1.

CONDUCTION
17 January 2022 14:42

1. State Fourier’s Law of Conduction and its limitations.

ANS :
 Condition/Assumption/limitation :
- Surface is homogeneous and isothermal.
- Thermal conductivity of the material is constant throughout the material.
- There is no internal heat generation occur in the body.
- Heat flow is take place under steady-state condition.

- It states that;
" The heat flux is directly proportion to the temperature gradient in the direction of
heat flow. "

q̇ n ∝ Temperature gradient in n-direction.

δT
q̇ n ∝
δn

δT
∴ q̇ n = −Kn
δn

Q̇ n δT
∴ = −Kn
An δn

δT
∴ Q̇ n = − Kn An δn

- Where ;
J
Q̇ n = Heat transfer rate in the direction of heat flow(n)(Unit : Watt or ).
s
watt
K = Thermal conductivity in the direction of heat flow(n). (Unit : ).
m.K
An = Area normal to the direction of heat flow(n).
δT
= Temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow(n).
δn

Driven force
- Heat transfer rate =
Resistance

δT
- Gradient ( ) is negative because of decrease in temperature in heat flow direction.
δn
2. Discuss general characteristic and application of insulating materials. OR
List the important requirement of insulating material.
ANS :
 Characteristics :
(i) It should have a low thermal conductivity.
(ii) It should withstand with working temperature range.
(iii) It should have a sufficient durability and an adequate mechanical strength. This includes resistance
to moisture and the chemical environment.
(iv) It should be easy to apply, non-toxic, readily available, inexpensive.
(v) It should not create a fire hazard.
(vi) The insulating material should be porous or fibrous.

 Applications :
- Personal protective equipment.
- To prevent an excessive flow of heat to the surroundings from process units and pipelines in which
heat is generated, stored or conveyed at temperatures above the surrounding temperature.

3. Explain the concepts of critical insulation. How do you decide the thickness of insulation for electric
wires?
ANS :
- The critical radius of insulation is the thickness of insulation at which the rate of heat transfer
through the body is maximum.
- It means that the rate of heat transfer increases with an increase in the thickness of insulation up to
the critical radius of insulation.
- If we increase the thickness more than the value of critical thickness then the rate of heat transfer
starts to decrease.

- Wire is one type of cylinder and we can find the critical radius of that cylinder with the help of thermal
 conductivity of that cylinder material divided by average heat transfer coefficient of the outer fluid.
- Then after we find critical thickness which is critical radius minus outer radius of cylinder.
- Now this critical thickness is our insulation thickness.
Q̇
Imax =
R

4. Point out and explain the various factors which affect the thermal conductivity of a material.
ANS :
 free electrons :
- Metals are having more free electrons compared to that of liquids and gases, so metal are good
conductors of heat.
 Purity of material :
- Thermal conductivity of the pure material is higher than that of alloy materials.
 Temperature :
- At elevated temperature lattice vibration increases and free electrons movement decreases, thus the
thermal conductivity of metal decreases when the temperature is increased but for gases, thermal
conductivity increases and for liquid decrease.
 Density :
- Thermal conductivity is highly dependent on density of material. The increase in density, increases
thermal conductivity.
 Crystalline structure :
- Material having a regular crystalline structure has higher value of thermal conductivity compared to that
of amorphous(irregular) form.

5. Define fin effectiveness and derive equation for the fin efficiency.
ANS :
" Ratio of the actual heat transfer rate from base area with fin to the heat transfer rate from
base area without fin is called fin effectiveness. "
 Derivation :
- In infinitely long fin temp varies exponentially : θ = θ e
h.P
- Where; m =
K Ac

 Heat Transfer Rate To Environment :

- δQ̇ = hdA (T - T∞ )
- δQ̇ convection = h(P.dx)θ (P = perimeter of cross-section / A = area of cross-section of fin)

- Q̇ conduction = Q̇ convection

dθ
∴-KAc = Q̇ convection
dxx=0

d
∴ Q̇ convection = -KAc [θo e−mx ]x=0
dx

∴ Q̇ convection = -KAc θo [−me−mx ]x=0

∴ Q̇ convection = KAc θo m

h.p
∴ Q̇ convection = KAc θo
KAc

Q̇ convection = θo KAc . h. p

" The actual heat transfer rate to the environment to the maximum possible heat transfer
rate to the environment when whole fin is at same temperature is called fin efficiency. "

𝐐̇𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
= 𝛈𝐟𝐢𝐧
𝐐̇𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞

- Q̇ maximum possible = h A (T0 − T∞ )

∴ Q̇ maximum possible = h A θo
 ∴ Q̇ maximum possible = h (PL) θo

 For infinitely long fin :

- Q̇ convection = θo KAc . h. p

- Q̇ maximum possible = h (PL) θo

θo KAc .h.p
- ηfin =
h (PL) θo

KAc 1
∴ ηfin =
h.p L

𝛈𝐟𝐢𝐧 = 𝟏
𝐦𝐋
h.P
- Where; m =
K Ac

6. Derive equation for heat transfer by conduction through hollow cylinder. Also mention assumptions
made for it.
ANS :
 Assumptions :
- Steady-state and one-dimensional heat transfer through cylinder.
- The temperature of the pipe will depend only on the radial direction, T = T (r).
- There is no heat generation in the layer.
- Thermal conductivity is constant throughout the cylinder.
further from TEXT BOOK.....

- For composite sphere