Visual Metaphors on Album Covers:

An Analysis into Graphic Design’s Effectiveness at Conveying Music Genres

by
Vivian Le

A THESIS

submitted to

Oregon State University

Honors College

in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the
degree of

Honors Baccalaureate of Science in Accounting and Business Information Systems

(Honors Scholar)

Presented May 29, 2020

Commencement June 2020
 AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF

Vivian Le for the degree of Honors Baccalaureate of Science in Accounting and Business
Information Systems presented on May 29, 2020. Title: Visual Metaphors on Album Covers: An
Analysis into Graphic Design’s Effectiveness at Conveying Music Genres.

Abstract approved:_____________________________________________________
Ryann Reynolds-McIlnay

The rise of digital streaming has largely impacted the way the average listener consumes music.
Consequentially, while the role of album art has evolved to meet the changes in music technology,
it is hard to measure the effect of digital streaming on modern album art. This research seeks to
determine whether or not graphic design still plays a role in marketing information about the music,
such as its genre, to the consumer. It does so through two studies: 1. A computer visual analysis
that measures color dominance of an image, and 2. A mixed-design lab experiment with volunteer
participants who attempt to assess the genre of a given album. Findings from the first study show
that color scheme models created from album samples cannot be used to predict the genre of an
album. Further findings from the second theory show that consumers pay a significant amount of
attention to album covers, enough to be able to correctly assess the genre of an album most of the
time.

Key Words: album, music, marketing, album covers, album design, symbol, color, genre, art

Corresponding e-mail address: lev@oregonstate.edu

©Copyright by Vivian Le
May 29, 2020
 Visual Metaphors on Album Covers:
An Analysis into Graphic Design’s Effectiveness at Conveying Music Genres

by
Vivian Le

A THESIS

submitted to

Oregon State University

Honors College

in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the
degree of

Honors Baccalaureate of Science in Accounting and Business Information Systems

(Honors Scholar)

Presented May 29, 2020

Commencement June 2020
 Honors Baccalaureate of Science in Accounting and Business Information Systems project of
Vivian Le presented on May 29, 2020.

APPROVED:

_____________________________________________________________________
Ryann Reynolds-McIlnay, Mentor, representing the School of Marketing, Analytics and Design,
Marketing and Merchandising Management

_____________________________________________________________________
Andrea Marks, Committee Member, representing the School of Marketing, Analytics and
Design, Design

_____________________________________________________________________
Robert Santelli, Committee Member, representing the School of Music, Popular Music and
Performing Arts

_____________________________________________________________________
Toni Doolen, Dean, Oregon State University Honors College

I understand that my project will become part of the permanent collection of Oregon State
University, Honors College. My signature below authorizes release of my project to any reader
upon request.

_____________________________________________________________________
Vivian Le, Author
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKOWLEDGEMENTS....………………………………………………………………………8

INTRODUCTION …....…………………………………………………………………………...9

LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................................................10

A. HISTORY OF ALBUM ART......................................................................................10

B. THE ROLE OF ALBUM ART.....................................................................................14

C. ADOPTION AND IMPACT OF DIGITAL STREAMING.........................................16

STUDY 1: COMPUTER VISUAL ANALYSIS............................................................................18

A. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................19

B. ANALYSIS..................................................................................................................22

C. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................23

D. LIMITATIONS............................................................................................................27

STUDY 2: ALBUM ASSESSMENT EXPERIMENT..................................................................27

A. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................27

B. ANALYSES AND RESULTS ....................................................................................28

C. DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................32

D. LIMITATIONS............................................................................................................36

CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................37

APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................................40

REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................77
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my committee for their support on this project: Dr. Ryann
Reynolds-McIlnay, Andrea Marks, and Robert Santelli.

I am especially grateful to my mentor, Dr. Reynolds-McIlnay, for her ongoing support and
expertise during the research period, for her time and knowledge while walking me through
various data analysis processes, and for the amount of effort she put into helping me edit my
thesis. This research endeavor and thesis would not exist without her continual support and
mentorship.

I am thankful for the Honors College at Oregon State University for providing me the
opportunity to finish this thesis and for granting me the DeLoach Work Scholarship which
assisted me in research costs.

I am also indebted to every student who helped participate in my experiment as part of this
research project. This project would not have been complete without their help.

Lastly, I would like to thank my mom and dad for their love and support throughout this entire
process. Your sacrifices have made me who I am, and I owe everything to you.
 INTRODUCTION

Music labels increase the sale of albums through numerous marketing methods. Perhaps

the most memorable method is through the development of eye-catching, visual designs on

album covers. This method was most relevant during the decades in which the physical sales of

albums outnumbered digital sales.

Album art conveys both subtle and explicit information to the customer. Information such

as the name of the artist and album work together with the graphics of the album cover to

provide consumers a more comprehensive understanding of the music contained within each

album. The artwork featured on albums can lead consumers into better understanding implicit

aspects, such as the genre, based solely on the album cover itself. This allows for an increase in

music discovery within a listener’s preferred genre. As a result, an album cover can be a

significant factor in a consumer’s decision to buy an album.

When streaming became the most dominant form of music consumption in 2015, the

marketing aspect of album art may have diminished. From 2016 to 2017, there was a 58.7%

overall increase for on-demand audio platforms such as Spotify or Apple Music (Nielsen

Holdings, 2017). This occurred concurrently with the decline of physical album sales, which

decreased 16.5% in the same time period.

There has not been much research focusing specifically on the design of album art

created after the rise of digital streaming. This mixed method research seeks to determine

whether album art remains a relevant way of conveying information about music to consumers,

utilizing two different methods of data collection across two studies. While both methods allow

for the analysis of quantitative data, the first study measures the color similarities of album

covers based on various genres using hex codes. The second study verifies whether the average
listener can determine the genre of contemporary albums based on the graphics displayed on

album covers.

The role of album covers has evolved alongside the evolution of the music industry.

Album art has become less influential in selling physical albums. Instead, album covers have

focused more around selling the artists’ image in a way that allows for an increase in

merchandise sales. This research seeks to provide context to this notion and to clarify the role

album art currently plays in an industry driven by music streaming. Although a large body of

research exists within the fields of music and graphic design, a limited quantity of this research

has been dedicated to studying the various aspects of album cover art. Now, I discuss the history

and foundational concepts of album art and propose two hypotheses that are tested in two

studies.

HISTORY OF ALBUM ART

Album covers became a functional solution to new music recording technology

developed during the early 20th century. Starting in the 1910s, flat disc phonographs began to

replace wax cylinders, which previously were the earliest medium for producing and storing

commercial music (University of California, Santa Barbara, 2005). Wax cylinders had the

disadvantage of having a limited surface area; as a result, albums were only identified using

small slips of paper enclosed within the packaging. Flat disc technology provided an increased

surface area – the early discs design had a diameter of 10” (Library of Congress, n.d.). Packaging

at this point allowed for basic images, “… the title of the selection, and the composer, all pressed

into glossy black surface of the disc…” (Library of Congress, n.d.). Record stores further

innovated the process of customizing record sleeves, though this was limited to classical records
(Jones & Sorger, 1999). These classical records often required more than one disc for each

album due to the average length of a live classical concert. As a result, a sturdier type of paper

was used as an all-encompassing sleeve for the complete album. This heavier material allowed

for the printing of portraits and scenes depicting the composters or performing artists directly

onto the outside album cover itself (Jones & Sorger, 1999). Thus, the concept of album art was

born.

The evolution of album art continues as a result of new music recording technology. In

1948, Columbia Records developed the Long Play record (The Vintage Record, 2014). Printed

onto vinyl instead of shellac, this format of music consumption increased the size of the disc

from 10” to 12” in diameter. Vinyl also had a more delicate surface than shellac, which caused

album packaging to change. The paper sleeve used for shellac discs “damaged the delicate

grooves on LPs, [so] record companies started using a folded-over board format sleeve”

(Chilton, 2019, p. 3). Cardboard allowed for a greater variety of colors, prints, and designs on the

cover, facilitating room for experimentation and creativity among album designers.

Jazz albums became the first genre in which creative experimentation by graphic

designers was first noticed by consumers. A variety of factors contributed to jazz’s role in

helping the music industry realize the importance of the artwork featured on albums: Firstly, jazz

gained extreme popularity during the 1950s, which coincided with the development of LP

recording technology. Secondly, it was around this time that “record stores shifted from having

their products located behind the counter with their thin spines outward to an arrangement where

customers were allowed to browse through racks of colorful record jackets” (Dougherty, 2006, p.

48). Another factor had to do with the unique nature of jazz. Instrumental jazz did not contain

lyrics that had to be printed on album covers. This provided album covers with more space to
experiment with design. It also changed the behavior of consumers. People looking for new

music were now more inclined to physically pick up albums so that they could “gain some

insight about the mood, tone, and style of the music inside” (Dougherty, 2006, p. 48).

Lastly, part of jazz’s increasing reputation for featuring unique and colorful album art

involved the racial tensions prominent in the 1950s. “[Jazz] needed to be packaged so that—in

accordance with the rules of an aestheticized consumption economy—what was sold was not

merely recorded sound, but the suggestion of a whole lifestyle” (Voelz, 2017, p. 7). This was

because of jazz’s distinct association with urban, black musicians. Visually, in order to sell to

white listeners, jazz album covers evolved to hide any connotations of jazz being a racialized

genre (Voelz, 2017). Jazz albums that successfully went mainstream at this time often had covers

relating to abstract art rather than portraits of the black musicians. Many of jazz’s most iconic

album covers were designed by white designers such as Andy Warhol. “It is crucial to emphasize

that the increased importance of the visual dimension of the jazz art world was from the start

involved in the frictions of a racist, overwhelmingly segregated society” (Voelz, 2017, p. 11).

Overall, the jazz era became another significant era for the development of album art

covers. Graphic designers discovered a new medium for their artwork, one with ample design

space and fewer physical restrictions. The added emphasis of album artwork provided demand

for creative designers. Record labels started to recognize the importance of album artwork as a

marketing signal to potential consumers. These effects cumulated in the era of rock music, which

produced some of the most influential and recognizable album covers of all time.

LP sales peaked in the 1960s and the 1970s. This was a period where rock music

dominated not only airwaves and album sales but also impacted American society as a whole.

This era is also the point in which album art fully crosses over into the world of fine art.
Fitzgerald (2010) argues that the tipping point for album art came when famous artists, such as

Peter Blake and Hipnogsis, started bringing conceptual art into the world of music. This was the

time when album covers became more “culturally relevant” and “influential [in] imagery” than

any paintings from the fine art world as “no artist could have enough exhibition to rival the

exposure of even a moderate-selling LP” (p. 110). This is reflected in the prices of developing

album art covers as well. The Beatles’ debut album Please Please Me cost £400 to develop and

record. In contrast, their album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band cost £1500 for the cover

design alone (Inglis, 2001).

According to Alleyne (2014), “the modest concepts and meager budgets generally

characterizing the medium’s early years were largely replaced in the rock realm from the mid-

1960s by visual ambitions that mirrored musicians’ aspirations” (p. 251). Throughout the rock

era, musicians became more than their music. Often, they embodied extreme fame and were

idolized in ways that jazz musicians from the 1940s and 1950s were not. The positive feedback

loop of fame and influence further extended the cultural and artistic impact of album covers. The

impact of rock album art influences LP sales to this day. According to the 2017 Nielsen Year-

End Music Report, the Beatles’ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, the Beatles’ Abbey

Road, and Pink Floyd’s Dark Side Of The Moon all took spots on the Top 10 vinyl album sales

of 2017 (Nelsen, 2017).

With the established theory that music technology directly influences the development of

album art, the introduction of the CD contributed to the decline of album art’s importance. CDs

shrunk the size of the canvas from 12” inches in diameter to 5” inches of space, which “imposed

unwelcome physical restrictions on graphic artists, making album art less significant from that

point onwards and with reduced audience impact” (Alleyne, 2014, p. 258). The jewel box
method of packaging CDs also left much to be desired. No longer could graphic artists

experiment with different papers, inserts, cuts, raised typography, or gate pockets. “The CD

jewel box has virtually eliminated the ‘browsability’ of the product – where you’d be looking at

the graphics that attract you to pick up the package” (Jones, 1999, p. 90). At the same time, the

price of an album doubled, which changed consumer behavior (Ochs, 1996). Expensive albums

meant that customers started to purchase only music albums from well-known and familiar

artists. Album art lost its role as a facilitator of new music discovery. Thus, album art began to

decline in cultural and marketing significance.

THE ROLE OF ALBUM ART

Graphic designers agree that album art has embodied many roles throughout its

evolution. These roles not only influenced branding and advertisement culture, but also

influenced pop culture and societal values. The average consumer may assume that album art is

only a way for artists to visually showcase their music. However, album art has three main roles:

advertisement, accompaniment, and emerging product. The impact of digital music and

streaming further complicates the role that album art plays in the modern era.

Firstly, album art offers a method for music labels to advertise the music contained in

each record. The album cover industry parallels that of book covers. As a Music Editor at

COLORSXSTUDIOS, Shah (2017) observed that “the artwork adorning the [album] sleeve is

essentially the equivalent to a book’s front cover”. D’Astous found that the attractiveness of a

book cover had a “statistically significant impact on the readers’ interest and can be used to

influence people’s interest” in an unfamiliar book (Gudinavičius, 2016, p. 432). Further research

found that the package of a product can significantly influence the level at which people perceive
a product’s quality. This effect still holds true for products that can be subjective in judgement,

such as songs or albums (Stokes, 1985).

Secondly, album art serves as an accompaniment to the music it is associated with (Inglis,

2001). Album art often incorporates information such as the musician or band name, song titles,

and sometimes, lyrics within the art itself. Because of this, typography plays a significant role

within album art design. Album art also often contain photographs or artistic depictions of the

musician or performers. This adds another way in which album art is intertwined with the music

itself. This role of album art makes the album covers “not a superfluous thing to be discarded

during the act of listening, but an integral component of the listening which assists and expands

the musical experience” (Inglis, 2001, p. 84).

Lastly, album art can become a product or merchandise in its own right. The impact of

fine art becoming featured on album covers helped ensure album art’s new role as a commercial

product. This is especially relevant in accompanying sales to albums. Items such as posters,

shirts, and other merchandise must be correlated or designed with the current album art in mind.

The discussion so far has conveyed that the purpose of album art and the ways in which it

has evolved parallel to every significant change in music technology. Previous research utilizing

self-organizing maps and artificial intelligence has shown some similarities between certain

genres based only on image features, such as color or the usage of portraits and objects within

the cover itself (Mayer, 2011, p. 8). However, this research was conducted before the rise of

digital streaming and did not differentiate between albums created during different eras of music

technology. Thus, I hypothesize that the various visual elements of albums created after 2015 are

associated with specific music genres.

