Some Dos' and Dont's in electricalexperiment circuit.

Dos
1. Always draw a neat and labelled circuit diagram of the circuit of the experiment.
2. Allconnections made should be tight.
3. Noconnection should be in the air.
A Clean the endsof the connecting wires with a sand paper.
s The ammeter must be connected in series with the circuit and voltmeter in parallel with the points between
which the voltage is to be measured.
6 Connect the positive terminal of the ammeter and the voltmeter to the positive terminal of the battery.
7. Make all the plugs of the resistance box tight by giving them aclockwise twist.
8. Put the key in the plug only when the experiment is to be started after making connections.
9. Voltmeter and ammeter used should be of proper range.
10. Incircuit involving a.c., a.c. ammeter and voltmeter should be used.
11. Do not do the experiment mechanically but first understand the basics ofthe experiment.
Dont's
be
1. Do not connect the galvanometer or ammeter directly to a cell. The galvanometer or ammeter is likely to
burnt by the heavy current.
circuit.
2. Do not put the key in the circuit for a long time. This is likely to heat the wires in the
3. In slide wire experiment or potentiometer experiment do not rule the jockey on the wire.
rheostat otherwise the
4. While using a rheostat as a variable resistance do not use both the lower termninals of the
current willnot vary in the circuit.

xperiment
AIM : To determine resistivity of twolthree wires by plotting agraphfor potential diference versus current.
APPARATUS:
wires of unknown resistance,
An ammeter (0-3 A), a voltmeter (0-3 V), rheostat, one-way key, two to three
battery/battery eliminator, connecting wires, screw gauge, metre scale.
THEORY:
Ohm's law is the most fundamental law of electricitygiven by George Simon Ohm in 1828. It states that the current
i0Wing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two ends of the conductor
provided the physical conditions (temperature, pressure, etc.) of the conductor do not change.
i.e.,

EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL- 12 25

 VaIR r R
The ntofprytinality Ris called the lectrical resistance. The value of resistance depends on the nature of
aRYnal of thecvntar its ctinensions and the physical conditions, It is, however, independent of the value of Vandt
We tint the vales of thevoltage Vfr ditterent values of the current L.Agraph is then plotted between V(along y-axis)
at I(akg IarisA This graph is astraight line, the slope of the graph gives us the resistance Rof the wire, To find
esisivity, we use the expresinp= RA_
L
Rx Rr
L
2 em.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
The ciruit iagram is as shown :

BATTERY KEY
K Rh

WIRE
w
R

Flg. 1.1

PROCEDURE:
(a) Connect the apparatus as shown in the figure 1.1.
(b) Check that the pointer of the ammeter and voltmeter are at the zero
mark when the key K is off. (You can
adjust the pointer with the help of the screw provided on the instrument). Find the least count of both the
ammeter and voltmeter. Also, find zero correction both in the ammeter and voltmeter.
(c) Check the highest and the lowest positions on the ammeter and
that the curent and voltage do not exceed the respective ranges
voltmeter by moving the rheostat knob, so
on the ammeter and voltmeter.
(d) Start sliding the rheostat knob from the left to the right in
steps. Note down the ammeter reading and the
corresponding voltmeter reading every time. (Take care that the resistance does not get heated).
(e) Take odd number (5 or 7) of observations. Plot graph
between and V. Taking Valong the x-axis and I along
I
the y-axis. Find the slope of the graph. The reciprocal of the
slope is the resistance of the conductor.
() Repeat the experiment for wire 2and 3 made of different
materials.
OBSERVATIONS :
Least count of ammeter
A
Least count of voltmeter
Zero correction of ammeter
A
Zero correction of voltmeter
Length of the wire between the two terminals L = Cm

EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL- 12

 TABLE
S.No. Ammeter reading (ampere)I
Observed Corrected Voltmeter reading(volt) V
1. 1 Observed Corrected R= Vi (ohm)
2.
3
4. 33
5
6
7.

