated.
 Advantages of powder X-ray diffraction method:
 The powder technique has the advantage that it does not require large
single crystals and almost any substance can be ground into powder.
 The experiment is easy to perform
 Small crystals of any substance can be easily obtained.

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