 H1: Contemporary album cover art visual elements (e.g., colors or symbols) vary

across music genres.

As album art has an ever-changing and nuanced role in the music industry, the evolution of

music technology and music consumption directly influence the progression of album designs.

Defining the traditional roles of album art provides context to understanding the current function

of album art in a world of modern digital technology.

ADOPTION AND IMPACT OF DIGITAL STREAMING

The advent of streaming came roughly five years after the invention of digital music

services such as iTunes. Compared to the previous timeline given for the evolution of music

technology, the jump from buying digital music to streaming digital music occurred fairly

quickly. Digital streaming requires media companies to maintain large libraries of content, to

which consumers can rent or buy access (Datta, Knox, & Bronnenberg, 2017). Streaming often

occurs at a fixed, non-binding, and monthly payment model, providing a large advantage to

consumers who want to explore new media without having to pay extra for that privilege. Digital

streaming achieved its status as the most common method to consume music in 2015 (Nielsen

Holdings, 2015).

Digital streaming and, to an extent, the invention of digital music distribution ultimately

affected the distribution and influence of album art in two different ways. First, the popularity of

digital music meant that the size of the album art canvas shrunk once more from 5 inches of

space to size constraints that varied on each consumer’s distinct device. “[S]creen size,

resolution, bandwidth, browser type, connection speed, computer display type, HTML, and many
other new elements provide the constraints on the visual means by which music is delivered to

consumers” (Jones, 1999, p. 94). This initially posed effects upon album art similar to the effects

noted from the transition from vinyl LPs to CDs – a decreased importance on album art as a way

to visually brand the musician and the reduction of album covers’ role as an art product itself.

Second, the rise in digital streaming facilitated an increase in music consumption overall,

increasing the rate at which album art is consumed and distributed. Because consumers now pay

so little in order to access a large library, musicians make much less revenue from each song sale

compared to any other generation of musicians that came before the digital era (Ingham, 2019).

This means that the majority of music profits now come from live performances and

merchandise sales. A study of online streaming found that the average consumer’s total music

consumption increased about 63% in the six months after the adoption of a streaming service

such as Spotify (Datta, Knox, & Bronnenberg, 2017). The ease of digital distribution means that

the number of musicians distributing their music is at an all-time high. No longer do musicians

need a record label to front the cost of distributing their physical albums to record stores.

Consequentially, artists must find ways in order to differentiate themselves so that fans

are willing to pay to see them live and for merchandise. While previous album art facilitated the

sale of music, the primary goal of modern album art has changed, as illustrated by Skelton

(2017):

“A strong visual identity gives fans something tangible to grasp onto during a

time when most music consumption happens digitally. A fan with a Spotify

subscription doesn't need to buy records, but they might choose to if they have an

emotional attachment to the cover art and want a physical memento of their

favorite artist.” (p. 15)

Album art no longer encourages the buying of albums. Instead, album covers encourages

consumers to invest in the artist’s visual brand. Modern merchandise and concerts often center

around the initial album design itself. In a world of digital streaming, a strong and cohesive

visual brand can increase profits for musician. As the pressure to sell merchandise and live

concerts alongside the streaming distribution of albums has increased the necessity to utilize

cohesive visual cues on the album art itself, I hypothesize that modern consumers pay attention

to contemporary album art in a way that allows them to predict the genre of a given album.

H2: Consumers are able to predict the genre of contemporary albums based off the

graphic design of the respective album cover.

Now I will discuss the two studies that will be used to test both hypotheses. The

first study involves a personally-coded application that outputs the five most dominant

colors of a given image. Study 1, the analysis of color dominance and symbol usage

within album covers, tests the validity of H1. This study also analyzes the type of

symbolism used on each album cover. The second study is a mixed-design lab

experiment that asks participants to assess the genre of an album given its album cover

and tests H2.

STUDY 1: COMPUTER VISUAL ANALYSIS

This study seeks to analyze the relationship between the graphical elements of

contemporary album covers in the digital streaming era with the album genre. As prior research
(Mayer, 2011) has utilized self-organizing maps and artificial intelligence to examine the

relationship between certain genres based only on image features pre-digital streaming, computer

visualization analysis of album art is conducted in study 1.

Methodology

Album Art Sample. Nielsen’s 2017 Year-End Music Report revealed that the top five

genres (in order) were R&B/Hip-Hop, Rock/Alternative, Pop, Country, and Electronic. Using

AllMusic (an online music database) and its advanced album search, album images for each

genre listed was found. Filters further narrowed down the search to only allow albums released

in the year 2015 or later since 2015 was the year in which digital streaming peaked. Because this

research seeks to analyze the effects of digital streaming on contemporary album covers, this was

an appropriate filter to apply to the search results. Each album result was then cross-referenced

using Spotify and Apple Music in order to ensure that the album’s genre was appropriately

labeled on the AllMusic database. After that, the album’s image was downloaded and run using

the color-dominance Python software that was custom developed.

Each genre had a sample of 200 albums selected for analysis. A listed compilation list

that includes the name and genre of each album that was used in the computer visualization

analysis is provided in Appendix A.

K-Means Clustering. The visual analysis was done through a color dominance software

that was coded using Python. When designing the framework of the code itself, it was

determined that K-means clustering would provide the most efficient way to do color analysis.

This type of clustering divides a certain number of observations (n) into a specified number of

clusters (k). Each cluster has a determined centroid. Observations closest to the centroid or the

mean of each cluster are sorted into that data space. The main objective of k-means is to discover
patterns by grouping similar data points. The number of clusters in a dataset is fixed and chosen

by the researcher. This method of clustering was used in order to find the five most dominant

colors within any given album cover. The number of observations varies per picture and is

dependent on the number of pixels that each image contains.

Secondly, Python has the option to import various libraries. This research made use of

three Python libraries:

import cv2
import numpy as np
from sklearn.cluster import KMeans

The OpenCV library (labelled cv2 above) allows the computer to read images from any specified

file. The NumPy library provides arrays and tools that can used for mathematical and scientific

computing. Lastly, the Sklearn library allows for statistical modeling. Importing the KMeans

module from the Sklearn library was chosen as it allowed for the use of K-Means clustering as

the base for the code.

Conversion from .JPEG to RGB. Each color cluster within the image was then

normalized into a color histogram. This histogram, although not visually represented to the user,

allowed for the collection of percentage values for each color cluster. Because there was a

predetermined amount of five clusters, the sum of the percentage of clusters totaled 100% even if

the image had more than five colors.

Each color cluster was then converted into an RGB value. This was done through the

OpenCV library. The RGB color model was designed to construct each individual color using a

combination of red, green, and blue hues. Each hue has integer values from 0 to 255, which

represents the intensity of each hue. The software then displayed each image’s five most
dominant colors in its RGB form alongside the percentage of color dominance. Shown below is

an example of the code output using the album Gode by Andrew Bratten:

[20.94224056 17.09869883 16.28435417] 1.38%

[143.40015161 134.99971121 134.28005198] 12.12%
[92.37914743 86.66469588 87.35822467] 16.21%
[194.3069177 188.35312812 185.70860279] 23.69%
[219.33246309 160.44353142 158.59437099] 46.60%

Each bracket represents an RGB value rounded to the eighth decimal place. The percentages

represent the color dominance of each cluster relative to the other four clusters. For instance,

while this album might have more than five colors, if the album cover were to be reduced to its

top five colors, the color [219, 160, 158] would take up 46.60% of that edited color space.

Conversion from RGB to HSV. RGB is a useful color model for the analysis of images

using computer software. However, the HSV color model is a more useful tool to segregate

colors based off characteristics that are more relevant to human analysis. The HSV color model

measures each color by quantifying hue shift, saturation, and value (brightness).

Hue shift is related to base color. It is measured from a scale of 0° to 360°. The HSV

color model includes eight hues and it cycles through the degree of hues in this order: red,

orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, purple, and pink. Saturation controls the amount of gray in

each color. The level of saturation can range from 0 to 100. Zero (0) represents white, or a lack

of saturation, while numbers close to 100 represent the fullest saturation of the hue. Lastly, the

value of the color corresponds to the level of brightness of each color. It ranges from 0 to 100 as

well. Zero (0) represents black, or a lack of brightness, while numbers close to 100 represent the

brightest version of the hue. After the initial software output, separate software was then used to

convert each RGB value into an HSV value. Here is an example of the output given when

converting the values taken from the album Gode above:

[15, 20%, 7.8%]

 [0, 6.3%, 56.1%]
[350, 6.5%, 36.1%]
[20, 4.6%, 76.1%]
[2, 27.9%, 85.9%]

Using the updated HSV value, each color cluster was able to be quantified into a labelled

color. Each cluster was then categorized into one of 12 color labels: red, orange, yellow, green,

cyan blue, purple, pink, white, gray, black, and brown. Eight of the color labels were denoted

solely using the hue (H) value. Exceptions were made to the colors white, gray, black, and brown

depending on the level of each hue’s saturation (S) and value (V). The color brown also includes

all skin tones picked up from the color-dominance software. Appendix B shows the chart used to

categorize each color cluster. The chart puts specific ranges for each of the color labels relative

to its HSV dimensions.

Symbols. Album covers often feature and utilize symbolism. A common example of this

would be portraits or images of the musician. During data collection, a note was made on

whether each album featured an image or portrait of the artist. It was also noted whether other

objects and symbols were featured on each album. Albums that only utilized basic typography

and colors were noted to have zero symbolism.

Analysis

SPSS Statistics version 25 was used to analyze the data. Correlation analysis, linear

regression and discriminant function analysis were used to test the first hypothesis. There were

three main variables in the data. The first variable was the genre itself, identified as either

country, pop, rock/alternative, electronic (EDM), or hip-hop/R&B. The second variable was the

level of color dominance rated by percentage. The last variable was categorical, determining

whether the album featured an image of the artist or whether it contained symbols other than

text. The analyses explored whether there was statistical significance relating to usage of certain
colors or usage of symbols to genres. Analysis was also used to determine whether or not an

album’s genre could be predicted using the linear models created for each genre.

Results and Discussion

The Pearson’s correlation coefficient was first used to measure the linear correlation

between genre and both of the other variables: color and symbolism. A two-tailed test shows the

significance of a correlational relationship in both the positive and negative direction.

Table 1 reports the correlations between genre and color. There are some notable

correlations between the colors and genre of an album. The largest coefficient was the amount of

correlation between the color brown and albums associated with country music (r(998) = .195, p

< .001). Throughout the collection of data, there were a large number of country albums that

featured sepia tones or landscape backgrounds with brown tones. These tones and colors were

significantly more present at an observational level compared to all other genres. Information

reported in Table 2 supports this result as well. When analyzing the correlation between genre

and symbolism, country albums were found to have the highest positive coefficient in regard to

the frequency that artists or musicians were featured on their album covers (r(998) = .195, p <

0.01). Because the HSV values for the color brown also included skin tones, it is reasonable that

the color brown was the most correlated with country albums.

The second notable result was the amount of correlation between the colors purple

(r(998) = 0.071, p = 0.024) and pink (r(998) = 0.103, p = 0.01) in pop albums. In comparison,

other genres such as country had a statistically significant and negative coefficient for the color

purple (r(998) = -0.073, p = 0.021). One explanation for this would be that the art movements

dominating popular culture tend to lean towards eye-catching colors. The design of pop albums

in the digital age are more focused on “a lot of bold colors and fonts that allow for an image to
hit with immediate impact” (McKinney, 2015). This provides a reasonable explanation for bolder

colors being more prominent within pop albums.

Table 1. Correlations Between Genre and Color

COLOR COUNTRY ROCK1 POP HIPHOP2 ELECTRONIC
RED Pearson -.027 .019 .005 .013 -.010
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .392 .554 .870 .673 .749
ORANGE Pearson -.043 -.034 .026 .010 .040
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .174 .287 .407 .741 .206
YELLOW Pearson -.041 .009 -.008 .014 .027
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .191 .783 .803 .658 .402
GREEN Pearson -.047 -.016 .011 .034 .018
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .139 .615 .727 .283 .576
CYAN Pearson -.006 -.006 .026 -.005 -.009
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .846 .839 .406 .877 .781
BLUE Pearson -.036 .014 .038 -.066* .049
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .256 .656 .230 .038 .118
PURPLE Pearson -.073* .002 .071* -.024 .023
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .021 .947 .024 .454 .465
PINK Pearson -.056 -.020 .103** -.006 -.021
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .077 .524 .001 .853 .499
BROWN Pearson .195*** -.020 .012 -.038 -.149***
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .537 .698 .227 .000
GRAY Pearson .103** -.017 -.049 -.031 -.006
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .594 .120 .328 .853
BLACK Pearson -.078* .025 -.103** .099** .056
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .014 .434 .001 .002 .076
WHITE Pearson -.070* .017 .013 -.001 .041
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .026 .581 .672 .970 .200
Notes. * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
(2-tailed). *** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level (2-tailed). 1 Rock category also includes albums
associated with alternative rock. 2 Hip-hop category also includes albums associated with R&B.
Table 2. Correlations Between Genre and Symbolism
COUNTRY ROCK POP HIPHOP ELECTRONIC
PERSON Pearson Correlation .195*** -.257*** .177*** .119*** -.234***
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
OTHER Pearson Correlation -.108** .114*** -.190*** .033 .151***
SYMBOLISM Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000 .000 .295 .000
Notes. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. *** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level.

Table 2 showcases the correlational values between album genre and the usage of

symbolism. In this case, person refers to a photo or depiction of the artist or musician on the

album cover itself. Other symbolism refers to the usage of any other symbol or object on the

album cover. For this research, albums that only utilized basic typography and colors were noted

to have zero symbolism. In general, genres that had statistically positive correlation with

musicians being featured on the covers generally had negative correlation regarding the usage of

other types of symbols. This was true for country, pop, and hip-hop/R&B albums. These genres

were more likely to feature photos of the musician on its albums and less likely to use other

objects or symbols on their covers compared to other genres.

For the other genres, the reverse seems to hold true: Genres that had statistically positive

correlations with the usage of other symbols generally had negative correlations with the use of

the musician’s image on the album cover. This was especially true for rock and alternative rock

albums, which had the largest negative correlation for the person category (r(998) = -.257, p <

.001). Rock and alternative rock albums were more likely to feature multiple objects and

symbols on the cover but are less likely to utilize pictures of the musician or artist on its album

covers compared to other genres.

This finding can be explained by the way the digital age has influenced how album

covers are designed. Because technology limits the size of album covers to pixels, certain design

elements have been eliminated in favor of others. Burke observed, “Right now, I think it’s a lot
about simple, clean graphics. Those hold up really really well on the 2-inch square” (in

McKinney, 2015). Albums created in the modern era are more likely to favor a minimalist

design. Covers that tend to feature one type of symbol, whether it be a depiction of the musician

or other objects, are less likely to use another type of symbol within the same cover as it can lead

to clutter on a small screen. As an additional factor, it seems that genres in which there are many

musicians within a group, such as rock or alternative rock, tend to favor other forms of symbols

or artwork over using portraits of the musicians. This trend has gained consistency with the

reality of small display screens.