Mean value of R
FORDIAMETER OF THE WIRE
Least count (LC) of the screw
gauge = *oeo. m

S.No.
MSR
VSR D= MSR + VSRx LC
1 (mm)
2
3
4.

Mean diameter =.0.:. mm = cm

Radiusr = "ooeoeseo. Cm

CALCULATIONS:
Take any two points A andB well apart on the graph. From Aand B, draw two lines
ACand BC parallel to voltage and current axis respectively. Measure AC and BC on
their respective scales. ’(volt)

Then AC =...... V and BC = ......... A

V
AC
Hence, R= slope =BC

Resistivity of the wire =p=K

L
2 cm I(ampere) ’

PRECAUTIONS:
() The current should be passed only for ashort interval of time while taking aset of readings.
(i) The connections should be tight and use a lowresistance rheostat.
() Clean the ends of the wires with sandpaper before making the connections.
EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL- 12 27
 (iv) The positive terminals of the ammeter and voitmeter should be connected to the ve side ofthel
() Connection shoukd be thight. ONE WAY KEY
REOSTA
SOURCES OF ERROR:
() The ends of the wires
may not be
clean.
(i) Connections may be BATTERY
loose. RESSTANCE COL
() The wire may not be of
of cross-section. uniformarea
(v) VI may not be
constant due to
excessive heating. due to passageof
current fora long time. AMMETER

VOLTMETER
Fig. 1.2

Q.1. What are the

different
Viva-Voce
Ans es.u. (Electrostatic unit), units of current? 0.7. What is the
reciprocal of
specific resistance called ? resistance and
e.m.u.
unit), ampere (Practical unit). (Electromageic
Q.2. State Ohm's law. Ans. Conductance and
Ans. It states that the conductivity measured in ch:
and ohm 'm' respectively.
current I flowing through the
conductoris directly 0.8. What should be the
difference V across proportional to the
the ends of the potential
range of voltmeter and
ammeter used in the experiment
provided the physical conditions conductor Ans. Voltmeter O-3V, ?
temperature) remain constant iLe., V
(pressure and ammeter -500 mA.
Q.9. Should we use thick
Q.3. What are ohmic =RI.
Give
and non-ohmic
resistances? connecting wires
connecting wires or thin
in the
Ans. Ohmicexamples of each. Ans. Thick experiment ? Why?
connecting wires, because it offers negligibk
resistances: Resistances
Ohm's law, e.g., metals which strictly obey
(at lower temp.). resistance as R
Non-ohmic resistances :
Electrical devices A
do not obey
Ohm's law, which Q.10. Why is it not advised to pass a
semiconductor diodes. e.g., vacuum tube diodes. through the large current
0.4. What is the
resistance of aeffect of ment ? conductor during the experi
Ans. Resistance of
conductor temperature
? on the Ans. Ifa
large current is passed
most of the
with the increase in conductors increases will become hot which willthrough aconductor, t
Q.5. Are there any temperature. R,=R, of the conductor. increase theresistanne
substances (l+at).
decreases
Ans. Yes, with increase in whose resistance Q.11. What does the slope of V-I
for C, Si, Ge, temperature Ans. The slope of the V-I graph represent
Q.6. How willexample,
you conclude that a semiconductors. of the conductor. graph represents the resistance
Ohm's law ? conductor obevs Q.12. Define
Ans. The temperature
conclusion can be drawn from two results : Ans. of a conductor. coefficient of resistance
(a) If VII=
constant Itis defined as the
(b) If graph of Vv/s I is a
original increase in
resistance per un.
28 straight line. resistance
rise of temperature. at 0°C per degree centigradt
EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 12
 Q.13. What is the resistance of plugs in the Q.15. A wire Bis of the same material as A but is
resistance box ? twice as thick and half as long as wire A.
Compare their conductivities.
Ans. As the plugs are of brass and are short and thick.
they have negligibly low resistance. Ans. Their conductivities are in the ratio I:1, because
they are of the same material.
0.14. Out of silver, copper and constantan, which Q.16. What does the slope of the I-V graph represent ?
has the largest resistivity ?
Ans. Conductance.
Ans. Resistivity is maximum for constantan whose Q.17. Can a device have a negative resistance ?
resistance is maximum. Ans. Yes.

xperiment 2
AIM: Tofind resistance of agiven wirelstandard resistor using metre bridge.