These results provide partial support of the first hypothesis. Certain colors and symbols

are correlated with certain genres. However, these results are somewhat limited in substance and

cannot be used to fully prove that certain genres are definitively associated with certain color

schemes or symbols. Further analysis involving discriminant functions and linear regression

must be used in order to determine whether the measures of these variables can be used in order

to predict the genre of an album cover.

Discriminant function analysis assigned weights to each of the color variables in order to

determine whether or not each album was a certain genre. These weights give the discriminatory

value of each factor (Appendix C). The higher the weight, the more the color variable was used

to determine whether or not each album was correlated with the specific genre being analyzed,

with Wilk’s lambda providing insight into the level at which the function can discriminate

between genres of an album. In addition, 𝑅" # shows how much variance, whether the album is of

the specified genre or not, can be explained by the function. Although the weight of each color

variable for each genre were appropriate given the correlational values, the results were not

significant (l = 0.929 to 0.996). This meant that functions could not discriminate between the
genres of an album. On average, the functions could only explain very little variance between

each genre (𝑅" # = 2.9%). The function for country albums had the highest success defining

variance between country and non-country albums (𝑅" # = 7.1%).

Linear regression was also used to show the level of classification accuracy when

predicting the genre of an album. The model shows the level of accuracy with and without the

predictors. For every genre, the level of accuracy using color predictors was equal to the amount

without predictors. In other words, when using color variables as the predictor, the model’s

accuracy of assessing album’s genre was 20%. This was essentially equivalent to random choice.

Both this result and the results from the discriminant functions fail to support H1. Although some

colors do statistically correlate with certain genres, the album cover’s color scheme cannot be

used to predict the genre of an album.

Limitations

The selection of albums qualifies as a small limitation to this study. Genre can be greatly

subjective and albums that straddle the line between genres can be hard to categorize. Although

albums were cross-referenced between Google, Spotify, and Apple Music, there may be a few

albums that do not neatly fit into the genre this study had categorized it as. Although this should

not have a significant impact on the overall results of the computer visual analysis, it should be a

consideration of the results of the study.

STUDY 2: ALBUM ASSESSMENT EXPERIMENT

Methodology

A mixed-design lab experiment was conducted with undergraduate business students (n =

172, ages 18-24, M = 18.71 years, 62% female, 37% male) for partial course credit during
February 2020. The experiment’s goal was to evaluate whether the average person could assess

the genre of a modern album based on its cover art. During the experiment, participants were

randomly exposed to 10 images of album art, one at a time, from total selection of 20 albums

(Appendix D). The selected album art stimuli included four albums from each of the five genres

tested in the study 1: Hip-Hop/R&B, Rock/Alternative, Pop, Country, and Electronic. These

albums were chosen randomly from the AllMusic database and filtered to ensure they were

released after 2015.

After viewing an album art stimulus, participants were asked to indicate the genre(s) to

which they felt the album art belonged. Participants were able to select multiple genres per

album if they felt the need to do so. For instance, if a participant felt that an album could be

either country or rock, they were could select both genres as their final assessment. Participants

also completed an open-ended item asking for the factors that led the participants to pick the

genre(s) that they did. After viewing and completing the items related to the ten randomly

assigned album art images, participants then complete measures of their music consumption

habits, followed by demographics, a hypothesis probe, and a debriefing. The lab study was

administered through Qualtrics, and the questionnaire is presented in Appendix E.

Analyses and Results

Music Consumption Habits. Over 50% of the participants reported that they notice album

art most of the time (32%) or every time (24.4%) they listen to music and 67% of the participants

reported noticing album art at least half of the time during the consumption of music. In other

words, the vast majority of consumers pay attention to album art at a fairly frequent rate. While

the role of album art has changed throughout its history, it still garners the attention of a majority

of consumers.
 Selected Correct Genre. On average, participants selected the correct genre 5.75 (SE =

.13) times when viewing ten albums, providing support for hypothesis 2. For each random album

displayed to the participants, there were five genres from which to select. If there was truly no

relationship between the album cover and its genre, there should only be correct assessment of an

album genre about 20% of the time. However, participants were able to correctly assess the

genre about 58% of the time. This suggests that there are factors that people use in order to

assess the genre of an album.

A mixed ANOVA was conducted to examine the likelihood of correctly selecting the

genre based on the album art while accounting for within-subject differences (F(1, 171) = 15.22,

p < .001, ηp2 = .08, non-centered effect = 15.22). The between-subject ANOVA (λ = .87, F(4,

186) = 6.45, p < .001, ηp2 = .13, non-centered effect = 25.78) suggests participants were able to

correctly identify hip-hop/R&B albums (M = 1.45 SE = .07) more often than rock (M = 1.03 SE

= .06, p < .001), pop (M = 1.05 SE = .07, p = .001), electronic (M = 1.05 SE = .07, p = .001) and

directionally more than country (M = 1.17 SE = .07, p = .068) album art. All other genre

comparisons were not significant (ps = 1).

When the participants selected more genres for each album, they were more likely to

select the correct genre. Participants were able to select up to five genres for each album

displayed, but the vast majority of responses (82%) showed that in general, participants tended to

select one genre per album shown. Additionally, the number who selected more than three genres

for an album was exceedingly rare (2%). While the average number of correct answers per album

art would most likely be reduced if each participant was limited to selecting only one genre per

album displayed, this may not have impacted the results significantly given that few participants

selected more than two genres.

 ANOVAs examined selection of the correct genres as a function of the method used most

often when to listen to music versus the other methods (digital streaming F(1, 170) = .13, p =

.722; CD F(1, 170) = 2.54, p = .113; vinyl F(1, 170) = 6.33, p = .013; digital downloads F(1,

170) = 1.84, p = .176; online radio F(1,170) = 4.11, p = .044; FM radio F(1, 170) = 1.29, p =

.008; video streaming F(1, 170) = 3.58, p = .060). The results suggest that those who use vinyl

(M = 1.37 SE = .03) as the main method of listening to music were more accurate at assessing

the genre of a given album compared to those who listen to music using other methods (M = 1.13

SE = .03, p =.013). However, those who listen to online radio (M = 1.05 SE = .06, p = .044) as

their main method of music consumption were less likely to accurately assess the genre of an

album based on its cover art than participants who used other methods (M = 1.18 SE = .03).

Selected Genre Reason. Participants were asked to write out the factors that helped them

decide on the genre of each album cover. There were 1720 total open-ended responses, a

response for each of the ten of 20 albums that the 172 participants viewed. Each response could

be classified into at least one of 13 categories. Categories included factors such as familiarity

with the artist, connotations of the album title, familiarity with the genre associated with the

album, font, color, usage of symbolic images, familiarity with the album cover, album aesthetic,

the emotion(s) associated with a cover, similarity to other known album covers, similarity to

other familiar artists, similarity to other known genres, and any higher meaning associated with

the album art. Out of all factors, the three of most common responses from participants were the

color, symbolism, and aesthetics of a given album cover. For this experiment, color is defined as

the mention of color conceptually or the discussion of specific color hues, saturation and/or

brightness. Responses are put into the symbolism category whenever there is a mention of an

image or object within the album art that leads to the perceived genre. Lastly, a response is
classified in the aesthetic category whenever participants mention that the album art conveys a

certain mood, energy, vibe, or aesthetic. Definitions and examples of all other categories are

presented in Appendix F.

Three coders classified each open-ended response into specified categories. Each coder

recorded the number of thoughts that fit each of the categories and the total number thoughts that

each participant expressed for every album. An analysis of inter-coder reliability suggests each

coder had similar results to each other (α = .96) indicating is extremely high internal consistency

between the three coders, with coefficient remaining consistently above .90 when any one of the

coders were removed from the analysis. Because of the high internal reliability of each coder’s

results, all three of the coders’ data were averaged as the dependent variable for analysis. The

number of thoughts ranged from zero to eight per participant for each album. Out of the number

of responses, over 80% of the responses contained only one or two thoughts, with the average

being 1.58 (SE = .02) thoughts.

The average number of thoughts for each of the 13 categories was analyzed with a

MANOVA as a function of the genre (F(52, 6,824) = 9.43, p < .001). The ANOVAs examining

being familiar with the genre (F(4, 1715) = .33 , p = .86), the album art being similar to that of

another artist (F(4, 1715) = 1.36, p = .247, and mentions of the album art (F(4, 1715) = 1.27, p =

.278) were not significant. The factors relating to familiarity of the musician (F(4, 1715) = 14.90,

p < .001), font (F(4, 1715) = 8.75, p < .001), color (F(4, 1715) = 21.36), p < .001) , symbols (F(4,

1715) = 16.72, p < .001), aesthetic (F(4, 1715) = 30.43, p < .001), emotion (F(4, 1715) = 5.31, p

< .001), familiarity of other known album art (F(4, 1715) = 3.08, p = 0.15), familiarity of the

respective genre (F(4, 1751) = 4.66, p = .001), the meaning derived from the album art (F(4,
1715) = 4.10, p = .003), and album art title (F(4, 1751) = 26.68, p < .001) were all significant

ANOVA.

Within certain significant models, there were large differences between the mean number

of thoughts depending on the genre of the album. Having artist/musician familiarity, for instance,

was cited much more often for country (M = .11 SE = .01) and hip-hop/R&B (M = .11, SE = .01)

than for the pop (M = .01 SE = .01, p <.001) and rock/alternative (M = .02 SE = .01, p < .001).

For pop (M = .39 SE = .02, ps < .001), color was referenced significantly more often than for

country (M = .12 SE = .02), rock/alternative (M = .22 SE = .02), electronic (M = .25 SE = .02),

and hip-hop/R&B (M = .16 SE = .02). Responses that mentioned symbols as a factor were more

often associated with country (M = .66 SE = .03) albums compared to the rest of the album

genres: hip-hop/R&B (M = .56 SE = .03, p = .006), rock/alternative (M = .44 SE = .03, p < .001),

pop (M = .40 SE = .03, p < .001), and electronic (M = .47 SE = .03, p < .001).

For the aesthetic category, country (M = .16 SE = .02) and hip-hop (M = .23 SE = .02)

were associated much less often with that particular factor compared to rock (M = .38 SE = .02,

p < .001), pop (M = .40 SE = .02, p < .001), or electronic (M = .40 SE = .02, p < .001) albums.

Lastly, when analyzing responses, participants were significantly more likely to mention the

album title as their main deciding factor for the hip-hop/R&B (M = .23 SE = .02) compared to

electronic (M = .03 SE = .02, p < .001), pop (M = .08 SE = .02, p < .001), rock/alternative (M =

.11 SE = .02, p < .001), and country (M = .17 SE = .02, p = .008).

Discussion

Overall, the results of study 2 suggest that gleaning genre information from an album

cover is an inherently complex process. While the average person is more likely than not to be

able to assess the genre of a given album cover, there are different factors that consumers use in
order to do so. This process is further influenced by the music consumption habits that

consumers take part in. Perhaps the biggest takeaway from this specific study is that consumers

are receptive to and pay attention to album art at a frequent and significant level, despite the

drastic decrease in the size of space that album covers are expected to encompass.

On a genre-specific level, hip-hop/R&B albums were correctly identified about 40%

more often than pop, electronic, or rock/alternative albums. For each pop, electronic, or

rock/alternative album correctly identified, there are about 1.5 hip-hop/R&B albums correctly

identified on average. This result provides partial support of hypothesis 2, as there are certain

visual components of hip-hop or R&B albums that make it easier to identify them compared to

other genres.

Further analysis of the open-ended responses were also intriguing given the results of the

first study, which imply that while certain forms of symbolism and certain schemes of color are

correlated with the genre of an album, no models or functions created from the album samples

can accurately predict the genre of an album using those variables. Even though Study 1 suggests

that these measures are not reliable measures of a genre of an album, it seems as though

participants use these exact variables most often in order to form predictions about the genre of

an album. There can be many reasons for this. Factors such as color, symbolism, and aesthetic

are often more accessible and embedded in culture compared to other factors such as the font or

title of an album. Given the trend of minimalist album design, modern album artwork tends to

feature one main concept. Factors such as symbols and color are able to convey a wide range of

information about the album to consumers in a more efficient manner than smaller design aspects

such as font. These secondary factors, such as the title of an album, the artist name, and font, are
less likely to be noticed by the consumer at first glance. On many modern albums, the name of

the artist or the title of the album are not included for the sake of space.

There are also some notable inter-genre results relating to the categories discussed earlier:

color, symbols, and aesthetic. These results can also be seen as profile plots for better visual

examination (Appendix G). When assessing the responses that mentioned color, there is a

statistically significant difference between pop albums and all other genres of albums (p <

0.001). This result is reasonable given the outcome of the first study showed a higher

prominence of bolder colors such as pink and purple in pop albums. Many pop albums are

designed with bold visuals in mind, which translates to using eye-catching colors (McKinney,

2015). This experiment shows that consumers are picking up on this trend and are using an

album’s color schemes to help assess pop albums in particular.

When analyzing the responses that mentioned symbolism, there was also a significant

difference between country albums and all other genres of albums (p < .001). For country albums

that featured a portrayal of the musician on the cover, the responses often used the artist’s image

as a factor. Responses such as “the man looked country” or “because of the man portrayed on the

front” were frequent. Even country albums that did not include portrayals of the artist often had

participants reference to symbols such as “cowboy”, “cactus”, “acoustic guitar”, or “horses”.

Given the history and ties of country music to a rural lifestyle, it is notable that these culturally

relevant symbols are still portrayed in modern albums and are recognizable to many participants,

even those who do not generally listen to country music.

Participants that mentioned aesthetic as a factor in their decision were more likely to do

so for rock, pop and electronic music compared to country or hip-hop albums. For this research,

the definition of aesthetic meant the mood, energy, or feeling that the participants felt when
viewing the album. This broader definition makes it hard to definitively pinpoint the reasons why

participants were more likely to use this factor as a response to rock, pop, or electronic albums.

Perhaps the design factors of an album cover work together more coherently within those

specific genres. Small details like font choice, color, artwork, object placement, and symbols

must work together in order to be able to convey a specific mood or aesthetic to the audience. It

is possible that within these genres, the usage of a cohesive artistic image is more common.

Comparatively, country music and hip-hop/R&B music are more likely to utilize standard

symbols, such as depictions of the artist or other culturally relevant symbols, as its main visual

component rather than focusing on the complete artwork of an album. This may impact the way

consumers perceive certain genres of music. There was consistent variance in open-ended

responses based on the specific genre of an album, suggesting that many consumers have

preconceived notions of what certain genres of albums should look like.

Lastly, there was some significance relating to the variance in music consumption habits

of the experiment participants, especially those who consume vinyl or online radio. In regard to

LPs in particular, these types of albums are a unique product in the world of music consumption.

There are arguably much easier means to buy and listen to music, yet vinyl records (both new and

used) have seen a resurgence in sales in the past few years, surpassing sales in both online radio

and CDs (Rosenblatt, 2018). Those who buy vinyl do so for its “collectability” factor. There are

aspects of vinyl that cannot be found on any other form of music consumption – its 12 inch by 12

inch canvas for album art being the main one. The technology of vinyl means that to be able to

listen to music, consumers often have to pick through a collection of physical albums, carefully

take out the vinyl disc inside, and set it up on a turntable. This increases the amount of time that

each consumer is able to look and process the cover of each album. This fact paired with the results
of this research imply that participants who use vinyl as their main method of music pay a

noticeable amount of attention to the album art itself. This has translated into the results of the

experiment; participants who prefer vinyl can accurately assess the genre at a higher rate.

The results regarding participants who utilize online radio as the primary method of

listening to music are not surprising given the history and average usage of online radio.

Pandora, with the largest market share of the online radio industry, was created with the intent of

helping consumers passively discover new music using its algorithm. Pandora relies on

consumers who use it mainly for background music. This was shown in its business model: One

could only wait for individual songs to play at a time – the consumer could not specifically select

or create playlists of songs that they wanted to listen to (Wang, 2018). It can be argued that

consumers who use online radio as their main method of listening to music do not actively pay

attention to a song’s album art in any significant capacity. This correlates with the results.

Although the effect of consuming online radio on a participant’s ability to assess genre is a

smaller effect than the effect of consuming vinyl, it is still statistically significant and an

interesting finding.

Limitations

The experiment was limited to students attending Oregon State University, and as a

result, the population surveyed cannot be considered a random sample. Because of that, the

results of this study cannot be perfectly extended to provide context to the general population. In

addition, the age range of the participants ranged from 18 to 24 years. It is possible that

participants were more familiar to the music created in the digital streaming era compared to

other age groups due to the younger age range. Thus, the results may not generalize to older

consumers.
 Each item also limited the number of genres that each participant could choose from,

which overall limited the variance of responses that each participant could give. Perceived time

limits within the study setting itself may have also made it difficult for respondents to spend

more time on the open-ended questions. However, given the sample size and the method for

collection, the quantitative results from this experiment are more than adequate to test the

hypotheses. The limitations discussed above are not significant enough barriers to disregard the

results of the study.

CONCLUSION

The goal of graphic design is to visually communicate information. The specific usage of

factors such as typography, image, color, or placement may increase or decrease the speed at

which consumers devote attention to and process the information. Album covers have played a

multitude of roles throughout its history, but its importance remains consistent even as music

technology as changed rapidly. The overall results of these studies have revealed a lot of

information about the way album covers are designed and the way consumers interact with the

album covers themselves.

Study 1 revealed that certain colors are more prominent within certain genres. However,

the correlation between colors and album art are somewhat minimal to the point where linear

models or discriminant functions could not predict the genre of an album only based off its color

scheme. While colors may play an important part in the design of a cover, it is by no means the

most defining factor of the genre of an album. The implications are that perhaps color is more

indicative of the artist brand itself rather than the genre of an album.
 Study 1 also revealed that modern albums were more likely to abide by minimalist

design: albums with a depiction of artist on the front were less likely to simultaneously use other

types of symbols on the cover and vice versa. This has certain implications for the development

of album artwork today. For instance, a more minimal design is generally preferred for a cover,

but it may prove to be difficult to create an extensive merchandise line with only minimal

designs. However, having a more minimal design may make it easier to tie visual cohesiveness

between the album cover, music video, and live concert performances. As visual cohesiveness is

a significant part of selling the brand of an artist, the trend of minimalism may help the artist

more easily sell their music.

Study 2 revealed interesting aspects about the way consumers view album art. For one,

the vast majority of consumers pay attention to album art more than half the time. Cover art

remains an important aspect of music that should not be dismissed or glossed over by any

musician. It is also important to note that methods of music consumption do play a role in the

way people view cover art. Based on the results, it can be assumed that those who collect vinyl

pay much more attention to cover art than those who listen to music using online radio. When

designing the cover of an album, it may be reasonable to design it with certain audiences in

mind. For instance, seeing as vinyl sales increase annually, having an album design that fares

well in both digital and vinyl format may be an important consideration.

The study 2 results also revealed the ways in which consumers pay attention to album

covers. When asked to assess album covers, the open-ended responses reveal that factors such as

color, symbolism, and aesthetic play a large part in the participant’s thought process. With

symbolism in particular, it seems as though symbols play a large part in genres that have cultural

ties such as country, hip-hop and R&B. With the other genres, it seems as though consumers
tend to view these albums holistically, taking into account things such as font, color, album title,

and artwork and comprehending them entirely as an aesthetic. All of these are factors that a

graphic designer can take into account when designing albums.

The rise of digital streaming means that, now more than ever, musicians are able to share

their music without the need for a label. Conversely, this implies that music labels are no longer

the ones responsible for the design and distribution of album covers – many musicians now play

a bigger role in the design of their own albums. The marketing aspect of album art has not

diminished in the face of digital streaming – in fact, it is a necessary component of being able to

form a visual brand. A comprehensive understanding of the way consumers perceive album art

can be instrumental in selecting the design of an album. Subsequent research may continue to

explore the ways in which the design of album art has evolved or the ways in which album art

have facilitated the trend of having a cohesive visual brand. Album artwork is unique in that it is

a one of the few visual mediums that can tie together auditory art. This fact makes it a subject