REQUIREMENTS:
a screw
Ametre bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, a Daniel cell, a jockey, unknown resistance,
gauge, sandpaper.
THEORY:WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
arranged
Principle : In the figure 2.1 is shown a Wheatstone bridge in which four resistances P, Q, R and S are
points B and D are connected
in the form of a bridge ABCD. A cell is connected between A and Cthrough a key K. The
through a galvanometer and a key.
bridge. If the points Band D are not at
When the key K, is pressed, a current begins to flow in the arm of the
the galvanometer and it shows deflection.
the same potential, then on pressing the key K a current passes through
galvanometer. The points B and D are at the same
The resistance R is so adjusted that there is no deflection in the
AB and BCissame and that through
potential and the bridge is said to be balanced. The current through the arms
and Vp be the potentials at the points A,
ADand DCis also the same. Let I, and I, be the currents. Let VA, VB, Vc
B, C and D respectively. Then
By Ohm'slaw
V -VB =V -Vp (: Vg = Vp)
or I, P =hR ...(1)
B
and IQ = LS ..2)

P R
or

This relation holds good when bridge is balanced.

arrangement
Ametre bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone bridge (G) R
as shown in figure 2.1. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer,
(e., points B and D are at the same potential, bridge is balanced), then D
P R
S
of the given material of wire.
We use this relation to find the unknown resistance S Fig. 2.1
29
EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL- 12
 L
SaD
If Lis the length of the wire and Dits diameter, then S=p D?orp= from where p can be
4L
The figure 2.2 below shows the metre bridge which uses the principle of Wheatstone bridge. ACisametre
a long a calculae:
made of manganin or constantan stretched alone a metre scale M. It is of uniform area of crossS- Secaon.

RB

100 -

Fig. 2.2
The wire whose resistance is to be found is connected in the arm CD.
A resistance box from which a known resistance can be taken out is
connected across the gap AD.A sensitive galvanometer followed by ajockey
is connected betweeen the points B andD so as to slide over the wire AB.A
cell with suitable rheostat is connected across ACas shown in figure 2.2. 100
This arrangement forms a Wheatstone bridge as shown in figure 2.3. B

Fig. 2.3
PROCEDURE:
(a) Make the connections as shown in figure 2.2. Clean the connecting wires
using
resistance R from the resistance box (RB). [Consult your teacher for how muchsandpaper.
Take out asutatk
(b) Touch the jockey at point A, see that there is a deflection in the resistance is to be removed,
on the point C of the wire, the deflection in the galvanometer one side. Touch the jockey DON
on
galvanometer should be the other side. If it is so, you
connections are corect. If the direction of deflection is not reversed, adjust on
reversed. R till the direction of deflection
(c) If the deflections are on both the sides, start sliding the
(d) Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero
jockey on the wire from end Atowards C.
(e) Note the length AB and call it as I, BCwill be 100-1.
deflection. This is called the balance point.
P R R
Using the formula i.e.,
Q 100-7 ,knowing R and , we can find the value of S. Repeat the at
procedure for five different values of R.

30
EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL- 1
 OBSERVATIONS:
FOR UNKNOWN RESISTANCE

TABLE
Value of known
S.No. resistance R Balancing length AB=l Resistance of wire
(100-1)

1.
ohm

2
Increasing Decreasing Mean (cm) S=Rx
100-Lohm
2.

3.
4.
5.

Mean =
S ohm
RESULT :
The resistance of the given wire is ohm.

PRECAUTIONS:
() Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of metre bridge properly with sandpaper.
(i) All connections should be neat and tight.
(iüi) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60 cm.
(iv) Move the jockey gently on the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact for a long time.
(v) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of metre bridge.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The screws of the instruments may be lose.
(ü) The keys of the resistance box may not be clean and tight.
(iü) The wire may not be uniformly thick throughout.

Viva-Voce
Q.1. How do you define resistivity or specific 0.3. What are the factors on which the resistivity
resistance of material ? of amaterial depends ?
Ans. It is defined as the resistance of a metre long Ans. It depends upon :
wire of that material and having an area of (a) the nature of the material of the wire.
cross-section 1 m². (b) the temperature.
Q.2. Does it depend upon length and area of 0.4. A wire is stretched to twice its length. How
cross-section of the material ? will () its resistance (ii) its resistivity, be
Ans. No. changed?
Ans. Its resistance will become four times. However,
its resistivity will remain the same.
3
EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL -12
 Q.5. What happens to the 100-1
resistivity of a Since S=R . and S is
constant
semiconductor, if its temperature is
increased ? 1
Ans. The resistivity of a semiconductor decreases Thus, the graph
with the rise of temperature.
R« 100-1 betweenR
Q.6. What is the relation between
and conductivity g ? resistivity p 100-1
-will be straight line having anegaive
Ans. = or oT = 1. Can you use the slide wire
Q.10.
to find E) a very low resistance a
bridge(ü) metho
Q.7. Why are you not measuring the values of high resistance ? very
P and Q in this experiment ?
Ans, No. Because when the resistance in
Ans. The wire is of uniform area of
cross-section. arm
the Wheatstone bridge is either very o
Its resistance is proportional to length. very low, the bridge becomes most
high
and measurements lose accuracy.
insensiti
In case of very low resistance of
100 100-1 coppean the
strip and connecting become appreciable
hence, cannot be neglected as compared wi
Q.8. When is a wheatstone bridge most sensi the low resistance.
tive ?
Q.11. Why is the metre bridge so called ?
Ans. A bridge is most sensitive when the resistances Ans. It is so because it uses a one metre long wire
in the four arms of the bridge are of the same 0.12. How will be the shape of graph, if we plc
order of magnitude.
Q.9. What will be the shape of graph between a graph betweenR and ?
100-7
100-1
and R ? Ans. The shape of graph will now be modified
shown.
Ans.
100-1

100-!

R
 xperiment 3)

AIM:: Toverijy the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
REQUIREMENTS:
Ametre bridge, galvanometer, one way key, aresistance box, aLeclanche cell, ajockey,two unknown resistances
andconnectingwires.

THEORY: V
V
In series arrangement, the resistors are connected end to end as shown in wwww
e21 The source of current is connected between the free ends of the first R P R
ond the last resistor. In this arrangement, the current through each resistor is I4
the same but potential difference across different resistors is different. The
notential difference of the source is distributed across different resistors, LetI
he the current through each resistor of resistânce R1, Rz, Rg and V,, V, V3
the potential difference across each, then Fig. 3.1
V=V,+ V,+ V3 ...(1)
and VË =IR1, V,= R,, V,=IRg
and V=IR_, where Rg is the effective resistance of the combination
Substituting these values in (1), we get
IRs = IR, + IR, + R3
R_ = R+R, +Rg
For two resistor R, and R, connected in series
Rs = R+ R,

PROCEDURE:
explained in experiment 2, after
(a) Measure the unknown resistances R, and R, separately using the procedure
making the suitable connections.
R R2
(b) Now, connect the two resistances R, and R,
in series as shown in fig. 3.2.
(c) Check for deflection on both the sides by
touching the jockey at both the ends ofthe metre
bridge wire.
(d) Proceed in the same way as in experiment 2. B
Take at least four sets of observations.
A 100
(e) Compare the measured values of effective
resistances using metre bridge with the
calculated values.