worth researching.
 APPENDIX A

Study 1 Album List for Visual Analysis

NUMBER ARTIST ALBUM NAME YEAR GENRE

1 Lady Gaga / Bradley Cooper A Star Is Born 2018 Country
2 Robert Plant Carry Fire 2017 Country
3 Eric Church Mr. Misunderstood 2015 Country
4 Luke Bryan Kill the Lights 2015 Country
5 Willie Nelson Last Man Standing 2018 Country
6 The Lumineers Cleopatra 2016 Country
7 Eric Church Desperate Man 2018 Country
8 Willie Nelson Ride Me Back Home 2019 Country
9 Kylie Minogue Golden 2018 Country
10 Willie Nelson God's Problem Child 2017 Country
11 Rosanne Cash She Remembers Everything 2018 Country
12 Luke Bryan Spring Break… Checkin' Out 2015 Country
13 Dierks Bentley The Mountain 2018 Country
Willie Nelson / Merle
14 Haggard Django and Jimmie 2015 Country
15 Willie Nelson My Way 2018 Country
16 The Lumineers III 2019 Country
17 Toby Keith The Bus Songs 2017 Country
18 Luke Bryan What Makes You Country 2017 Country
19 Sheryl Crow Threads 2019 Country
20 Toby Keith 35 MPH Town 2015 Country
21 Dierks Bentley Black 2016 Country
22 Kacey Musgraves Pageant Material 2015 Country
Summertime: Willie Nelson Sings
23 Willie Nelson Gershwin 2016 Country
24 Little Big Town The Breaker 2017 Country
25 Kacey Musgraves A Very Kacey Christmas 2016 Country
26 Alison Krauss Windy City 2017 Country
27 Lady Antebellum Ocean 2019 Country
28 Blake Shelton Texoma Shore 2017 Country
29 Zac Brown Jekyll + Hyde 2015 Country
30 Blake Shelton If I'm Honest 2016 Country
31 Zac Brown Welcome Home 2017 Country
32 Kip Moore Slowheart 2017 Country
33 Tim McGraw Damn Country Music 2015 Country
34 Ryan Adams Live at Carnegie Hall 2015 Country
35 Carrie Underwood Cry Pretty 2018 Country
36 Joe Nichols Never Gets Old 2017 Country
37 Dolly Parton Pure & Simple 2016 Country
38 Alan Jackson Angels and Alcohol 2015 Country
39 Lady Antebellum Heart Break 2017 Country
40 Kenny Chesney Cosmic Hallelujah 2016 Country
41 Lee Ann Womack The Lonely, the Lonsome & the Gone 2017 Country
42 Vince Gill Down to My Last Bad Habit 2016 Country
43 Miranda Lambert The Weight of These Wings 2016 Country
44 Dolly Parton I Believe In You 2017 Country
45 Jason Isbell Something More Than Free 2015 Country
46 Lucinda Williams The Ghosts of Highway 20 2016 Country
47 Little Big Town Nightfall 2020 Country
48 Kenny Wayne Shepherd The Traveler 2019 Country
49 Chris Young Losing Sleep 2017 Country
50 Lucinda Williams This Sweet Old World 2017 Country
51 Carrie Underwood Storyteller 2015 Country
52 Kenny Chesney Songs for the Saints 2018 Country
53 Dwight Yoakam Second Hand Heart 2015 Country
54 Vince Gill Okie 2019 Country
55 Rascal Flatts Back to Us 2017 Country
56 Darius Rucker When Was The Last Time 2017 Country
57 Rodney Crowell Christmas Everywhere 2018 Country
58 Zac Brown The Owl 2019 Country
59 Reba McEntire Stronger than the Truth 2019 Country
60 Steve Earle Guy 2019 Country
61 Blackberry Smoke Holding All the Roses 2015 Country
62 Jason Aldean Rearview Town 2018 Country
63 Keith Urban Ripcord 2016 Country
64 Rhiannon Giddens Freedom Highway 2017 Country
65 Reba McEntire Sing It Now: Songs of Faith & Hope 2017 Country
66 Miranda Lambert Wildcard 2019 Country
67 Darius Rucker Southern Style 2015 Country
68 Reba McEntire Love Somebody 2015 Country
69 Marty Stuart Way Out West 2017 Country
Emmylou Harris / Rodney
70 Crowell The Traveling Kind 2015 Country
71 Faith Hill / Tim McGraw The Rest of Our Life 2017 Country
72 Blackberry Smoke Like an Arrow 2016 Country
73 Chris Hillman Bidin' My Time 2017 Country
74 Alabama Southern Drawl 2015 Country
75 Kip Moore Wild Ones 2015 Country
76 LeAnn Rimes Remnants 2016 Country
77 Chris Young I'm Comin' Over 2015 Country
78 Florida Georgia Line Can't Say I Ain't Country 2019 Country
79 Pretenders Alone 2016 Country
80 Brantley Gilbert The Devil Don't Sleep 2017 Country
81 Lee Brice Lee Brice 2017 Country
82 Steven Tyler We're All Somebody from Somewhere 2016 Country
83 Old Crow Medicine Show Volunteer 2018 Country
84 The Avett Brothers Live, Vol. 4 2015 Country
85 Eli Young Band Fingerprints 2017 Country
86 Chris Stapleton Traveller 2015 Country
87 Tanya Tucker While I'm Livin' 2019 Country
88 The Mavericks Mono 2015 Country
89 Jake Owen American Love 2016 Country
90 Sugarland Bigger 2018 Country
91 Rascal Flatts The Greatest Gift of All 2016 Country
92 Rodney Crowell Close Ties 2017 Country
93 Ashley Monroe Sparrow 2018 Country
94 Delbert McClinton Tall, Dark, and Handsome 2019 Country
95 Martina McBride Reckless 2016 Country
96 Brett Eldredge Glow 2016 Country
97 George Strait Honky Tonk Time Machine 2019 Country
98 Rodney Crowell Texas 2019 Country
99 Old Crow Medicine Show 50 Years of Blonde on Blonde 2017 Country
100 Dwight Yoakam Swimmin' Pools, Movie Stars… 2016 Country
101 Buxton Half a Native 2015 Country
102 Keith Urban Graffiti U 2018 Country
103 Billy Currington Summer Forever 2015 Country
104 Sara Evans Words 2017 Country
105 Jake Owen Greetings from… Jake Owen 2019 Country
106 Mary Chapin Carpenter Sometimes Just The Sky 2018 Country
107 George Strait Cold Beer Conversation 2015 Country
108 Hank Williams Jr. It's About Time 2016 Country
109 Chris Stapleton From A Room: Volume 1 2017 Country
110 Chris Stapleton From A Room: Volume 2 2017 Country
111 The Jayhawks Paging Mr. Proust 2016 Country
112 Glen Campbell I'll Be Me [Original Soundtrack] 2015 Country
113 Maren Morris Hero 2016 Country
114 Chris Young It Must Be Christmas 2016 Country
115 Old Dominion Happy Endings 2017 Country
116 Brantley Gilbert Fire & Brimstone 2019 Country
117 Brad Paisley Love and War 2017 Country
118 Brothers Osborne Pawn Shop 2016 Country
119 Steep Canyon Rangers Radio 2015 Country
120 The Mavericks Brand New Day 2017 Country
121 Ryan Bingham Fear and Saturday Night 2015 Country
122 Dave Alvin / Phil Alvin Lost Time 2015 Country
123 Rhiannon Giddens There Is No Other 2019 Country
125 Justin Moore Kinda Don't Care 2016 Country
124 Brett Eldredge Brett Eldredge 2017 Country
126 Old Dominion Old Dominion 2019 Country
127 Brothers Osborne Port Saint Joe 2018 Country
128 The Devil Makes Three Chains Are Broken 2018 Country
129 The Jayhawks Back Roads and Abandoned Motels 2018 Country
130 Blackberry Smoke Find a Light 2018 Country
131 Carrie Rodriguez Lola 2016 Country
132 Glen Campbell Adios 2017 Country
133 Shelby Lynn I Can't Imagine 2015 Country
Steve Martin / Steep Canyon
134 Rangers The Long-Awaited Album 2017 Country
Garth Brooks / Trisha
135 Yearwood Christmas Together 2016 Country
136 Easton Corbin About to Get Real 2015 Country
137 Jason Aldean They Don't Know 2016 Country
138 Mark Chesnutt Tradition Lives 2016 Country
139 Billy Ray Cyrus Thin Line 2016 Country
140 Charlie Daniels Night Hawk 2016 Country
141 Old Dominion Meat and Candy 2015 Country
142 Chris Janson Buy Me a Boat 2015 Country
143 Chris Janson Everybody 2017 Country
144 Crystal Gayle You Don't Know Me 2019 Country
145 Jason Aldean 9 2019 Country
146 Rhiannon Giddens Tommrow Is My Turn 2015 Country
When I'm Alone: The Piano
147 Lissie Retrospective 2019 Country
148 Brett Eldredge Illinois 2015 Country
149 Aaron Lewis State I'm In 2019 Country
150 Trisha Yearwood Every Girl 2019 Country
151 Daniel Romano If I've Only One Time Askin' 2015 Country
152 Maren Morris Girl 2019 Country
153 The Devil Makes Three Redemption & Ruin 2016 Country
154 Robert Earl Keen Live Dinner Reunion 2016 Country
155 Maddie & Tae Start Here 2015 Country
156 Lissie Castles 2018 Country
157 Ronnie Milsap The Duets 2019 Country
158 The Lone Bellow Then Came the Morning 2015 Country
159 Colt Ford We the People 2019 Country
160 Robert Ellis Robert Ellis 2016 Country
161 Garth Brooks Gunslinger 2016 Country
162 Lonestar Never Enders 2016 Country
163 Lissie My Wild West 2016 Country
164 Steep Canyon Rangers Out in the Open 2018 Country
165 The Mavericks Play the Hits 2019 Country
166 Montgomery Gentry Here's to You 2018 Country
167 Robert Ellis Texas Piano Man 2019 Country
168 Big & Rich Did It for the Party 2017 Country
169 Shooter Jennings Shooter 2018 Country
170 Hunter Hayes The 21 Project 2015 Country
171 Chris Janson Real Friends 2019 Country
172 Brooks & Dunn Reboot 2019 Country
173 Justin Moore Late Nights and Longnecks 2019 Country
Wyonna Judd / Wyonna &
174 the Big Noise Wyonna & the Big Noise 2016 Country
175 Hayes Carll What It Is 2019 Country
176 Aaron Lewis Sinner 2016 Country
177 Old 97's Graveyard Whistling 2017 Country
178 Jim Lauderdale From Another World 2019 Country
179 The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band Circlin' Back: Celebrating 50 Years 2016 Country
180 Sturgill Simpson A Sailor's Guide to Earth 2016 Country
Shelby Lynn / Allison
181 Moorer Not Dark Yet 2017 Country
182 Scotty McCreery Seasons Change 2018 Country
183 Sara Watkins Young in All the Wrong Ways 2016 Country
184 Josh Turner Deep South 2017 Country
185 Joan Shelley Over and Even 2015 Country
186 Joan Shelley Like the River Loves the Sea 2019 Country
187 Luke Winslow-King Blue Mesa 2018 Country
188 Joe Ely Panhandle Rambler 2015 Country
189 Shania Twain Now 2017 Country
190 Corb Lund Things That Can't Be Undone 2015 Country
191 Thomas Rhett Tangled Up 2015 Country
192 Pokey LaFarge Something in the Water 2015 Country
193 Randy Houser Magnolia 2019 Country
194 Norman Blake Wood, Wire, & Words 2015 Country
195 The Lone Bellow Walk Into a Storm 2017 Country
Kelly Jones / Teddy
196 Thompson Little Windows 2016 Country
197 Cody Johnson Ain't Nothin' to It 2019 Country
198 Loretta Lynn Full Circle 2016 Country
199 Josh Turner I Serve a Savior 2018 Country
200 Kacey Musgraves Golden Hour 2018 Country
201 Avicii Stories 2015 Electronic
202 Avicii Tim 2019 Electronic
203 Major Lazer Peace is the Mission 2015 Electronic
204 The Prodigy The Day Is My Enemy 2015 Electronic
205 The Chemical Brothers Born in the Echoes 2015 Electronic
Robyn / La Bagatelle
206 Magique Love Is Free 2015 Electronic
207 Jean-Michael Jarre Electronica, Vol. 2: The Heart of Noise 2016 Electronic
208 Jean-Michael Jarre Oxygene 3 2016 Electronic
209 David Guetta 7 2018 Electronic
Everything Was Beautiful, and Nothing
210 Moby Hurt 2018 Electronic
211 Goldfrapp Silver Eye 2017 Electronic
212 Ryuichi Sakamoto async 2017 Electronic
Barbara Barbara, We Face a Shining
213 Underworld Future 2016 Electronic
More Fast Songs About the
214 Moby Apocalypse 2017 Electronic
215 Iggy Pop / Underworld Teatime Dub Encounters 2018 Electronic
216 Bjork Utopia 2017 Electronic
217 Timeflies Just for Fun 2015 Electronic
218 The Chemical Brothers No Geography 2019 Electronic
219 Brian Eno Music for Installations 2018 Electronic
220 Justice Woman 2016 Electronic
221 Jon Hopkins LateNightTales 2015 Electronic
222 The Prodigy No Tourists 2018 Electronic
223 Chase & Status RTRN II JUNGLE 2019 Electronic
224 Bjork Vulnicura Live 2015 Electronic
225 Brain Eno Reflection 2017 Electronic
226 Jon Hopkins Singularity 2018 Electronic
227 M.I.A. AIM 2016 Electronic
228 Aphex Twin Collapse 2018 Electronic
229 Justice Woman Worldwide 2018 Electronic
230 Tom Rogerson / Brian Eno Finding Shore 2017 Electronic
231 Skilled Mechanics / Tricky Skilled Mechanics 2016 Electronic
232 Primal Scream Maximum Rock 'n Roll: The Singles 2019 Electronic
233 Dan Deacon Gliss Riffer 2015 Electronic
234 Zedd True Colors 2015 Electronic
235 Air TwentyYears 2016 Electronic
236 Flume Skin 2016 Electronic
237 Kraftwerk 3-D: The Catalogue 2017 Electronic
238 Brian Eno The Ship 2016 Electronic
239 Oneohtrix Point Never Age Of 2018 Electronic
240 Bjork Vulnicura 2015 Electronic
241 Chase & Status Tribe 2017 Electronic
Orchestral Manoeuvres in the
242 Dark Souvenir 2019 Electronic
243 Ellen Allien Alientronic 2019 Electronic
244 Kaskade Automatic 2015 Electronic
245 Digitalism Mirage 2016 Electronic
246 Jean-Michael Jarre Oxygene Trilogy 2016 Electronic
247 Breakbot Still Waters 2016 Electronic
248 SURVIVE RR7349 2016 Electronic
249 Jlin Autobiography 2018 Electronic
250 Major Lazer Know No Better 2017 Electronic
Conrad Schnitzler /
251 Schneider TM Con-Struct 2016 Electronic
252 Oneohtrix Point Never Good Time 2017 Electronic
253 Tricky ununiform 2017 Electronic
254 Paul van Dyk The Politics of Dancing, Vol. 3 2015 Electronic
255 Mr. Ozio All Wet 2016 Electronic
256 Tim Hecker Love Streams 2016 Electronic
257 Little Dragon Lover Chanting 2018 Electronic
258 Trentemoller Fixion 2016 Electronic
259 Ellen Allien Nost 2017 Electronic
260 Daniel Avery Song for Alpha 2018 Electronic
261 Steve Aoki Neon Future, Vol. 2 2015 Electronic
262 AFX / Aphex Twin Orphaned Deejay Selek: 2006-2008 2015 Electronic
263 Disclosure Caracal 2015 Electronic
264 DJ Shadow The Mountain Will Fall 2016 Electronic
265 Plaid Polymer 2019 Electronic
266 Modestep London Road 2015 Electronic
267 Blaqk Audio Only Things We Love 2019 Electronic
268 David Guetta Listen Again 2015 Electronic
269 Trentemoller Obverse 2019 Electronic
270 Autechre NTS Sessions 2018 Electronic
271 UNKLE The Road: Part II (Lost Highway) 2019 Electronic
272 Hudson Mohawke Lantern 2015 Electronic
273 Colleen A Flame My Love, A Frequency 2017 Electronic
274 Lee Bannon Pattern of Excel 2015 Electronic
275 Kygo Cloud Nine 2016 Electronic
276 Com Truise Iteration 2017 Electronic
277 FKA twigs Magdalene 2019 Electronic
278 Kaitlyn Aurelia Smith Ears 2016 Electronic
279 Lust for Youth Lust for Youth 2019 Electronic
280 Pole / Conrad Schnitzler Con-Struct 2017 Electronic
281 u-Ziq Challenge Me Foolish 2018 Electronic
282 Squarepusher Damogen Furies 2015 Electronic
283 Oneohtrix Point Never Garden of Delete 2015 Electronic
284 Hercules & Love Affair Omnion 2017 Electronic
285 Maya Jane Coles Take Flight 2017 Electronic
Daniel Lanois / Venetian
286 Snares Venetian Snares x Daniel Lanois 2018 Electronic
287 Arca Arca 2017 Electronic
288 Ladytron Ladytron 2019 Electronic
289 Oval Popp 2016 Electronic
290 Soulwax From Deewee 2017 Electronic
291 UNKLE The Road: Part I 2017 Electronic
292 Com Truise Persuasion System 2019 Electronic
293 HONNE Love Me / Love Me Not 2018 Electronic
294 Baths Romaplasm 2017 Electronic
295 Gudrun Gut Moment 2018 Electronic
296 Emika Drei 2015 Electronic
297 The Juan MacLean The Brighter the Light 2019 Electronic
298 Goldie The Journey Man 2017 Electronic
299 Lamb The Secret of Letting Go 2019 Electronic
300 Rabit Communion 2015 Electronic
301 Prins Thomas Prins Thomas, Vol. 5 2017 Electronic
302 Tim Hecker Konoyo 2018 Electronic
303 Colleen Captain of None 2015 Electronic
304 Bibio Ribbons 2019 Electronic
305 Kaitlyn Aurelia Smith The Kid 2017 Electronic
306 Junior Boys Big Black Coat 2016 Electronic
307 Clean Bandit What Is Love? 2018 Electronic
308 Jamie xx In Colour 2015 Electronic
309 Carl Craig Versus 2017 Electronic
310 Actress AZD 2017 Electronic
311 The Field Infinite Movement 2018 Electronic
312 Apparat LP5 2019 Electronic
313 Oval Scis 2020 Electronic
314 Arca Mutant 2015 Electronic
315 Aphex Twin Cheetah 2016 Electronic
316 Jeff Mills Moon: The Area of Influence 2019 Electronic
317 Gui Boratto Pentagram 2018 Electronic
318 Maya Jane Coles Waves & Whirlwinds 2018 Electronic
319 Moderat III 2016 Electronic
320 Kygo Kids in Love 2017 Electronic
321 DJ Shadow Our Pathetic Age 2019 Electronic
322 Tiesto Club Life, Vol. 4 - New York City 2015 Electronic
323 The Orb Moonbuilding 2703 AD 2015 Electronic
324 Bibio Phantom Brickwords 2017 Electronic
325 Bibio A Mineral Love 2016 Electronic
Todd Rundgren / Emil
Nikolaisen / Hans-Peter
326 Lindstorm Runddans 2015 Electronic
327 Ceronne Red Lips 2016 Electronic
328 Egyptrixx Transfer of Energy (Feelings of Power) 2015 Electronic
329 Flying Lotus Flamagra 2019 Electronic
330 Shit Robot What Follows 2016 Electronic
331 Forest Swords Compassion 2017 Electronic
332 Prins Thomas Principe del Norte 2016 Electronic
Juan Atkins / Mortiz von
333 Oswald / Borderland Transport 2016 Electronic
334 Com Truise Silicon Tare 2016 Electronic
335 Laurel Halo DJ-Kicks 2019 Electronic
336 Tim Hecker Anoyo 2019 Electronic
337 Prins Thomas Ambitions 2019 Electronic
Computer Controlled Acoustic
338 Aphex Twin Instruments, Pt. 2 2015 Electronic
339 Juana Molina Halo 2017 Electronic
340 FaltyDL Heaven is for Quitters 2016 Electronic
341 Fink Horizontalism 2015 Electronic
342 Laibach Also Sprach Zarathustra 2017 Electronic
343 Essaie Pas Demain Est une Autre Nuit 2016 Electronic
344 Chrome Sparks Chrome Sparks 2018 Electronic
345 Ryuichi Sakamoto async: Remodels 2017 Electronic
346 David Guetta 2U 2017 Electronic
347 Lindstrom It's Alright Between Us as It Is 2017 Electronic
348 Plaid The Digging Remedy 2016 Electronic
349 The Orb COW / Chill Out, World! 2016 Electronic
350 Illum Sphere Glass 2016 Electronic
351 The Orb History of the Future, Vol. 2 2015 Electronic
352 Cassius Ibifornia 2016 Electronic
353 Tycho Weater 2019 Electronic
354 The Chainsmokers Bouquet 2015 Electronic
355 Blue Hawaii Tenderness 2017 Electronic
356 Julianna Barwick Will 2016 Electronic
357 The Field The Follower 2016 Electronic
358 GABI Sympathy 2015 Electronic
359 Maribou State Portraits 2015 Electronic
Coldcut / On-U Sound
360 System Outside the Echo Chamber 2017 Electronic
361 Mr. Ozio The Church 2015 Electronic
362 Prefuse 73 Rivington Nao Rio 2015 Electronic
363 Pan Sonic Atomin Paluu 2016 Electronic
364 Daphni Joli Mai 2017 Electronic
365 Daphni Frabiclive 93 2017 Electronic
366 Hurts Desire 2017 Electronic
367 Bonobo Frabic Presents Bonobo 2019 Electronic
368 Fennesz Agora 2019 Electronic
369 Kaytranada 99.9% 2016 Electronic
370 Evan Caminiti Meridian 2015 Electronic
371 Georgia Seeking Thrills 2020 Electronic
372 Antwood Sponsored Content 2017 Electronic
373 Jan St. Werner Miscontinuum Album 2015 Electronic
374 Jan St. Werner Felder 2016 Electronic
375 Shlohmo The End 2019 Electronic
376 Pye Corner Audio Hollow Earth 2019 Electronic
377 Enigma The Fall of a Rebel Angel 2016 Electronic
378 Holy Ghost! Work 2019 Electronic
379 Tropics Rapture 2015 Electronic
380 Mura Masa Mura Masa 2017 Electronic
381 Prefuse 73 Sacrificies 2018 Electronic
382 Leon Vynehall Nothing Is Still 2018 Electronic
383 Demdike Stare Wonderland 2016 Electronic
384 Maribou State Kingdoms in Colour 2018 Electronic