Fig. 3.2

33
EVERGAEEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL -12
OBSERVATIONS:
(1) FOR UNKNOWN
RESISTANCE
TABLE-1
S.No. Value of known resistance Balancing length AB=l 100-I Resistance
100-I
S (ohm) R=Sx
Increasing| Decreasing Meanl (cm) (Gm
R1
1.
80
2.

1.

2.
2
Mean R, =.om
(II) FOR SERIES Mean R, =
COMBINATION
TABLE-2
Resistance S. Known resistance
Coil No.
(S) (ohm) Balancing length AB=l 100-1 Resistance
Increasing| Decreasing|Mean (cm) 100-I
R and R
1 Rs=\ JxS(ohm
in series 2 2. 30
(R) 3
4.

VERIFICATION: Mean Rs=R.

càm
R + R2
=.... ohm.

Since Re Mean Rs= e.es.., ohm.

R+R, within
limits of experimental error, therefore, law of series
PRECAUTIONS:
()
combination of resistances is venitied
Clean the connecting wires and the
(ii) All
connections should be neat and tight.connecting points of metre bridge properly with
(iüi) Try to obtain the
balance point between 40 cm and 60 sandpaper.
(iv) Move the cm.
(v) The jockey
jockey gently on the wire and do not keep the
should be held
to wire of metrejockey and the wire in contact for a long time.
(vi) All the plugs in the perpendicular
resistance box should be tight. bridge.

EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL- 12

SoURCES OF ERROR :
(i) The rewsof the instrunents may be loose.
Wi The keys of the resistance box may not be clean and tight.
ii The wire may not be uniformly thick throughout.

xperiment(4
metre bridge.
AIM :Toverify the laws of combination(parallel) of resistances using a
REQUIREMENTS:
box, aLeclanche cell, ajockey, two unknown resistances
Ametre bridge,galvanometer, one way key, a resistance
and connecting wires.
THEORY: R2

The cffective resistance Rp of the combination of two resistors

when connccted in parallel (figure 4.1)can be calculated by
...1) R1
Rp R Fig. 4.1

PROCEDURE:
separately using the procedure explained in experiment 2, after
(a) Measure the unknown resistances R and R,
making the suitable connections. connecting wires
with resistance in parallel after cleaning the
(b) Make the connections as shown in figure 4.2
with sandpaper. the jockey at both the ends of the metre bridge wire.
(c) Check for deflection on both the sides by touching at least four sets of observations.
Take
(d) Proceed in the same way as in experiment 2.
Compare the measured values of effective resistances using metre bridge with the calculated values.
(e)

100-1

Fig. 4.2

35
EVEROREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL-12
 xperiment
AIM:To determine resistance ofa galvanometer by halfdeflection method and to find its figure of meri.
REQUIREMENTS :
Agalvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, two resistance boxes, rheostat of high resistance, one way key. screw gauge
and connecting wires.
THEORY:
Agalvanometer is a device used to detect small electric current in a circuit. It has a coil pivoted in a radial magnetic
feld. When electric curent is passed through the coil it gets deflected. Its deflection is noted by attaching a pointer to the
coil. The deflection is proportional to the electric current passed. Agalvanometerhas amoderate resistance (100 2) and
has avery small curTent carrying capacity (ImA).
The resistance of a galvanometer can be found by using half deflection method. The circuit diagram for this method
isas shown in the fig. 5.1. The key Kis inserted and deflection 9is deternined with asuitable value of R. IfEis the e.m.f.
of the cell and I the current in the circuit, then
I=KO
Total circuit resistance =R+ G
E
I=
R+G

E
= K0 ...(1)
R+G

Now, insert the key K, and adjust the shunt resistance S, so that the deflection becomes
2
Now,total resistance of the circuit
GS
= R+
G+So
The current I, now in the circuit