385 Throwing Snow Loma 2018 Electronic
386 Andy Stott Too Many Voices 2016 Electronic
387 ODESZA A Moment Apart 2017 Electronic
388 Carl Craig Detroit Love, Vol. 2 2019 Electronic
389 Cassy Donna 2016 Electronic
390 Nightmares on Wax Shape the Future 2018 Electronic
391 Prins Thomas / Bjorn Torske Square One 2017 Electronic
392 Laurel Halo In Situ 2015 Electronic
393 Golden Retriever Rotations 2017 Electronic
Adrian Younge Presents the
394 Adrian Younge Electronique Void 2016 Electronic
395 Georgia Georgia 2015 Electronic
396 Bonobo Migration 2017 Electronic
397 Helena Hauff Qualm 2018 Electronic
398 Anamanaguchi [USA] 2019 Electronic
399 Roly Porter Third Law 2016 Electronic
400 Andre Bratten Gode 2015 Electronic
401 Nicki Minaj Queen 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
402 Kendrick Lamar To Pimp a Butterfly 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
403 Kendrick Lamar DAMN. 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
404 The Weeknd Starboy 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
405 Babyface Return of the Tender Lover 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
406 Ne-Yo Non-Fiction 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
407 Mary J. Blige Strength of a Woman 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
Walking to New Orleans:
Remembering Chuck Berry and Fats
408 George Benson Domino 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
409 Mary J. Blige HERstory, VoL 1 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
410 Chris Brown / Tyga Fan of a Fan: The Album 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
411 Chris Brown Royalty 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
Adrian Younge / Ghostface Adrian Younge Presents Twelve
412 Killah Reasons to Die II 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
413 Chris Brown Heartbreak on a Full Moon 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
414 Rihanna Anti 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
415 Kendrick Lamar Black Panther: The Album 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
416 The Weeknd Beauty Behind the Madness 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
417 Chris Brown Indigo 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
418 T.I. The Dime Trap 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
419 Jose James Lean on Me 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
420 Aretha Franklin The Queen of Soul 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
421 A$AP Rocky At.Long.Last.A$AP 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
422 Bruno Mars 24K Magic 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
423 Czarface / Ghostface Killah Czarface Meets Ghostface 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
424 Big Sean Dark Sky Paradise 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
Ghostface Killah /
425 BadBadNotGood Sour Soul 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
426 B.o.B. Ether 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
427 Janet Jackson Unbreakable 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
428 Snoop Dogg Bush 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
429 Jose James Love in a Time of Madness 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
430 Rick Ross Black Market 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
431 Craig David The Time is Now 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
Aretha Franklin / Royal
432 Philharmonic Orchestra A Brand New Me 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
433 Jay-Z 4:44 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
434 B.o.B. Pychadelik Thoughtz 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
435 Alicia Keys Here 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
436 John Legend Darkness and Light 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
437 Wiz Khalifa Khalia 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
438 Common Black America Again 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
439 Aaron Neville Apache 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
440 Big Sean / Metro Boomin Double or Noting 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
441 Jeezy TM104: The Legend of the Snowman 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
442 Ghostface Killah Ghostface Killah 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
Carnival III: The Fall and Rise of a
443 Wyclef Jean Refugee 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
444 Toni Braxton Sex & Cigarettes 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
445 Janelle Monae Dirty Computer 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
446 Miguel Wildheart 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
447 Nas The Lost Tapes II 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
448 Mavis Staples We Get By 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
449 Snoop Dogg Coolaid 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
450 Jeremih Late Nights: The Album 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
451 Miguel War & Leisure 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
452 Pitbull Greatest Hits 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
453 Jeezy Church in These Streets 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
454 R. Kelly The Buffet 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
455 Beyonce Lemonade 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
456 Nas Nasir 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
457 Lionel Richie Hello from Las Vegas 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
458 Common Let Love 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
459 Rick Ross Part of Miami 2 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
460 Brian McKnight Genesis 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
461 Logic Everybody 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
462 Logic The Incredible True Story 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
463 Jason Derulo Platinum Hits 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
464 Robert Glasper Everything's Beautiful 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
465 Snoop Dogg Snoop Dogg Presents Bible of Love 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
466 Post Malone Hollywood's Bleeding 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
467 Kid Cudi Passion, Pain & Demon Slayin' 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
468 Prince 4Ever 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
469 Eminem Revival 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
470 Mac Miller The Divine Feminine 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
471 Jeezy Pressure 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
472 Marvin Gaye Volume One: 1961 - 1965 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
473 Kanye West The Life of Pablo 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
474 Logic YSIV 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
475 Mavis Staples If All I Was Was Black 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
476 Big Sean I Decided. 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
477 Mariah Carey Caution 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
478 Jill Scott Golden Moments 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
479 Meek Mill Wins and Losses 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
480 Ludacris Ludaversal 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
481 50 Cent Best of 50 Cent 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
482 Corinne Bailey Rae The Heart Speaks in Whispers 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
483 Jeezy Trap or Die 3 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
484 Mavis Staples Livin' On A High Note 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
485 Blood Orange Negro Swan 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
486 2 Chainz Rap or Go to the League 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
487 J. Cole KOD 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
488 Mac Miller GO:OD AM 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
489 DJ Khaled Major Key 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
490 The Game 1992 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
491 Tinie Tempah YOUTH 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
492 Brian McKnight Better 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
493 Eli "Paperboy" Reed 99 Cent Dreams 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
494 DJ Khaled Grateful 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
495 Trey Songz Tremaine the Album 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
496 Logic Confessions of a Dangerous Mind 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
497 Wu-Tang Clan The Sage Continues 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
498 K. Michelle Kimberly: People I Used to Know 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
499 Nao For All We Know 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
500 ScHoolboy Q CrasH Talk 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
501 J. Cole 4 Your Eyez Only 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
502 Rick Ross Rather You Than Me 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
503 Young Thug So Much Fun 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
504 Eli "Paperboy" Reed My Way Home 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
505 Ciara Jackie 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
506 James Brown Live at Home with His Bad Self 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
507 Jill Scott Woman 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
508 Ne-Yo Good Man 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
509 Future DS2 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
510 The Game Streets of Compton 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
511 G-Eazy The Beautiful & Damned 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
512 Tyler, the Creator Flower Boy 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
513 Macklemore & Ryan Lewis This Unruly Mess I Made 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
514 Ledisi The Intimate Truth 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
515 Wyclef Jean J'ouvert 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
516 Solange A Seat at the Table 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
517 Lupe Fiasco Tetsuo & Youth 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
518 Usher Hard II Love 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
519 iLoveMakonnen Drink More Water 6 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
520 Maxwell blackSUMMERS'night 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
521 Public Enemy Man Plans God Laughs 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
522 Ledisi Let Love Rule 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
523 Meek Mill DC4 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
524 Mac Miller Swimming 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
525 Mayer Hawthorne Man About Town 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
526 Prince Originals 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
527 G-Eazy When It's Dark Out 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
528 Allen Stone Building Balance 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
529 Chaka Khan Hello Happiness 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
530 Public Enemy Live from Metropolis Studios 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
531 Method Man The Meth Lab 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
532 Keyshia Cole 11:11 Reset 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
533 Post Malone Stoney 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
534 Migos CULTURE 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
535 Drake / Future What a Time to Be Alive 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
536 2 Chainz Pretty Girls Like Trap Music 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
537 Yo Gotti The Art of Hustle 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
538 Michael Jackson Scream 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
539 Pitbull Libertad 548 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
540 Mark Ronson Uptown Special 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
541 Mac Miller Circles 2020 Hip-Hop/R&B
542 Post Malone Beerbongs & Bentleys 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
543 K. Michelle More Issues Than Vogue 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
544 Travis Scott Astroworld 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
545 Travis Scott Rodeo 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
546 Drake More Life 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
547 The O'Jays The Last World 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
548 Talib Kweli Radio Silence 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
549 Talib Kweli / 9th Wonder Indie 500 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
550 Drake Scorpion 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
551 T.I. Us or Else 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
Faith Evans / The Notorious
552 B.I.G. The King & I 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
553 YG Still Brazy 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
554 Ciara Beauty Marks 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
555 Drake Care Package 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
556 Big K.R.I.T. 4eva Is A Mighty Long Time 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
557 Big K.R.I.T. K.R.I.T. Iz Here 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
558 Meshell Ndegeocello Ventriloquism 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
559 2 Chainz ColleGrove 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
560 Hiatus Kaiyote Choose Your Weapon 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
561 Craig David Following My Intuition 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
The Atlantic Singles Collection, 1967-
562 Aretha Franklin 1970 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
563 Tech N9ne Special Effects 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
564 Tyler, the Creator IGOR 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
565 Wale Shine 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
566 Sharon Jones Soul of a Woman 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
567 Kid Ink Full Speed 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
568 Eric Benet Eric Benet 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
569 Blood Orange Angel's Pulse 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
570 Tank and the Bangas Green Balloon 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
571 Kanye West Jesus is King 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
572 J Balvin / Willy William Mi Gente 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
573 Freddie Gibbs / Madlib Bandana 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
574 Kevin Gates Islah 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
575 Gucci Mane Woptober II 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
576 Musiq Soulchild Life on Earth 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
577 Raekwon Fly International Luxurious Art 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
578 K Camp Only Way Is Up 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
579 Anthony Hamilton What I'm Feelin' 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
580 T.I. Us or Else: Letter to the System 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
581 Wale The Album About Nothing 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
582 Tech N9ne Strangeulation, Vol. 2 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
583 Monica Code Red 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
584 TLC TLC 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
585 Musiq Soulchild Feel the Real 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
586 Wiz Khalifa / Curren$y 2009 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
587 Cardi B Invasion of Privacy 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
588 Leon Bridges Good Thing 2018 Hip-Hop/R&B
589 Thundercat Drunk 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
590 Machine Gun Kelly General Admission 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
591 The Internet Ego Death 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
592 SZA Ctrl 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
593 Chance the Rapper The Big Day 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
594 Chance the Rapper Coloring Book 2016 Hip-Hop/R&B
595 Cee Lo Green Heart Blanche 2015 Hip-Hop/R&B
596 Boyz II Men Under the Streetlight 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
597 Daniel Caesar Freudian 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
598 Daniel Caesar CASE STUDY 01 2019 Hip-Hop/R&B
599 Kelela Take Me Apart 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
600 Kehlani SweetSexySavage 2017 Hip-Hop/R&B
601 Adam Lambert The Original High 2015 Pop
602 Justin Bieber Purpose 2015 Pop
603 Ariana Grande Dangerous Woman 2016 Pop
604 Lady Gaga Joanne 2016 Pop
605 Ariana Grande thank u, next 2019 Pop
606 Ariana Grande Sweetener 2018 Pop
607 Leona Lewis I Am 2015 Pop
608 Maroon 5 Red Pill Blues 2017 Pop
609 Lana Del Rey Lust for Life 2017 Pop
610 Ellie Goulding Delirium 2015 Pop
611 Taylor Swift Lover 2019 Pop
612 One Direction Made in the A.M. 2015 Pop
613 Madonna Rebel Heart 2015 Pop
614 Selena Gomez Revival 2015 Pop