I= GS
R+
G+S
Current through the galvanometer I, is
S E
GS (G+S)
R+
G+S
ES
I, = R(G+S) +GS .This current produces a deflection
ES
...(2)
R(G+S) + GS
EVERGREEN PHYSICS LAB MANUAL- 12 39
 From (1) and (2), we get
ES
R+G = 2 R(G+S)+ GS
Or
or
R(G+S) + GS = 2S (R+G)
RG+RS + GS =2RS +2SG
or
(R-S) G = RS
RS
G=
R-S Knowing R, S, Gcan be determined.
IfR>>S, then G=S.
FIgure of merit : The figure of merit K of a galvanometer is defined as the current required for
deflection of 1division. It is measured in
The crcuit diagram for the figure ofamp./division.
producing
merit is as shown in fig.5.2. When a high resistance R is taken out from
resistance box, a current I flows in the circuit and it produces a
deflection 0.
I= E
= K0,where Kis the figure of merit
R+G

K=
(R+G)0 ..(3)
By varying R and noting corresponding value of 0, we can find a set of values of figure of merit are
mean of these values gives the figure of merit. determined. Te
The maximum curent that can be passed through the galvanometer is I, = NK,where N is
divisions on either of zero of the galvanometer scale. the total number of

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
(i) For half-deflection method

Fig. 5.1

(ii) For figure of merit E

Fig. 6.2
EVERGREENPHYSSSLABMANIAL
40
PROCEDURE:
() RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER BY HALF-DEFLECTION METHOD

(a) Make the connections as shown in figure 5.1.

(6) See that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
(c) Introduce aresistance of 5000 ohm from the resistance box Rand then insert the key K, only.
(d) Adjust the value of Rso that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum, even in number and
within the scale.
(e) Note the deflection. Let it be 9.
() Now, insert the key K, also and without changing the value of R,adjust the value of S such that

deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step (d) above ie., 2

(e) Note the value of resistance S.

(h) Repeat the above steps for three different values of R.

(Il) FOR FIGURE OF MERIT
(a) Take one cell, find out its e.m.f. with the help of a voltmeter. Let its e.m.f. be E.
(6) Make the connections as shown in figure 5.2.
(c) Adjust the value of Rto obtain a certain deflection (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is closed.
(d) Note the values of resistance R and deflection 0.
(e) Change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
f) Repeat the above steps for both the cells of the battery.
(g) Findthe figure of merit Kby using equation (3).
OBSERVATIONS:
TABLE 1
METHOD
) FOR RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER BY HALF DEFLECTION

Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer

Resistance
galvanometer resistance deflection RS
R G= (ohm)
S.No. (0) S (ohm) (0/2) R-S
(ohm)
|70 76
15
2 20 152-2.
3 |2 |64.3
4
l65
Meanvalueof G= ohm
43
EVERGREEN PHYSICs LAB MANUAL-12
 TABLE 2
(iü) FOR FIGURE OF MERIT
Deflection
e.m.f. of the Reslstance Figure of merit
S.No. Number of cells cells E(Volts) from R.B. (R ohm) e (div.) K=

1.
(R+G)0 AWdiv
One
2 One
3 Two
4. Two

Mean value of K ...... Al

RESULT:
() Resistance of galvanometer is found to be ohm.
(ii) Figure of merit of
galvanometer is amp./ div.
PRECAUTIONS:
() All the connections should be neat,
clean and tight.
(ii) Ensure that the plugs of resistance box are
tight.
(üi) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be
the galvanometer. introduced or else a small resistance can darre
SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The screws of the
instruments may be loose.
(ii) The plugs of galvanometer may not be tight.
(iiü) The galvanometer divisions may not be of
same size.
(iv) The e.m.f. of the battery may not be
constant.

xperiment6
AIM: To convert the given galvanometer (of
known
range (0-3 V) and to verify the same. resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired
THEORY:
The resistance of galvanometer can be
found out as
DIAGRAM FOR VERIFICATION:
explained in experiment number5, using the formula K

RS
G=
R-S
R
where R is the resistance connected in series
with the
galvanonmeter
G and, galvanometer resistance.
Figure of merit K=

where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and(R+G)e

is the deflection
produced with resistance R.
Fig. 6.1