615 Lukas Graham Lukas Graham 2015 Pop
616 Halsey Badlands 2015 Pop
617 Lana Del Rey Norman Fucking Rockwell! 2019 Pop
618 Chvrches Every Open Eye 2015 Pop
619 Sam Smith The Thrill of It All 2017 Pop
620 Shawn Mendes Shawn Menes 2018 Pop
621 Ringo Starr Give More Love 2017 Pop
622 P!nk Hurts 2B Human 2019 Pop
623 Lana Del Rey Honeymoon 2015 Pop
624 Tegan and Sara Hey, I'm Just Like You 2019 Pop
625 Nick Jonas Last Year Was Complicated 2016 Pop
626 Depeche Mode Spirit 2017 Pop
627 The Monkees Good Times! 2016 Pop
628 Demi Lovato Tell Me You Love Me 2017 Pop
629 Shawn Mendes Illuminate 2016 Pop
630 R5 Sometime Last Night 2015 Pop
631 Rihanna Anti 2016 Pop
632 Troye Sivan Blue Neighborhood 2015 Pop
633 Mika No Place in Heaven 2015 Pop
634 Ed Sheeran Divide 2017 Pop
635 Backstreet Boys DNA 2019 Pop
636 Carly Rae Jepsen E-MO-TION 2015 Pop
637 Ricky Martin A Quien Quiera Escuchar 2015 Pop
638 P!nk Beautiful Trauma 2017 Pop
639 Robyn Honey 2018 Pop
640 Florence + the Machine How Big, How Blue, How Beautiful 2015 Pop
641 Shawn Mendes Handwritten 2015 Pop
642 Madonna Madame X 2019 Pop
643 Demi Lovato Confident 2015 Pop
644 Rita Ora Phoenix 2018 Pop
645 David Guetta 7 2018 Pop
646 Duran Duran Paper Gods 2015 Pop
647 Lorde Melodrama 2017 Pop
648 Lukas Graham 3 2018 Pop
649 5 Seconds of Summer Youngblood 2018 Pop
650 Kelly Clarkson Piece by Piece 2015 Pop
651 Pet Shop Boys Super 2016 Pop
652 Chvrches Love is Dead 2018 Pop
653 Colbie Caillat The Malibu Sessions 2016 Pop
654 Fifth Harmony Reflection 2015 Pop
655 Adele 25 2015 Pop
656 Tegan and Sara Love You to Death 2016 Pop
657 Metronomy Summer 08 2016 Pop
658 Marina and the Diamonds Froot 2015 Pop
659 Troye Sivan Bloom 2018 Pop
660 Mike Posner A Real Good Kid 2019 Pop
661 Britney Spears Glory 2016 Pop
662 OneRepublic Oh My My 2016 Pop
663 Taylor Swift Reputation 2017 Pop
664 Florence + the Machine High as Hope 2018 Pop
665 Fifth Harmony 7/27 2016 Pop
666 Lights Midnight Machines 2016 Pop
667 Charlotte Gainsbourg Rest 2017 Pop
668 Nial Horan Flicker 2017 Pop
669 Gwen Stefani This Is What the Truth Feels Like 2016 Pop
670 Jason Derulo Everything Is 4 2015 Pop
671 Tove Lo Lady Wood 2016 Pop
672 Ed Sheeran No. 6 Collaborations Project 2019 Pop
673 Miley Cyrus Younger Now 2017 Pop
674 Fifth Harmony Fifth Harmony 2017 Pop
675 Erasure World Be Gone 2017 Pop
676 The Drums Abysmal Thoughts 2017 Pop
677 The Vamps Wake Up 2015 Pop
678 Kesha Rainbow 2017 Pop
679 Bjork Utopia 2017 Pop
680 Timeflies Just for Fun 2015 Pop
681 Feist Pleasure 2017 Pop
682 Mike Posner At Night, Alone. 2016 Pop
683 Twenty One Pilots Trench 2018 Pop
684 Metronomy Metronomy Forever 2019 Pop
685 Birdy Beautiful Lies 2016 Pop
686 Halsey Hopeless Fountain Kingdom 2017 Pop
687 Lianne La Havas Blood 2015 Pop
688 Bastille Doom Days 2019 Pop
689 Santigold 99 Cents 2016 Pop
690 Mika My Name Is Michael Holbrook 2019 Pop
691 Twenty One Pilots Blurryface 2015 Pop
692 Beck Hyperspace 2019 Pop
693 Erasure World Beyond 2018 Pop
Nostalgia: An Evening With Annie
694 Annie Lenox Lennox 2015 Pop
695 Cate Le Bon Crab Day 2016 Pop
696 Tove Lo Sunshine Kitty 2019 Pop
697 Idina Menzel idina. 2016 Pop
698 Of Montreal Aureate Gloom 2015 Pop
699 Dua Lipa Dua Lipa 2017 Pop
700 Cher Dancing Queen 2018 Pop
701 Suede Night Thoughts 2016 Pop
702 Mark Ronson Late Night Feelings 2019 Pop
703 The Chainsmokers Memories… Do Not Open 2017 Pop
704 Tori Kelly Unbreakable Smile 2015 Pop
705 Hot Chip Why Make Sense? 2015 Pop
706 Lizzo Cuz I Love You 2019 Pop
707 Lykke Li so sad so sexy 2018 Pop
708 Years & Years Palo Santo 2018 Pop
709 Owl City Mobile Orchestra 2015 Pop
710 St. Vincent MassEducation 2018 Pop
711 Jamiroquai Automaton 2017 Pop
712 Boy George / Culture Club Life 2018 Pop
713 Toro y Moi What For? 2015 Pop
714 5 Seconds of Summer Sounds Good Feels Good 2015 Pop
715 Sia This is Acting 2016 Pop
716 Of Montreal Innocence Reaches 2016 Pop
Orchestral Manoeuvres in the
717 Dark The Punishment of Luxury 2017 Pop
718 All We Are All We Are 2015 Pop
719 Cornelius Mellow Waves 2017 Pop
720 Milky Chance Mind the Moon 2019 Pop
721 Empire of the Sun Two Vines 2016 Pop
722 The Drums Brutalism 2019 Pop
723 Sara Bareilles What's Inside: Songs from Waitress 2015 Pop
724 Alvvays Antisocialites 2017 Pop
725 Shakira El Dorado 2017 Pop
726 MGMT Little Dark Age 2018 Pop
727 The Veronicas The Veronicas 2015 Pop
728 Fergie Double Dutchess 2017 Pop
729 Melody's Echo Chamber Bon Voyage 2018 Pop
730 Highasakite Camp Echo 2016 Pop
731 Ezra Furman Perpetual Motion People 2015 Pop
732 Nelly Furtado The Ride 2017 Pop
733 Charlie Puth Nine Track Mind 2016 Pop
734 Alessia Cara Know-It-All 2015 Pop
735 Ingrid Michaelson Stranger Songs 2019 Pop
736 Zedd True Colors 2015 Pop
737 Kimbra Primal Heart 2018 Pop
738 Little Dragon Season High 2017 Pop
739 Dido Still on My Mind 2019 Pop
740 Flume Skin 2016 Pop
741 Katy Perry Witness 2017 Pop
742 Of Monsters and Men Beneath the Skin 2015 Pop
743 All We Are Sunny Hills 2017 Pop
744 AURORA Step 2: A Different Kind of Human 2019 Pop
745 Camila Cabello Camila 2018 Pop
746 Toro y Moi Outer Peace 2019 Pop
747 Justin Timberlake Man of the Woods 2018 Pop
748 JoJo Mad Love 2016 Pop
749 Passion Pit Kindred 2015 Pop
750 Camila Cabello Romance 2019 Pop
751 Prince Royce Double Vision 2015 Pop
752 Hozier Wasteland, Baby! 2019 Pop
753 Little Mix LM5 2018 Pop
754 Meghan Trainor Title 2015 Pop
When We Fall Asleep, Where Do We
755 Billie Eilish Go? 2019 Pop
756 Little Boots Working Girl 2015 Pop
757 Christina Aguilera Liberation 2018 Pop
758 Years & Years Communion 2015 Pop
759 The Vamps Night & Day: Night Edition 2017 Pop
760 Ingrid Michaelson It Doesn't Have to Make Sense 2016 Pop
761 Sara Bareilles Amidst the Chaos 2019 Pop
762 Little Mix Glory Days 2016 Pop
763 DNCE DNCE 2016 Pop
764 San Cisco Gracetown 2015 Pop
765 Ezra Furman Twelve Nudes 2019 Pop
766 Belle and Sebastian Girls in Peacetime Want to Dance 2015 Pop
767 Sigrid Sucker Punch 2019 Pop
768 Cash Cash Blood, Sweat & 3 Years 2016 Pop
769 John Mayer The Search for Everything 2017 Pop
770 Foster the People Sacred Hearts Club 2017 Pop
771 HOLYCHILD The Shape of Brat Pop to Come 2015 Pop
772 Meghan Trainor Thank You 2016 Pop
773 Liam Payne LP1 2019 Pop
774 Harry Styles Fine Line 2019 Pop
775 Hayley Kiyoko Expectations 2018 Pop
776 Charli XCX Charli 2019 Pop
777 Charli XCX Pop 2 2017 Pop
778 Rex Orange County PONY 2019 Pop
779 Rex Orange County Apricot Princess 2017 Pop
780 Clairo Immunity 2019 Pop
781 King Princess Cheap Queen 2019 Pop
782 Olly Murs You Know I Know 2018 Pop
783 Vanessa Carlton Liberman 2015 Pop
784 Jonas Brothers Happieness Begins 2019 Pop
785 Lucius Good Grief 2016 Pop
786 Carly Rae Jepsen Dedicated 2019 Pop
787 Echosmith Lonely Generation 2020 Pop
788 Alec Benjemin Narrated for You 2018 Pop
789 Shura Nothing's Real 2016 Pop
790 Shura Forevher 2019 Pop
791 The Japanese House Good at Falling 2019 Pop
792 Jessie J R.O.S.E. 2018 Pop
793 Miley Cyrus Miley Cyrus & Her Dead Petz 2015 Pop
794 Vance Joy Nation of Two 2018 Pop
795 Maggie Rogers Heard It In a Past Life 2019 Pop
796 BTS Face Yourself 2018 Pop
797 Charlie Puth Voicenotes 2018 Pop
798 Walk the Moon What If Nothing 2017 Pop
799 Harry Styles Harry Styles 2017 Pop
800 Mxmtoon The Masquerade 2019 Pop
801 Rod Stewart Another Country 2015 Rock/Alternative
802 Sting 57th & 9th 2016 Rock/Alternative
803 Paul McCartney Egypt Station 2018 Rock/Alternative
804 Marilyn Manson The Pale Emperor 2015 Rock/Alternative
805 Keith Richards Crosseyed Heart 2015 Rock/Alternative
806 blink-182 California 2016 Rock/Alternative
807 Ryan Adams Prisoner 2017 Rock/Alternative
808 Bruce Springsteen Western Stars 2019 Rock/Alternative
809 Fall Out Boy MANIA 2018 Rock/Alternative
810 Sting My Songs 2019 Rock/Alternative
811 Pearl Jam Let's Play Two: Live at Wrigley Field 2017 Rock/Alternative
812 Green Day Revolution Radio 2016 Rock/Alternative
813 Ryan Adams 1989 2015 Rock/Alternative
814 Muse Simulation Theory 2018 Rock/Alternative
815 Coldplay Everday Life 2019 Rock/Alternative
816 Coldplay A Head Full of Dreams 2015 Rock/Alternative
817 Elvis Costello Look Now 2018 Rock/Alternative
818 Joe Jackson Fool 2019 Rock/Alternative
819 Sheryl Crow Be Myself 2017 Rock/Alternative
820 Lenny Kravitz Raise Vibration 2018 Rock/Alternative
821 Ghost Meliora 2015 Rock/Alternative
822 New Order Music Complete 2015 Rock/Alternative
823 Rod Stewart Blood Red Roses 2018 Rock/Alternative
824 Eric Clapton I Still Do 2016 Rock/Alternative
825 Red Hot Chilli Peppers The Getaway 2016 Rock/Alternative
826 The Decemberists I'll Be Your Girl 2018 Rock/Alternative
827 Eric Clapton Live in San Diego 2016 Rock/Alternative
What a Terrible World, What a
828 The Decemberists Beautiful World 2015 Rock/Alternative
829 Mumford & Sons Wilder Mind 2015 Rock/Alternative
830 Wire Wire 2015 Rock/Alternative
831 Van Morrison Roll With the Punches 2017 Rock/Alternative
832 Phil Collins The Singles 2016 Rock/Alternative
833 Megadeth Dystopia 2016 Rock/Alternative
834 Iron Maiden The Book of Souls 2015 Rock/Alternative
835 Motorhead Bad Magic 2015 Rock/Alternative
836 Black Stone Cherry Kentucky 2016 Rock/Alternative
837 August Burns Red Found in Far Away Places 2015 Rock/Alternative
838 David Bowie Blackstar 2016 Rock/Alternative
839 Van Morrison Duets: Re-Working the Catalogue 2015 Rock/Alternative
840 Alice Cooper Paranormal 2017 Rock/Alternative
841 Panic! At the Disco Pray For The Wicked 2018 Rock/Alternative
842 Elbow Giants of All Sizes 2019 Rock/Alternative
843 Bruce Springsteen Western Stars: Songs from the Film 2019 Rock/Alternative
844 Bon Jovi This House Is Not For Sale 2016 Rock/Alternative
845 Elbow Little Fictions 2017 Rock/Alternative
846 Disturbed Evolution 2018 Rock/Alternative
847 Noel Gallagher Who Built The Moon? 2017 Rock/Alternative
848 Opeth Sorceress 2016 Rock/Alternative
849 Joe Jackson Fast Forward 2015 Rock/Alternative
850 The Rolling Stones Blue & Lonesome 2016 Rock/Alternative
851 Neil Young The Monsato Years 2015 Rock/Alternative
852 Wire Silver/Lead 2017 Rock/Alternative
853 Wilco Star Wars 2015 Rock/Alternative
854 Papa Roach Who Do You Trust? 2019 Rock/Alternative
855 Widespread Panic Street Dogs 2015 Rock/Alternative
856 Halestorm Into the Wild Life 2015 Rock/Alternative
857 Goo Goo Dolls Boxes 2016 Rock/Alternative
858 Iggy Pop Free 2019 Rock/Alternative
859 Jeff Beck Loud Hailer 2016 Rock/Alternative
860 Nickelback Feed the Machine 2017 Rock/Alternative
861 Papa Roach F.E.A.R. 2015 Rock/Alternative
862 Liam Gallagher As You Were 2017 Rock/Alternative
863 Weezer Weezer 2016 Rock/Alternative
864 Tom Jones Long Lost Suitcase 2015 Rock/Alternative
865 Papa Roach Crooked Teeth 2017 Rock/Alternative
866 Evanescence Synthesis 2017 Rock/Alternative
867 The Killers Wonderful Wonderful 2017 Rock/Alternative
868 Blur The Magic Whip 2015 Rock/Alternative
869 Nightwish Endless Forms Most Beautiful 2015 Rock/Alternative
870 Volbeat Seal the Deal & Let's Boogie 2016 Rock/Alternative
871 Blondie Pollinator 2017 Rock/Alternative
872 Disturbed Immortalized 2015 Rock/Alternative
873 Iron Maiden The Book of Souls: Live Chapter 2017 Rock/Alternative
874 Paramore After Laughter 2017 Rock/Alternative
875 Opeth In Cauda Venenum 2019 Rock/Alternative
876 Weezer Weezer 2019 Rock/Alternative
877 KT Tunstall WAX 2018 Rock/Alternative
878 Rush R40 Live 2015 Rock/Alternative
879 case/lang/veirs case/lang/verirs 2016 Rock/Alternative
880 Kid Rock First Kiss 2015 Rock/Alternative
Sometimes I Sit and Think, and
881 Courtney Barnett Sometimes I Just Sit. 2015 Rock/Alternative
882 Animal Collective Painting With 2016 Rock/Alternative
883 Weezer Pacific Daydream 2017 Rock/Alternative
884 KT Tunstall KIN 2016 Rock/Alternative
885 Drive-By Truckers American Band 2016 Rock/Alternative
886 John Mellencamp Sad Clown & Hillbillies 2017 Rock/Alternative
887 Morrissey Low in High School 2017 Rock/Alternative
888 Muse Drones 2015 Rock/Alternative
889 Five Finger Death Punch Got Your Six 2015 Rock/Alternative
890 Alabama Shakes Sound & Color 2015 Rock/Alternative
891 Wilco Scmilco 2016 Rock/Alternative
892 Metric Art of Doubt 2018 Rock/Alternative
893 P.O.D. The Awakening 2015 Rock/Alternative
894 Panic! At the Disco Death of a Bachelor 2016 Rock/Alternative
Shing and Oh So Bright Vol. 1: No
895 The Smashing Pumpkins Past. No Future. No Sun. 2018 Rock/Alternative
896 Ghost Prequelle 2018 Rock/Alternative
897 Neil Young Colorado 2019 Rock/Alternative
898 Neil Young Earth 2016 Rock/Alternative
899 Wire Nocturnal Koreans 2016 Rock/Alternative
900 Father John Misty I Love You, Honeybear 2015 Rock/Alternative
901 David Gilmour Rattle That Lock 2015 Rock/Alternative
902 Korn The Nothing 2019 Rock/Alternative
903 Paul Simon Stranger to Stranger 2016 Rock/Alternative
904 Parkway Drive Reverence 2018 Rock/Alternative
905 Elton John Wonderful Crazy Night 2016 Rock/Alternative
906 Thirty Seconds to Mars America 2018 Rock/Alternative
907 Imagine Dragons Smoke + Mirrors 2015 Rock/Alternative
908 Andrew Bird My Finest Work Yet 2019 Rock/Alternative
909 Jeff Beck Live+ 2015 Rock/Alternative
910 James Blunt The Afterlove 2017 Rock/Alternative
911 Incubus 8 2017 Rock/Alternative
912 August Burns Red Phantom Anthem 2017 Rock/Alternative
913 Dream Theater Distance Over Time 2019 Rock/Alternative
I Like It When You Sleep, For You
914 The 1975 Are So Beautiful Yet So Unaware Of It 2016 Rock/Alternative
915 Lamb of God VII: Sturm and Drang 2015 Rock/Alternative
916 Tool Fear Inoculum 2019 Rock/Alternative
917 Stone Sour Hydrograd 2017 Rock/Alternative
918 Rod Stewart You're In My Heart 2019 Rock/Alternative
919 P.O.D. Circles 2018 Rock/Alternative
920 Black Stone Cherry Family Tree 2018 Rock/Alternative
The Beach Boys with the Royal
921 The Beach Boys Philharmonic Orchestra 2018 Rock/Alternative
922 St. Vincent MASSEDUCTION 2017 Rock/Alternative
923 Arcade Fire Everything Now 2017 Rock/Alternative
924 PJ Harvey The Hope Six Demolition Project 2016 Rock/Alternative
925 Avril Lavigne Head Above Water 2019 Rock/Alternative
926 Queensryche The Verdict 2019 Rock/Alternative
927 Marilyn Manson Heaven Upside Down 2017 Rock/Alternative
928 Alice in Chains Rainier Fog 2018 Rock/Alternative
929 The Waterboys Out of All This Blue 2017 Rock/Alternative
930 Killswitch Engage Incarnate 2016 Rock/Alternative
931 Andrew Bird Are You Serious 2016 Rock/Alternative
932 The Who Who 2019 Rock/Alternative
933 Arctic Monkey Tranquility: Base Hotel + Casino 2018 Rock/Alternative
934 Gorillaz Humanz 2017 Rock/Alternative
935 Keane Cause and Effect 2019 Rock/Alternative
936 Kate Bush Before the Dawn 2016 Rock/Alternative
937 Queensryche Condition Human 2015 Rock/Alternative
938 Mumford & Sons Delta 2018 Rock/Alternative
939 Rise Against Wolves 2017 Rock/Alternative
940 blink-182 Nine 2019 Rock/Alternative
941 Foals What Went Down 2015 Rock/Alternative
942 Def Leppard Def Leppard 2015 Rock/Alternative
943 Neil Young The Visitor 2017 Rock/Alternative
944 Death Cab for Cutie Kintsugi 2015 Rock/Alternative
945 311 MOSAIC 2017 Rock/Alternative
946 Stone Temple Pilots Stone Temple Pilots 2018 Rock/Alternative
947 Calexico Edge of the Sun 2015 Rock/Alternative
948 Wilco Ode to Joy 2019 Rock/Alternative
949 Snow Patrol Wildness 2018 Rock/Alternative
950 Slash Living The Dream 2018 Rock/Alternative
951 Noel Gallagher Chasing Yesterday 2015 Rock/Alternative
952 Boz Scaggs A Fool to Care 2015 Rock/Alternative
953 Steven Wilson Hand. Cannot. Erase. 2015 Rock/Alternative
954 Coheed and Cambria The Color Before the Sun 2015 Rock/Alternative
955 Neil Young Paradox 2018 Rock/Alternative
956 Trivium Silence In The Snow 2015 Rock/Alternative
957 Rammstein Rammstein 2019 Rock/Alternative
958 Of Montreal Snare Lustrous Doomings 2015 Rock/Alternative
959 Metric Pagans in Vegas 2015 Rock/Alternative
960 Dinosaur Jr. Give a Glimpse of What Yer Not 2016 Rock/Alternative
961 Switchfoot Where the Light Shines Through 2016 Rock/Alternative
962 Needtobreathe Hard Love 2016 Rock/Alternative
963 Meat Loaf Braver Than We Are 2016 Rock/Alternative
The Jon Spencer Blues Freedom Tower: No Wave Dance Party
964 Explosion 2015 2015 Rock/Alternative
965 Pixies Head Carrier 2016 Rock/Alternative
966 Barenaked Ladies Silverball 2015 Rock/Alternative
967 Spoon Hot Thoughts 2017 Rock/Alternative
968 David Byrne American Utopia 2018 Rock/Alternative
969 Django Django Born Under Saturn 2015 Rock/Alternative
970 Bullet for My Valentine Venom 2015 Rock/Alternative
971 Mark Lanegan Band Gargoyle 2017 Rock/Alternative
972 DragonForce Reaching into Infinity 2017 Rock/Alternative
973 Switchfoot Native Tongue 2019 Rock/Alternative
974 Pixies Beneath the Eyrie 2019 Rock/Alternative
975 Dream Theater The Astonishing 2016 Rock/Alternative
976 John Mellencamp Other People's Stuff 2018 Rock/Alternative
977 Young the Giant Home of the Strange 2016 Rock/Alternative
978 Metallica Hardwired… To Self-Destruct 2016 Rock/Alternative
979 Animal Collective Tangerine Reef 2018 Rock/Alternative
980 The Avett Brothers True Sadness 2016 Rock/Alternative
981 The Temper Trap Thick as Thieves 2016 Rock/Alternative
982 Neil Young Peace Trail 2016 Rock/Alternative
983 Biffy Clyro Ellipsis 2016 Rock/Alternative
984 Kid Rock Sweet Southern Sugar 2017 Rock/Alternative
985 Volbeat Rewind, Replay, Rebound 2019 Rock/Alternative
986 All Time Low Future Hearts 2015 Rock/Alternative
987 Sleeping With Sirens Madness 2015 Rock/Alternative
988 Buckcherry Rock N Roll 2015 Rock/Alternative
989 Father John Misty Pure Comedy 2017 Rock/Alternative
990 Against Me! 23 Live Sex Acts 2015 Rock/Alternative
991 LP Lost on You 2016 Rock/Alternative
992 AWOLNATION Here Comes The Runts 2018 Rock/Alternative
993 Alter Bridge The Last Hero 2016 Rock/Alternative
994 Okkervil River Away 2016 Rock/Alternative
995 Garbage Strange Little Birds 2016 Rock/Alternative
996 Lee Ranaldo Electric Trim 2017 Rock/Alternative
997 Nada Surf You Know Who You Are 2016 Rock/Alternative
998 Santana Santana IV 2016 Rock/Alternative
999 Panda Bear Panda Bear Meets the Grim Reaper 2015 Rock/Alternative
1000 Drive-By Truckers It's Great to Be Alive! 2015 Rock/Alternative
 APPENDIX B

Study 1 Color Cluster Chart

Color Hue Saturation Value
Red 340 - 20 - -
Orange 20 – 40 - -
Yellow 40 – 70 - -
Green 70 - 160 - -
Cyan 160 - 200 - -
Blue 200 - 260 - -
Purple 260 - 310 - -
Pink 310 - 340 - -
Brown 350 - 60 20 - 60 20 - 60
White - 0 90 - 100
Gray - 0 - 20 15 -90
Black - 0 - 100 0 - 15
 APPENDIX C

Study 1 Standardized Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficients

Color Country Rock/ Pop Hip-Hop Electronic
Alternative R&B
Red .120 -.155 -.086 -.041 .192
Orange -.081 .630 .103 -.090 -.194
Yellow -.021 -.036 -.101 -.066 -.057
Green -.046 .365 -.015 -.262 -.019
Cyan .156 .189 .081 .071 .182
Blue .198 .044 .078 .486 -.015
Purple -.100 .050 .295 .147 -.020
Pink .030 .521 .520 .032 .288
Brown 1.008 .589 -.003 .389 1.014
Gray .751 .640 -.266 .350 .399
Black .020 .012 -.562 -.580 -.034
 APPENDIX D

Study 2 Album Art Cover Stimuli

rock1 coun1 hiphop1 pop1 elec1

The Raconteurs – Toby Keith – 2 Chainz – Rap or Go Shura – Mr. Ozio – All Wet
Help Us Stranger The Bus Songs to the League Nothing’s Real

rock2 coun2 hiphop2 pop2 elec2

Coheed and Cambria – Steve Earle & The Nao – Saturn Daphne & Celeste – Little Dragon –
The Color Before the Dukes – So You Daphne & Celeste Lover Chanting
Sun Wannabe an Outlaw Save The World

rock3 coun3 hiphop3 pop3 elec3

Sleeping Through the Shooter Jennings - Mr Jukes – God First Years & Years – Palo Flume – Skin
War – All Them Shooter Santo
Witches

rock4 coun4 hiphop4 pop4 elec4

Taking Back Sunday – Dwight Yoakam – Danny Brown – Pet Shop Boys – SURVIVE–
Tidal Wave Second Hand Heart Atrocity Exhibition Super RR7349
 APPENDIX E

Study 2 Qualtrics Questionnaire

RESEARCH CONSENT FORM

Study Title: The Effectiveness and Prominence of Visual Metaphors within Music Album Cover
Art
Principal Investigator: Ryann Reynolds-McIlnay, PhD
Study team: Vivian Le
Version: 12-6-2019

We are inviting you to take part in a research study.

Purpose: This study is about the effectiveness in which album cover art can convey the album's
respective music genre to consumers. The purpose of the research study is for the completion of
an undergraduate honors thesis. We are asking you if you want to be in this study because you
are age 18 years or older. Voluntary: You do not have to be in the study if you do not want to.
You can also decide to be in the study now and change your mind later.
Activities: The study activities include examining album cover art and completion of a
questionnaire.
Risks: The possible risks or discomforts associated with the being in the study include those
associated with daily life.
Confidentiality: Your responses will be reported in aggregate. Your information will not be
used in future research studies.
Payment: You will not be paid for being in this research study. You will receive credit in the
SONA System for your participation (e.g., .5 credits for .5 hours of study participation). If you
opt to not participate, you may contact your instructor for an available option.
Study contacts: We would like you to ask us questions if there is anything about the study that
you do not understand. You can call us at (541) 737-3973 or email us at
ryann.r@oregonstate.edu. You can also contact the Human Research Protection Program with
any concerns that you have about your rights or welfare as a study participant. This office can be
reached at (541) 737-8008 or by email at IRB@oregonstate.edu.

o Yes, the study has been explained to me, my questions have been answered, and I agree to
take part in this study.

For this part of the study, you will now be asked to select the music genre of an album based on
the cover art. Each question will have five multiple choices of music genre that you may choose
from.

[randomized album art image]

Upon viewing this album, which music genre do you believe this album is most closely
associated with?

o Pop (1)

o Rock / Alternative (2)

o Country (3)

o R&B / Hip-Hop (4)

o Electronic (5)

What factors led you to pick the genre that you did?

Have you previously seen this album cover?

o Yes (1)

o No (0)

o Don't remember (2)

For this next part, we are going to ask you some questions about yourself. Please answer
honestly. There are no right or wrong answers.

How often do you listen to music?

o Multiple times a day (6)

o Once a day (5)
o 4-6 times a week (4)
o 2-3 times a week (3)
o Once a week (2)
o 1-3 times a month (1)
o I don't listen to music. (0)
How many hours during a typical day do you listen to music?
Slide the bar below.
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24

Hours

Which method(s) do you use most often to listen to music?

Select all that apply.

o Digital streaming (Spotify, Apple Music, Amazon Music, etc.) (1)

o CD (2)

o Vinyl (3)

o Digital downloads (buying digital music) (4)

o Online radio (Pandora, iHeart Radio, etc.) (5)

o FM / Satellite Radio (6)

o Video streaming (Youtube, VEVO, etc.) (7)

o Other (8) ________________________________________________

Which genre(s) of music do you listen to the most?

o Pop (1)

o Rock / Alternative (2)

o Indie / Folk (3)

o Hip-Hop / R&B (4)

o Country (5)

o Other: (6) ________________________________________________

What kind of activities do you typically do while listening to music?

How often do you notice the album artwork when purchasing or listening to music?

o Every time (5)

o Most of the time (4)

o Half of the time (3)

o Some of the time (2)

o Rarely (1)

o Never (0)

What is your age in years?

Which gender do you identify as?

o Female (1)

o Male (0)

o Other: (-1) ________________________________________________

Are you a native English speaker? (English is your first language)

o Yes (1)

o No (2)

In your own words, what was this study about?

We were interested in understanding how album artwork impacts music choices.

If you prefer to have your data excluded as the purpose of the study was not previously
disclosed, you may withdraw your information by checking the box below. Withdrawing your
information will not impact your compensation for participation.

o I wish to withdraw my information.

APPENDIX F
Study 2 Open Response Category Coding

Category Category Definition Thought Category Examples

Artist Familiar Is familiar with the album artist; names “Toby Keith” “2 Chainz is a pop/rap "artist" if you want to call
the actual album artist (not a similar him that.”
artists) “The name on the cover”
Album Title Names the album title “"God First" leads me to lean towards the country genre”
“after reading the title, country would be my guess”
Genre Familiarity States or implies they are familiar with “I always listen these styles musics”
the genre “I listen to it the most”
Font Mentions the text font, the printable or “The gradient colors of the words…”
displayable text characters in a specific “Vibrant colors and the dripping text make it seem more recent
style and size and modern type of music.”
“the large back title in retro”
Colors Mentions color as a construct or “The gradient colors of the words…”
discusses specific color hues, “The album cover is dark and most rock albums have dark
saturation, and/or brightness covers.”
“also the brown colors.”
“calm colors and an artsy feel”
“I think the color and playfulness makes it seem like it may be
related to hip hop”
“Vibrant colors and the dripping text make it seem more recent
and modern type of music.”
Symbolic images Inclusion of image or object within the “There's paraphernalia on the bus” “…and the art on the tour
album art leads to perceived bus”
association with a specific genre “R&B albums tend to have more jazz background with
trumpets, which allowed me to make my selection.”
“The musician with a trumpet leads me towards R&B as
well.”
“the generic woman on the front”
“ice cream cone makes me think of summer time pop music”
“image” “the street vibes are kind of hip-hop-ish” “type of
outfit”
Album Art Familiar States or implies they know or familiar “I think I’ve seen it before”
with the album cover art
Aesthetic Perceives that album art conveys a “The whole aesthetic looks very alternative and artsy.”
mood, energy, vibe or aesthetic; “calm colors and an artsy feel”
can be positive or negatively valanced “the contrast between real and cartoon effect”
“Vibrant colors and the dripping text make it seem more recent
and modern type of music.”
“use of graphic design” “feminine style” “it’s weird/ugly” “has
a positive and inoffensive sort of vibe” “very attractive” “a lot
going on and it kind of screams at you” “image is unsettling”
Emotion Mentions a specific emotion: happy, “It seems like an angry cover.” “looks like a happy cover”
sad, angry, surprise, fear, disgust; or “album cover has no emotion”
lack of emotion
Similar to Other Stating that choice is based on being “The album cover is dark and most rock albums have dark
Known Album Art familiar with other album art covers covers.”
“This reminds me of an album cover that Mumford and Sons
has I think.”
Similar to Other Stating that choice is based on being “Seems like a kanye album.”
Know Artist familiar with other music artist “This reminds me of an album cover that Mumford and Sons
has I think.”
“Looks like a Skrillex album FOR SURE”
Similar to Other Stating that choice is based on being “At first I thought it was jazz, but it isn't”
Known Genre familiar with other genre “It looks like vintage rock style”
Meaning Trying to derive a higher meaning “It kind of a metaphor.”
from album art; art is communicating a
message
 APPENDIX G

Study 2 95% Confidence Interval Plots of Color, Symbols, and Aesthetics Mentions by Genre

A. Color

B. Symbols
 C. Aesthetic

D. Artist Familiarity

E. Genre Familiarity
 F. Font

G. Emotion

H. Similarity to Other Known Art

I. Similarity to Other Known Artist

J. Similarity to Other Known Genre

K. Meaning
L. Album Title

M. Album Art
 REFERENCES

Alleyne, M. (2014). After the Storm: Hipgnosis, Storm Thorgerson, and the Rock Album
Cover. Rock Music Studies, 1(3), 251–267. doi: 10.1080/19401159.2014.949553
Chilton, M. (2019, October 14). Cover Story: A History Of Album Artwork. Retrieved from
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